V 




LEM PR IEEE'S 

CLASSICAL DICTIONARY, 



ABRIDGED 

FOB 

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS OF BOTH SEXES. 



E, H. BAEKEE, 

OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. 



A NEW EDITION-, 

REVISED AND CORRECTED THROUGHOUT 

BY JOSEPH CAUVIN, 

PHIt. DOC. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GOTTINGEN, 
ASSISTANT EDITOR OF " BRANDE'S DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE* 
AND ART," ETC. ETC. 



LONDON : 

LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 



PATERNOSTER-ROW. 
1849. 



London : 
Spottiswoodes and Shatt, 
New-street-Square. 



PREFACE 

TO 

©fjtrtr mixtion 

OF 

BARKER'S ABRIDGMENT OF LEMPRIERE. 



The success of two former editions of Barker's Abridgment of Lem- 
priere's Classical Dictionary relieves the editor from the necessity of 
attempting to recommend it as a useful and valuable school-book. 

But, though the merits of this work have been fully acknowledged, it 
cannot be denied that in some respects it was imperfect in plan, and in 
numerous instances its contents were so meagre and unsatisfactory as to 
present the form, rather than the substance, of the larger work from 
which it was abridged. Within the last few years, moreover, the zeal 
with which classical studies have been pursued, both in this country and 
on the Continent, has opened so many new sources of information on 
the various topics embraced by a Classical Dictionary, that far greater 
care and completeness are necessary to reach the present standard of 
education than at any previous period, and an extensive revision of ele- 
mentary works like the present is rendered indispensable. Under these 
circumstances, the editor has undertaken the task of adapting this work 
to what he believes to be the wants of the rising generation ; and, with- 
out further preface, he will content himself with noticing briefly a few of 
those points which he thinks likely to contribute to the value of the pre- 
sent edition. 

The principal heads embraced in this volume are, the Mythology, Geo- 
graphy, History, Biography, and, to a certain extent, the Archaeology, of 
the Ancient Greeks and Romans ; and on all these heads the corrections, 
improvements, and additions have been so numerous as to entitle the 
present edition to the character of an entirely new work. 

In the department of Mythology, a copious account of all the Heathen 
Deities, Heroes, and other fabulous personages mentioned in the classical 
authors has been given, together with a notice of the principal Deities 
of Egypt, India, Persia, Scandinavia, and other countries. To many of 
the more important subjects, an explanation of the fables and allegories 
in which the ancient mythology is enveloped, has been appended ; but the 
editor has scrupulously refrained from indulging in theory, and has con- 
fined himself entirely to a statement of the results at which the best 
authorities have arrived. 

In the articles devoted to Geography, instead of the generally meagre 
statements of the previous editions, not only the position, boundaries, &c, 
of countries, and the situation of cities, mountains, rivers, and other 
natural objects, together with their modern designations, have been given ; 
but a succinct account of their history has been added, and in those cases 
in which this was impracticable, the leading events with which they are 
associated have been enumerated. 



iv 



PREFACE. 



In the Biographical articles, an attempt has been made to give, in a 
connected form, the main events in the lives of all the distinguished cha- 
racters of antiquity, with the date of their occurrence ; but here, as in the 
mythological articles, no matter of a speculative kind has been introduced, 
the editor having aimed at presenting rather a repertory of facts than of 
deductions and inferences, which, from the limits within which the volume 
must be compressed, could not be otherwise than unsatisfactory and in- 
complete. 

It did not come within the scope of the work to introduce subjects 
purely Archaeological ; but considering how large a share many of these 
subjects occupy in the economy of Greece and Rome (to a thorough 
knowledge of whose writers they are indeed indispensable), it has been 
deemed advisable to describe the leading institutions and magistracies of 
antiquity, &c, and to allot a considerable space to its festivals and amuse- 
ments. 

To enable the editor to make these additions and improvements, without 
altering the nature of the work as an abridgment, or increasing materially 
its cost to the purchaser, a quantity of matter not calculated to assist the 
pupil has been erased, numerous repetitions which encumbered the. previous 
editions have been removed, and the size of the original volume has been 
increased by upwards of one hundred and fifty pages. The editor makes 
no pretensions to originality ; he has freely availed himself of the labours 
of others wherever he found them suited to his purpose : but though he 
candidly makes this admission, he must at the same time be allowed to 
say that when discrepant opinions were to be reconciled, and doubtful 
questions cleared up, he has seldom failed to refer to the original sources 
of information, and in no case has he adopted any important or unusual 
statement without a careful collation of authorities. Keeping in view the 
class of persons for whom this work is especially intended, he 4 has studied 
to avoid every thing offensive both in language and matter, being per- 
suaded that the want of delicacy in an elementary work could hardly be 
compensated by any excellences it might possess. 

Sept. 1843. 



ADVERTISEMENT TO THIS EDITION. 

In return for the mark of public approbation bestowed on our labours, 
we have subjected the whole work to a careful revision, eradicated the 
errors that had escaped our notice, supplied such articles as had been 
omitted, and, in a word, have endeavoured to make it more deserving 
than ever of a continuance of public favour. 



July, 1849. 



CLASSICAL DICTIONARY, 

&c. &c. 



ABA 

Abac^num, an ancient city of the Siculi, 
in Sicily, situated on a steep hill, south- 
west of Messana. Its ruins are supposed 
to be in the x vicinity of the modern Tripi. 

Abje, I., a city of Phocis, near and to the 
right of Elataea, towards Opus ; celebrated 
for its oracle of Apollo, said to have been 
of greater antiquity than that at Delphi. 
During the Persian invasion, the temple 
whence the oracles issued was nearly de- 
stroyed by the army of Xerxes ; but He- 
rodotus states that, even in its dilapidated 
state, the oracle was consulted on behalf of 
Mardonius. Abaj possessed also a forum 
and a theatre, the ruins of which are pointed 
out by Sir W. Gell near the modern village 
of Exarcho. — IT. The Scholiast on So- 
phocles mentions a city in Lycia, called 
Abae, where Apollo is said to have had a 
temple ; but this is pronounced to be an 
error by the best commentators. 

Abalus. See Basilia. 

Abantes, a people of Greece, whose 
origin is not clearly ascertained, though 
it is probable that they came first from 
Thrace, and, having settled in Phocis, built 
the city Abas. From this quarter, part 
of them seem to have removed to Euboea, 
and hence the name of Abantias, or Abantis, 
which this island sometimes bears. Some 
of this wandering race subsequently left 
Euboea, and settled for a time in the island 
of Chios. Another band, returning with 
some of the Locri from the Trojan war, 
were driven to the coast of Epirus, esta- 
blished themselves in a part of Thesprotia, 
inhabited the city of Thronium, and gave 
the name of Abantis to the adjacent terri- 
tory. 

Abantias, and Abantiades, I., a patro- 
nymic given to the descendants of Abas, 
king of Argos, such as Acrisius, Danae, 
Perseus, Atalanta, &c. — II. One of the 
ancient names of the island of Euboea. 
See Abantes. 

a. Diet. 



ABA 

Abantidas made himself master of Si- 
cyon, after he had murdered Clinias, father 
of Aratus, who was then in charge of the 
administration ; was himself soon after as- 
sassinated, b. c. 251. 

Abaris, I., a Scythian, or Hyperborean, 
mentioned by several ancient writers, and 
forming the centre of innumerable ingeni- 
ous speculations to the learned. In the 
third Olympiad he passed into Greece, 
where he distinguished himself by his 
miraculous achievements, such as healing 
incurable diseases, averting storms and 
pestilence, &c, by means of an arrow pre- 
sented to him by Apollo, to whom, on his 
return, he is said to have consecrated the 
money he received for these various ser- 
vices. Creuzer considers Abaris as be- 
longing to the curious chain of connection 
between the religions of the north and 
those of southern Europe, so distinctly 
indicated by the customary offerings sent 
to Delos from the country of the Hyper- 
boreans. Other distinguished antiquaries 
view in Abaris the god Apollo himself, who 
had become his own priest, Abaris being 
merely the Macedonian form of Aphareus, 
or Aphaios, luminous, a common epithet of 
Apollo. — II. A city of Egypt, called also 
Avaris, and either founded by the shep- 
herd-race who overran the country, or 
else enlarged and strengthened by them. 
The former supposition is more generally 
adopted. Manetho places it to the east 
of the Bubastic mouth of the Nile, in the 
Saitic nome. Mannert makes it identical 
with what was afterwards called Pelusium ; 
for the name Abaris disappeared when the 
shepherd-race retired from Egypt; and 
the situation of Pelusium coincides suffi- 
ciently well with the site of Abaris, as 
far as authorities have reached us on this 
point. 

Abarkis or -us, a name given to that 
part of Mysia in which Lampsacus was 

B 



2 



ABA 



ABE 



situate. Venus, according to the fable, 
here disowned (aTT7)puT)<raTo) her offspring 
Priapus, whom she had just brought forth, 
being shocked at his deformity. Hence 
the appellation. The first form Aparnis 
was subsequently altered to Abarnis. 

Abarus, an Arabian prince, who per- 
fidiously deserted Crassus in his expedi- 
tion against Parthia. He is called Ma- 
zeres by Flor. and Ariamnes by Plut. 

Abas or Abus, L, a mountain of Ar- 
menia Major ; according to D'Anville the 
modern Abi-dag, but maintained by Man- 
nert to be the modern Ararat. It gives 
rise to the southern branch of the Eu- 
phrates. — II. A river of Albania, rising 
in the chain of Caucasus, and falling into 
the Caspian sea. Ptolemy calls it the 
Albanus. On its banks Pompey defeated 
the Albanians, who had revolted. — III. 
The twelfth king of Argos, son of Belus, 
some say of Lynceus and Hypermnestra ; 
famous for his genius and valour ; father 
of Proetus and Acrisius ; said to have built 
Abae; reigned twenty-three years, b.c. 1384. 
— IV. A soothsayer, to whom the Spartans 
erected a statue for his services to Lysander, 
before the battle of JEgospotamos. He is 
called by some writers Hagias. 

Abas a, an island in the Red sea, near 
./Ethiopia. 

AbasItis, a district of Phrygia Epicte- 
tus, in the vicinity of Mysia. In it was 
the city of Ancyra ; and here also the 
river Macestus, or Megistus, arose. 

Abassena or Abassinia. See Abys- 
sinia. 

Abatos ( Gr. inaccessible), a small rocky 
island in the Nile, near Philas, so called 
from the priests alone being permitted to 
enter it. It abounded in flax and papyrus, 
and was remarkable for being the spot 
where the annual increase of the Nile was 
first perceived. It contained also the 
tomb of Osiris, afterwards removed to 
Abydos. 

Abdalonimus, one of the descendants 
of the kings of Sidon ; so poor that, to 
maintain himself, he worked in a garden. 
When Alexander took Sidon he made him 
king, and enlarged his possessions for his 
disinterestedness. Diodorus Siculus had 
corrupted the name into Ballonymus. 

Abuera, I., a city of Thrace, at the 
mouth of the Nessus. Ephorus wrote the 
name in the singular (Abderon), but the 
plural form is more usual. There are 
several accounts of the origin of Abdera ; 
but the best authenticated statement repre- 
sents it as having been founded by the 
Clazomenian Timesius, who, however, was 
unable to complete his undertaking ; and 



as having been at a later period re-colonised 
by a large body of Teians from Ionia, who 
abandoned their city when besieged by 
Harpagus, general of Cyrus. The city of 
Abdera was the birth-place of many dis- 
tinguished men, such as Democritus, Pro- 
tagoras, Anaxarchus, and Hecataeus ; the 
last of whom, however, must not be con- 
founded with the native of Miletus. But 
notwithstanding the celebrity of some of 
their fellow-citizens, the people of Abdera 
as a body were reputed to be stupid. 
Among the Latin writers we find Cicero 
styling Rome, on account of the stupidity 
of its senators, an Abdera ; and Juvenal 
stigmatising Abdera itself as " the native 
country of blockheads." Martial also 
speaks of the " Abderitanae pectoraplebis." 
No doubt, however, much of this is ex- 
aggeration. Abdera was the limit of the 
Odrysian empire to the West : but it 
afterwards fell successively into the power 
of Philip and Eumenes, king of Pergamus. 
Under the Romans it became a free city, 
and continued so even down to the time of 
Pliny. Its ruins still exist near Cape 
Baloustra. — II. A town of Hispania Bas- 
tica, east of Malaca, in the territory of 
the Bastuli Pceni, and lying on the coast. 
Strabo calls it AvSripa, and Ptolemy "Ag- 
Sapa, but in Steph. B. we have "AgS^pa, 
and on a coin of Tiberius Abdera. It was 
founded by a Phoenician colony, and ap- 
pears to correspond to the modern Adra. 

AbderItes, a people of Pasonia, obliged 
to leave their country on account of the great 
number of rats and frogs which infested it. 

Abderus, a Locrian, armour-bearer of 
Hercules, torn to pieces by the mares of 
Diomedes, which the hero had intrusted 
to his care, when going to war against the 
Bistones. According to Philostratus Her- 
cules built the city Abdera in honour of his 
friend. 

Abella, a town of Campania, north-east 
of Nola, founded, according to Justin, by a 
colony from Chalcis, in Eubcea. Its ruins 
still exist under the name of Avella Vecchia. 
Notwithstanding the small size of Abella, 
it was in possession of a republican form 
of government, which it retained until 
subdued by the Romans. The inhabitants 
(Abellani) are frequently mentioned by the 
ancient writers. Their territory was famed 
for a species of nut called nux Abellana, or 
Avellana, corresponding to the corylus of 
Virgil, and the corylus Avellana of Linnaeus, 
class 21. 

Abellinum, I., a city of the Hirpini, in 
Samnium, now Abellino. Its inhabitants 
are distinguished from those of the other 
Abellinum by the appellation of Abellinates 



ABG 



ABO 



3 



Protropi. — II. A city of Lucania, near 
the source of the Aciris; called Ahellinum 
Marsicum, and thought, by Cluverius and 
D'Anville, to accord with the situation of 
the modern Marsico Vetere. 

Abgarus, I., a name common to many 
kings of Edessa, in Mesopotamia. It is 
otherwise written Abagarus, Agbarus, Au- 
garus, &c. The first monarch of this name, 
according to Euseb., wrote a letter to our 
Saviour and received an answer from him 
(see Edessa); but the genuineness of these 
letters has been the subject of much dis- 
pute. — II. The name of the Arabian 
prince, by whose perfidy Crassus was drawn 
into a snare, which proved his ruin. He 
is called "Angapos, by Appian, 5 Apta,ui/7?9 
by Plutarch, and Avyapos by Dio Cass. 

Abia, the southernmost city of Messe- 
nia, on the eastern shore of the Messenian 
gulf. Pausanias states that it was *70 
stadia from Pheras, and identifies it with 
Ire, which Homer mentions as one of the 
places offered by Agamemnon to Achilles. 
Abia, together with the adjacent cities of 
Thuria and Pherae, separated from Messe- 
nia, and became part of the Achaean con- 
federacy ; but they afterwards again 
attached themselves to the Messenian 
government. At a later period, Augustus, 
in order to punish the Messenians for 
having favoured the party of Antony, an- 
nexed these three cities to Laconia, an 
arrangement, however, which must have 
continued only for a short time, since 
Ptolemy and Pausanias include them 
again among the cities of Messenia. A 
small village, named Zamata, now stands 
either on or near the site of Abia. 

Abii, a Scythian nation, supposed by 
the earlier Greeks to inhabit the banks of 
the Tanais. Homer is thought to allude 
to them in Iliad, 13.6., where, for ayavccv, 
some read 'AStW tc. By others they are 
supposed to be identical with the Macrobii. 
The name Abii is thought by Heine to 
allude to their living on lands common to 
the whole nation, or to their having a 
community of goods. In truth, however, 
both Abii and Macrobii are mere epithets 
invented by the Greeks, and applied by 
them to these distant nations for the 
purpose of expressing the ideas which 
they entertained of them from report; 
abii signifying poor, and macrobii long- 
lived. 

AbTla, or Abyla, I., a mountain of Africa 
opposite Calpe ( Gibraltar), supposed to 
coincide with the modern Cape Serra, an 
elevated point of land, forming a peninsula, 
the isthmus of which is closed by Ceuta. 
Of the two forms given to the name of 



this mountain by the ancient writers, that 
of Abyla is the more common. Abyla is 
supposed to be a Carthaginian or Punic 
appellation for any lofty mountain. The 
situation of Abyla gave it, with the opposite 
Calpe, a conspicuous place in the Greek 
Mythology. See Herculis Columns.— 

II. A city of Palestine, placed by Eusebius 
twelve miles east of Gadara. Ptolemy is 
supposed to refer to it under the name 
Abida, an error probably of copyists. — 

III. A city of Ccelesyria, now Bellinas, in 
a mountainous country, about eighteen 
miles north-west of Damascus. It was the 
capital of Abilene, a province over which 
Lysanias was tetrarch, as mentioned by 
St. Luke, and answers to the Leucas of 
the Greeks, which is a translation of the 
Hebrew Abel or Abila, " white." 

Abilene, a district of Ccelesyria, the 
capital of which was Abila. See preceding 
article. 

Abnoba, according to Ptolemy, a chain 
of mountains in Germany, which com- 
menced on the banks of the Mcenus ( Mayne, ) 
and, running between what are now Hesse 
and Westphalia, terminated in the present 
Duchy of Paderborn. Subsequent writers 
limit the name Abnoba to that portion of 
the Black Forest where the Danube com- 
mences its course, and in this sense it is 
used by Tacitus. A stone altar with 
Abnoba inscribed was discovered in the 
Black Forest 1778 ; and in 1784 a pedestal 
of white marble was found in the Grand 
Duchy of Baden, bearing the words 
Dian^e Abnoba. These ancient relics, 
besides indicating precisely the site of the 
ancient Mons Abnoba, decided also the 
orthography of the word, which is some- 
times incorrectly written Arnoba. 

Abonitichos, a small town and harbour 
of Paphlagonia, south-east of the promon- 
tory Carambis. It was the birth-place of 
an impostor, who assumed the character of 
JEsculapius. It is stated that he petitioned 
the Roman emperor to change the name 
of his native city to Ionopolis, and that 
the request of the impostor was actually 
granted. The modern name Ineboli is 
plainly a corruption of the latter. 

Aborigines, the name given by the 
Roman writers to the primitive race, 
which, afterwards blending with the Si- 
culi, founded the nation of the Latins. 
The name is equivalent to the Greek 
Autochthones, as indicating an original 
race. " It is one of the most creditable 
traditions," observes Niebuhr, " that the 
Aborigines, or primitive race of the Latins, 
had dwelt about Mount Velino in Italy, 
and the Lake of Celano (Fucinus), as far 
b 2 



4 



ABO 



ABU 



as Carseoli, and towards Reate ; and had 
been driven thence onward by the Sabines, 
who came from Aquila. This was Cato's 
account ; and if Varro, who enumerated 
the towns they had possessed in those 
parts, was not imposed on, not only were 
the sites of these towns distinctly pre- 
served, as well as their names, but also 
Other information respecting them, such as 
writings alone can transmit through so 
many centuries. Their capital, Lista, was 
lost by surprise ; and the exertions of 
many years to recover it, by expeditions 
from Reate, proved fruitless. Withdraw- 
ing from that district, they came down the 
Anio : and even at Tibur, Antemnas, Fi- 
culea, Tellena, and farther on at Crustu- 
rnerium and Aricia, they found Siculi, 
whom they subdued or expelled. The 
Aborigines are depicted by Sallust and 
Virgil as savages living in hordes, with- 
out manners, law, or agriculture, on the 
produce of the chase and on wild fruits. 
This, however, does not agree with the 
traces of their towns in the Apennines ; but 
the whole account was perhaps little else 
than an ancient speculation on the progress 
of mankind from rudeness to civilisation. 
They are said to have revered Janus and" 
Saturn, the latter of whom taught them 
husbandry, and induced them to choose 
settled habitations, as the founders of a 
better way of life. From this ancient race, 
as has already been remarked, blended with 
a remnant of the Siculi, sprang the nation 
of the Latins ; and between Saturn and 
the time assigned for the Trojan settle- 
ment, only three kings of the Aborigines 
are enumerated, Picus, Faunus, and Lati- 
nus. The identity of the Aborigines and 
the Pelasgi has been frequently maintained. 

Aboras. See Chaboras. 

Abradatas, a king of Susa, who, when 
his wife Panthea had been taken prisoner 
by Cyrus, and humanely treated, surren- 
dered himself and his troops to the con- 
queror. He was killed in the first battle 
which he undertook in the cause of Cyrus, 
and his wife stabbed herself on his corpse. 
Cyrus raised a monument to their memory. 

Abrincatui, a nation of Gaul, occupy- 
ing, according to the common opinion, the 
western coast, north of the Liger {Loire), 
and whose capital, Tngena, is supposed to 
coincide with the modern Avranches. But 
if we follow Ptolemy, they seem rather to 
have possessed what would now correspond 
with that part of Eastern Normandy which 
stretches from the Seine to the vicinity of 
the Rille in the district of Ouche. 

Abron, I., an Athenian who wrote a 
treatise concerning the religion of the 



ancient Greeks. — II. An Argive, of most 
luxurious and dissolute life, who gave rise 
to the proverb Abronos Bios, the life of 
Abron. 

Abrocomas, a son of Darius. He ac- 
companied the army of Xerxes when he 
invaded Greece, and was killed at Ther- 
mopylae. 

Abrodi^tus, a name given to Parrha- 
sius, the painter, on account of the sump- 
tuous manner of his living. See Parrha- 

SIUS. 

Abronius, Silo, a Latin poet of the 
Augustan age. He wrote some fables, now 
lost. According to Vossius, there were two 
poets of this name, father and son. 

Abron ycus, an Athenian, very service- 
able to Themistocles in his embassy to 
Sparta. 

Abrostola, a town of Galatia, on the 
frontiers of Phrygia, and, according to 
the Itinerary, 24 miles from Pessinus. 
Ptolemy assigns it to Phrygia Magna. 

Abrota, wife of Nisus, king of Megara. 
As a memorial of her virtues, Nisus, after 
her death, ordered the garments which she 
wore to become models of fashion in 
Megara. 

Abrotonum, a town in Africa, near the 
Syrtis Minor, and identical with Sabrata. 
See Sabrata. 

Absynthti, a people of Thrace, border- 
ing on the coasts of Pontus, where there is 
also a river of the same name. 

Absyrtides, a group of islands at the 
head of the Adriatic, in the Sinus Flanati- 
cus, Gulf of Quarnero. Apoll. Rhodius 
calls them Bryge'ides, and states that there 
was in one of the group a temple erected 
to the Brygian Diana. (See Absyrtus.) 
The chief island is Absorus, with a town 
of the same name. In modern geography 
these names are Cherso, Osero, Ferosino, 
and Chao. 

Absyrtos, a river falling into the Adri- 
atic sea, near which Absyrtus was mur- 
dered. Grotius proposes Absyrtis as the 
true name of the stream. 

Absyrtus, brother of Medea, and son of 
iEetes, king of Colchis, by whom he was 
despatched with a large force in pursuit of 
Jason and Medea, as soon as their flight 
was discovered. Medea, seeing herself on 
the point of falling into the hands of the 
young prince, deceived him by a stratagem, 
and the Argonauts, having slain him, cast 
his body into the sea. The corpse floated 
about for some time, and was at last 
thrown up on one of the islands which, 
from this circumstance, were denominated 
Absyrtides. 

Abuljtes, governor of Susa, betrayed 



ABU 



ACA 



5 



his trust to Alexander, and was rewarded 
with a province. 

Abus, a river of Britain, now the Hum- 
her. 

Abydenus, a pupil of Berosus, who lived 
about 270 years b. c. Some fragments of 
his history of the Chaldseans, Babylonians, 
and Assyrians have been preserved by 
Eusebius, Cyrill, and Syncellus. See 
Pal^ephatus. 

Abyoos, L, a celebrated city of Upper 
Egypt, north-west of Diospolis Parva. 
Strabo speaks of it as once next to Thebes 
in size, though greatly reduced in his days. 
The same writer mentions the palace 
of Memnon in this city, built on the plan 
of the labyrinth, though less intricate. 
Osiris had here a splendid temple. Plu- 
tarch makes it also the true burial-place 
of Osiris, an honour to which so many cities 
of Egypt aspired ; and states that the 
more distinguished Egyptians frequently 
selected Abydos as their place of sepulture. 
Abydos is now a heap of ruins, as its 
modern name, Madfune, implies ; but the 
chief building, though covered with sand, 
is in good preservation, and the style of 
its decoqations clearly shows it to have been 
a royal residence. — II. An ancient city 
of Mysia, in Asia Minor, founded by the 
Thracians, and inhabited by them even 
after the Trojan war. Homer represents 
it as under the sway of a prince named 
Asius, a name associated with many of the 
earliest religious traditions of the ancient 
world. At a later period the Milesians 
sent a strong colony to this place in aid of 
their commerce with the shores of the 
Propontis and Euxine. Abydos was di- 
rectly on the narrowest part of the Helles- 
pont ; and this circumstance, together 
with its strong walls and very safe har- 
bour, soon made it a place of importance. 
It is remarkable for its desperate resistance 
against Philip the younger, of Macedon, 
who finally took it ; and for being the 
scene of the fable of Hero and Leander. 
Over against Abydos lay the European 
town Sestos. The ruins of Abydos are 
still to be seen on a promontory of low 
land called Nagara-Bornou, or Pesquies 
Point. Wheeler has rectified in this par- 
ticular the mistake of Sandys, who sup- 
posed the modern castle of Natolia to be 
on the site of the ancient Abydos. Over 
the strait between Abydos and Sestos, 
Xerxes caused his two bridges of boats to 
be erected, when he was marching against 
Greece ; and it was here that, seated on a 
lofty throne, he surveyed his fleet covering 
the Hellespont, and his countless troops 
marshalled in the plains. The classical 



writers make the strait in this quarter seven 
stadia, or 875 paces, in width, but to modern 
travellers it appears no where less than a 
mile across. 

Abyssinia, a name generally, though in- 
correctly, supposed to be of ancient origin. 
It corresponds to the southern part of 
JEthiopia supra JEgyptum ; and though it be 
certain that the denomination of Ethiopians 
is of Greek origin, and has been employed 
to signify every people of dark complexion, 
the Abyssinians still call themselves Itio- 
piawan, and their country Itiopia. But 
they prefer the name of Agazian for the 
people, and that of Agazi, or Ghez, for the 
kingdom. 

Acacallis. See Philander and Phy- 

LACIS. 

Acacesium, a town of Arcadia, built on 
a hill named Acacesius, in the south-west 
angle of the country. Mercury Acacesius 
was worshipped here. 

Academia, a public garden in the sub- 
urbs of Athens, so called from Academus 
or Hecademus, who left it to the citizens 
for gymnastic exercises. It was surrounded 
with a wall by Hipparchus, was adorned 
with statues, temples, and sepulchres, 
planted with olive and plane-trees, and 
watered by the stream of the Cephissus. 
These olive-trees, according to the Athe- 
nian fables, were reared from layers taken 
from the sacred olive in the Erechtheum, 
and afforded the oil awarded to the victors 
at the Panathenean festival. The Academy 
suffered during the siege of Athens by 
Sylla, many of the trees being cut down to 
supply timber for the machines of war. Few 
retreats can be imagined more favourable 
to philosophy and the Muses. Within this 
inclosure Plato possessed a small garden, 
in which he opened a school. Hence arose 
the Academic sect ; and hence the term 
Academy has descended, though shorn of 
many of its early honours, even to our 
own times. The appellation of Academy 
(Academia) is frequently used in philo- 
sophical writings, especially in Cicero, as 
indicative of the Academic sect. In this 
sense Diogenes Laertius makes a threefold 
division of the Academy, into Old, Middle, 
and New. At the head of the Old he puts 
Plato ; the Middle, Arcesilaus ; and the 
New Academy, Lacydes. Sextus Em- 
piricus enumerates five divisions of the fol- 
lowers of Plato. He makes Plato the 
founder of the first Academy ; Arcesilaus, 
the second; Carneades, the third; Philo 
and Charmides, the fourth ; and Antiochus, 
the fifth. Cicero recognises only two 
Academies, the Old and Neiv, and makes 
the latter commence, as above, with Ar- 
B 3 



6 



ACA 



ACA 



eesilaus. In enumerating those who be- 
longed to the old Academy, he begins, not 
•with Plato, but Democritus, and gives 
them in the following order : Democritus, 
Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Parmenides, Xe- 
nophanes, Socrates, Plato, Speusippus, Xe- 
nocrates, Polemo, Crates, and Crantor. In 
the New, or younger, Academy he mentions 
Arcesilaus, Lacydes, Evander, Egesinus, 
Carneades, Clitomachus, and Philo. If 
we follow the distinction laid down by 
Diog. L.,the Old Academy will consist of 
those followers of Plato who taught the 
doctrine of their master without mixture 
or corruption ; the Middle Academy will 
embrace those who, on account of certain 
innovations in their manner of philoso- 
phising, in some measure receded from the 
Platonic system without entirely deserting 
it ; while the New Academy will begin 
with those who relinquished the more ob- 
noxious tenets of Arcesilaus, and restored 
the declining reputation of the Platonic 
school. 

Academus, an ancient hero, whom some 
identify with Cadmus. According to 
others, he was an Athenian, who disclosed 
to Castor and Pollux the place where The- 
seus had secreted their sister Helen, after 
having carried her off from Sparta. From 
him the garden of the Academia, which he 
had presented to the people of Athens, is 
thought to have received its name. 

Acalandrus, or Acalyndrus, a river 
of Magna Grascia, falling into the Bay of 
Tarentum. Pliny places it to the north 
of Heraclea, but incorrectly, since, accord- 
ing to Strabo, it flowed in the vicinity of 
Thurii. The modern name, according to 
D'Anville, is Salandrella ; but Mannert calls 
it Roccanello. 

Acamas, I., the son of Theseus and 
Phaadra, who accompanied Diomedes to 
demand Helen from the Trojans after her 
elopement from Menelaus. In his em- 
bassy he had a son by Laodice, daughter 
of Priam. He was one of the warriors 
shut up in the celebrated wooden horse ; 
and on his return to Athens, after the 
Trojan war, he gave name to the tribe 
Acamantis. — II. A promontory of Cyprus, 
north-west of Paphos, surmounted by two 
conical summits of so remarkable a cha- 
racter that navigators sometimes gave the 
name Acamantis to the whole island. 

Acampsis, a river of Colchis, running 
into the Euxine. The Greeks called it 
Acampsis from its impetuous course, which 
forbade all approach to the shore (a, 
without, rcd^is, winding). This name was 
more particularly applied to it at its mouth ; ; 
the appellation in the interior being Boas. 



Acantha, a nymph loved by Apollo, 
and changed into the flower Acanthus. 

Acanthus, I., a city near Mount Athos, 
founded by a colony of Andrians, on a 
small neck of land connecting the pro- 
montory of Athos with the continent. 
Strabo and Ptolemy place it on the Singi- 
ticus Sinus, but Herodotus, Scymnus, and 
Mela distinctly fix it on the Strymonicus 
Sinus. Mannert supposes the city to have 
been placed on the Singiticus Sinus, and 
the harhour on the Strymonicus Sinus, 
while Gail makes two places of this name 
to have existed, one on the Strymonicus, and 
the, other on the Singiticus Sinus. The 
Persian fleet despatched under Mardonius 
having suffered in doubling the promon- 
tory of Athos, Xerxes determined to guard 
against a similar accident by cutting a canal 
across the isthmus, of such dimensions as 
to admit of two triremes passing abreast. 
Of this great work the traces still remain. 
— II. A city of Egypt, the southernmost 
in the Memphitic nome. Ptolemy gives to 
it a plural form, probably from the nume- 
rous thickets (andudai) in its vicinity : 
but Strabo adopts the singular form. 
DAnville and Mannert make this city 
coincide with the modern village of Dashur. 

Acarnania, a country of Greece Pro- 
per, along the western coast. The natural 
boundary on the iEtolian side was the river 
Achelous, but it was not definitely regarded 
as the dividing limit until the period of 
the Roman dominion. Acarnania was a 
productive country with good harbours ; 
but the inhabitants were little inclined 
to commercial intercourse with their neigh- 
bours. They were almost constantly en- 
gaged in warlike operations against the 
iEtolians, and consequently remained far 
behind the rest of the Greeks in point of 
culture. Hence, too, we find scarcely any 
city of importance within their territories ; 
and even whole districts, and the islauds 
which were commonly regarded as a 
geographical portion of Acarnania, did not, 
politically considered, belong to it, being 
inhabited by a different race. The per- 
petual warfare in which the Acarnanians 
were engaged with the iEtolians so weak- 
ened the two nations eventually, that they 
fell an easy prey, first to the Macedonians, 
and afterwards to the Romans, who annexed 
them to the province of Epirus. Acarnania, 
now Carnia, is described by modern tra- 
vellers as a wilderness of forests and un- 
peopled plains. 

Acarnas and Amphoterus, sons of 
Alcmason and Callirrhoe. Alcmason being 
murdered by the brothers of Alphesibcea, 
his former wife, Callirrhoe, obtained from 



ACA 



ACE 



7 



Jupiter that her children, who were still in 
the cradle, might grow up to punish their 
father's murderers. According to some 
writers, Acarnas gave name to Acarnania, 
in which he settled a short time previously 
to the Trojan war. 

Acastus, son of Pelias, king of Thessaly, 
married Astydamia or Hippolyte, who fell 
in love with Peleus, son of iEacus, when 
in banishment at her husband's court. 
Peleus, rejecting the addresses of Hip- 
polyte, was accused before Acastus of 
attempting her honour, and soon after, at 
a hunt, exposed to wild beasts. Chiron, 
by order of Vulcan, delivered Peleus, who 
returned to Thessaly, and put to death 
Acastus and his wife. See Peleus and 
Astydamia. 

Acca Laurentia, or more properly 
Larentia, the wife of Faustulus, shepherd 
of king Numitor's flocks. She became 
the foster-mother of Romulus and Remus, 
who had been preserved by her husband 
when they were exposed on the Tiber, and 
suckled by a she-wolf. 

Accia or Atia, daughter of Julia and 
M. Atius Balbus, and mother of Au- 
gustus, died 40 years b. c. Cicero gives 
her a high character. 

Accius, I., a Roman tragic poet. See 
Attius. — II. Tullius, a prince of the 
Volsci, inimical to the Romans. Corio- 
lanus, when banished, fled to him, and led 
his armies against Rome. 

Acco, a general of the Gauls, at the head 
of the confederacy formed against the Roman 
power by the Senones, Carnutes, and Tre- 
viri. Caesar, having by the rapidity of his 
marches prevented the execution of Acco's 
plans, ordered a general assembly of the 
Gauls to enquire into the conduct of these 
nations ; and sentence of death was pro- 
nounced on Acco. 

Ace, a sea-port town of Phoenicia, south 
of Tyre. On the gold and silver coins of 
Alexander the Great, struck in this place, 
with Phoenician characters, it is called Aco : 
in the Old Testament (Judges, i.) it is 
termed Accho, signifying straitened or 
confined. The Greeks, having changed 
the original name before this into 'Akt], 
connected with it the legend of Hercules 
having been bitten here by a serpent, and 
of his having cured (a/ceo/icu,) the wound by 
the application of a certain leaf. The city 
is now called Acre, or, more properly, Acca. 
It is situate at the northern angle of the 
bay, to which it gives its name. During 
the Crusades it sustained several sieges. 
In modern times it has been rendered cele- 
brated for the successful stand which it 
made, with the aid of the British, under 



Sir Sydney Smith, against the French, 
commanded by Bonaparte, who was ob- 
liged to raise the siege after failing in his 
twelfth assault; and still more recently for 
its capture by Sir R. Stopford, in favour 
of the Turks. The strength of the place 
arose in part from its advantageous situ- 
ation. The port of Acre is bad, but Dr. 
Clarke represents it as better than any 
other along the coast. Hence too, as Dr. 
Clarke observes, we find Acre to have been 
the last position in the Holy Land from 
which the Christians were expelled, 

Aceratus, a soothsayer, who remained 
alone at Delphi when the approach of 
Xerxes frightened away the inhabitants. 

Acerbas, a priest of Hercules at Tyre, 
who married Dido, sister of Pygmalion, by 
whom he was afterwards murdered. See 
Dido. 

Acerina, a colony of the Brutii in Mag- 
na Grajcia, taken by Alexander of Epirus. 

Acerr^e, I., a town of Cisalpine Gaul, 
west of Cremona and north of Placentia, 
supposed to have occupied the site of the 
modern Pizziglietone, one of the strong- 
holds of the Insubres. It must not be 
confounded with another Celtic city called 
Acara by Strabo, and Acerrce by Pliny. — 
II. A city of Campania, to the east of 
Atella. It was made a municipium by the 
Romans at an early period, and remained 
attached to their interests, even when Capua 
had opened her gates to Hannibal ; on 
which account it was destroyed by the 
Carthaginian commander. It was sub- 
sequently rebuilt, and in the time of 
Augustus received a Roman colony. The 
modern Acerra stands nearly on the site 
of the ancient town. 

Aceksecomes, a surname of Apollo, 
which signifies unshorn. Another form is 
a.K£ipeic6fj.r)s. Both are compounded of a, 
priv., K€tpo>, to cut, and k6/j.t], the hair of the 
head. They are applied, however, as well 
to Bacchus as to Apollo. 

Aces, a river of Asia, according to He- 
rodotus on the confines of the Choras- 
mians, Hyrcanians, Parthians, Sarangeans, 
and Thamaneans, all of whose terri- 
tories it watered by means of water courses. 
It is said, that when the Persians conquered 
this part of Asia, they blocked up the out- 
lets of the stream and made the reopening 
of them a source of tribute : but the whole 
story is very improbable. 

Acesines, a large and rapid river of In- 
dia, falling into the Indus ; commonly 
supposed to be the modern Ravei, but 
Rennell makes it the Jenaub. 

Acesicjs, a surname of Apollo, as god of 
medicine, from aKio/xaiy I heal. 

b 4 



8 



ACE 



ACH 



Acesta. See 2Egesta. 

Acestes. See -ZEgestus. 

Acestor, an eminent ancient statuary 
mentioned by Pausanias. He was a native 
of Gnossus, and flourished about Olymp. 80. 

AcHiEA, I., a surname of Pallas, whose 
temple in Daunia contained the arms of 
Diomede, and was defended by dogs, which 
fawned on the Greeks, but attacked all 
others. — II. A name of Ceres, from her 
lamentations (axos) over Proserpine. 

Ach^ei, the name given in particular 
to the inhabitants of Achaia, in the Pelo- 
ponnesus, but frequently, and especially 
in Homer, extended to all the inha- 
bitants of Greece. They derived their 
origin from Achaeus, son of Xuthus, and 
grandson of Hellen, who at the head of a 
, petty tribe made an irruption into Thes- 
saly, but being repulsed, retired to the 
Peloponnesus, and established himself in 
the territory of Lacedasmon and Argos, 
whose inhabitants thenceforward assumed 
the name of Achaeans. The Achaeans 
were the most numerous and powerful of 
the Greek nations that went to the siege of 
Troy ; and after the capture of that city, 
being driven from their possessions by the 
Dorians, they invaded the territory of the 
Ionians, who then occupied the northern 
coast of the Peloponnesus, and gave to this 
district the name of Achaia, which it per- 
manently retained. They there formed the 
celebrated confederacy known in history 
as the Achaean League. This league was 
broken up after the death of Alexander the 
Great, but was set on foot again by some 
of the original allies b. c. 280 ; from which 
period it gained strength, and finally spread 
over the whole Peloponnesus, though not 
without much opposition, principally on 
the part of Lacedaemon. It was finally 
dissolved by the Romans on the capture of 
Corinth by Mummius, b. c. 147, and the 
states that composed it were formed into a 
Roman province, under the general appel- 
lation of Achaia. 

Ach^emenes, the founder of the Persian 
monarchy. Some writers seek to identify 
him with the Giem Schid, or Djemschid, 
qf the Oriental historians. 

Ach^smenides, 1., a branch of the Per- 
sian tribe of Pasargadae, deriving their name 
from Achaemenes, the founder of the line. 
(See AcHjEMENiniE.) — II., or Achaemenes, 
a Persian of the royal line, brother or uncle 
of Artaxerxes I. — III. One of the compa- 
nions of Ulysses, who was left on the coast 
of Sicily, whence he was rescued by iEneas. 

Ach^eorum statio, a place on the coast 
of the Thracian Chersonesus, where Po- 
lyxena was sacrificed to the shade of 



Achilles, and where Hecuba killed Polym- 
nestor, the murderer of her son Polydorus. 

Achjeus, I., a tragic poet, born at 
Eretria b. c. 484, the year in which 
JEschylus gained his first prize. He con- 
tended with Sophocles and Euripides in 
his thirty-seventh year, but of course un- 
successfully. He gained the dramatic vic- 
tory only once, though Suidas informs us 
that he contended for it forty-four times. 
Most of the plays ascribed to him are sa- 
tirical. — II. A relation of Antiochus the 
Great, appointed governor of all the Asi- 
atic provinces this side of Taurus. He 
aspired to sovereign power, which he dis- 
puted for eight years with Antiochus, but 
was at last betrayed by a Cretan, and put 
to death. 

Achaia, I., one of the ancient great 
divisions of the Peloponnesus, extending 
from Cape Araxus, along the coast of the 
Corinthian Bay, to the territory of Sicyon, 
which separated it from that of Corinth. 
It bore originally the name of iEgialos, 
afterwards Ionia, and sometimes iEgia- 
leian Ionia, that is, " Maritime Ionia ; " 
and from the most remote antiquity it con- 
tained twelve cities or states, united by a 
federative league, though separately inde- 
pendent. Of these the most distinguished 
were Dyme, iBgira, Bura, Patrae, and 
iEgium. In the time of Homer, the term 
Achaia comprised Argolis, Mycenae, La- 
conia, Messenia, and Elis, that is, all those 
parts of the Peloponnesus inhabited by 
Achceans, in contradistinction to those in- 
habited by Pelasgians, like Arcadia, or by 
Ionians, like iEgialos. The latter, as al- 
ready mentioned, afterwards assumed the 
name of Achaea, when the Achaeans sought 
refuge within its territory from the perse- 
cutions of the Heraclidae. (See Ach^ei.) 
— II. A district of Thessaly which derived 
its name from the Acbasi. It comprised, 
according to Herodotus, the country along 
the Apidanus ; and if we assume this as 
its western limit, we may consider it to 
have reached as far as the Sinus Pelasgicus 
and Sinus Maliacus on the east. — III. A 
harbour on the north-eastern coast of the 
Euxine, mentioned by Arrian, and called 
by him Old Achaia. The Greeks had a 
tradition, that the inhabitants of this place 
were of Grecian origin, and natives of the 
Boeotian Orchomenus, who missed their 
way on their return from the Trojan war, 
and wandered to this quarter. 

Acharnenses, a people of Sicily near 
Syracuse. 

AcharNj32, or Acharna, an important 
borough of Attica, 60 stadia north-west 
of Athens. Many of the inhabitants fol- 



ACH 



ACH 



9 



lotted the business of charcoal-burning. 
It belonged to the tribe (Eneis, and con- 
tained some of the most productive land 
in Attica. 

Achates, a friend of iEneas, whose fide- 
lity was so exemplary, that Jidus Achates 
became a proverb. 

Acheloides, a patronymic given to the 
Sirens as daughters of Achelous. 

Achelous, a river of Epirus, now Aspro 
Potamo, or " White River," which rises 
in Mount Pindus, and, after dividing Acar- 
nania from iEtolia, falls into the Sinus Co- 
rinthiacus. It was a large and rapid stream, 
probably the largest in Greece, and formed 
at its mouth, by depositions of mud and 
sand, a number of small islands called 
Echinades. The god of this river was the 
son of Oceanus and Tethys, or of the Sun 
and Terra. In his unsuccessful contest 
with Hercules for the hand of Deianira, 
having assumed the form of a bull, he lost 
one of his horns ; but having afterwards re- 
ceived a horn from Amalthea, he gave it 
to the victor, and obtained his own in 
return. Another account makes him to 
have first assumed the form of a serpent, 
and afterwards that of a bull, and to have 
retired in disgrace into the bed of the river 
Thoas, which thenceforward was denomi- 
nated Achelous. A third account states 
that the Naiades took the horn of the con- 
quered deity, and, after filling it with the 
productions of the seasons, gave it to 
the goddess of Plenty, whence the origin 
of the cornu copies. The Achelous was a 
river of great antiquity as well as cele- 
brity. The frequent directions of the 
oracle of Dodona " to sacrifice to the Ache- 
lous" associated the stream with some of 
the oldest religious rites ; and hence it was 
frequently used in the language of poetry as 
the representative of rivers in general, and 
sometimes for the element of water itself. 

A cher d us, a borough of the tribe Hip- 
pothoontis in Attica ; hence Acherdusius 
in Demosthenes. 

Acheron, I., a river of Epirus, rising 
in the mountains to the west of the chain 
of Pindus, and falling into the Ionian sea 
near Glyhys Limen ( Sweet Port). In the 
early part of its course, it forms the Palus 
Acherusia, and, after emerging from this 
sheet of water, disappears under ground, 
from which it again rises, and pursues its 
course to the sea. Pausanias states it as 
his opinion, that Homer, having visited 
these rivers in the course of his wanderings, 
assigned to them, on account of their pe- 
culiar nature and properties, a place 
among the rivers of the lower world. 
The poets make Acheron to have been the 



son of Sol and Terra, and to have been 
precipitated into the infernal regions, and 
there changed into a river, for having sup- 
plied the Titans with water during the 
war which they waged with Jupiter. 
Hence its waters were muddy and bitter ; 
and it was the stream over which the souls 
of the dead were first conveyed. The 
Acheron is represented under the form of 
an old man arrayed in a humid vestment. 
He reclines on an urn of a dark colour, 
out of which flow waters full of foam. 
Sometimes also an owl is placed near him. 
— II. A river of Bruttium, flowing into 
the Mare Tyrrhenum a short distance 
below Pandosia. Alexander, king of 
Epirus, who had come to the aid of the 
Tarentines, in passing this river, was 
slain by a Lucanian exile. He had been 
warned by an oracle to beware of the 
Acherusian waters and the city Pandosia, 
but supposed that it refeired to Epirus, 
and not to Italy. — III. A river of Elis, 
which falls into the Alpheus. On its 
banks were temples dedicated to Ceres, 
Proserpine, and Hades, which were held 
in high veneration. 

Acherontia, Acerenza, a city of Lu- 
cania, on the confines of 'Apulia, and from 
its lofty position called by Horace nidus 
Acherontia, " the nest of Acherontia." 
Procopius speaks of it as a strong fortress 
in his days. 

Acherusia, L, according to some 
modern expounders of fable, a lake ill 
Egypt, near Memphis, over which the 
bodies of the dead were conveyed, pre- 
vious to their being judged for the actions of 
their past lives. The authority of Diodorus 
Siculus is cited in support of this state- 
ment ; but an examination of the passage 
(I. 92.) will show that the interpretation 
above given is wholly erroneous. — II. A 
cavern in Bithynia, near the city of He- 
raelea and the river Oxynas, probably on 
the very spot which Arrian calls Tyndarida?. 
Xenophon names the whole peninsula in 
which it lies the Acherusian Promontory. 
This cavern was two stadia in depth, and 
regarded by the adjacent inhabitants as one 
of the entrances into the lower world. 
Through it Hercules is said to have 
dragged Cerberus up to the light of day ; 
a fable which probably owed its origin to 
the inhabitants of Heraclea. Apoll. Ilho- 
dius places a river, with the name of Ache- 
ron, in this quarter. This stream was 
afterwards called, by the people of Heraclea, 
Soonautes, on account of their fleet having 
been saved near it during a storm. Are 
the Acheron and Oxynas the same river? 




10 



ACH 



ACH 



Dionysius, to whom the assassination of 
Pompey was committed. He was exe- 
cuted by order of Caesar, against whose life 
he had plotted. 

Achillea, I., an island near the mouth of 
the Borysthenes, or, more properly, the 
western part of the Dromus Achilles in- 
sulated by a small arm of the sea. See 
Dromus Achillis, Leuce. 

Achilleis, a poem of Statius, in which 
he describes the education and memorable 
actions of Achilles. 

Achilles, I., a son of the Earth, to 
whom Juno fled for refuge from the pur- 
suits of Jupiter, and who persuaded her to 
return and marry that deity. Jupiter, 
grateful for this service, promised to him, 
that all who bore this name, for the time 
to come, should be illustrious personages. 
— II. The preceptor of Chiron. — III. 

The inventor of the ostracism IV. A 

son of Jupiter and Lamia. His beauty 
was so perfect that, in the judgment of 
Pan, he bore away the prize from every 
competitor. Venus was so offended at 
this decision, that, she inspired Pan with a 
fruitless passion for the nymph Echo, and 
also wrought a hideous change in his own 
person.. — TV. The son of Peleus, king of 
Phtbiotis in Thessaly. His mother's name 
appears to have been a matter of some 
♦dispute among the ancient expounders of 
mythology, though the more numerous 
authorities are in favour of Thetis, one of 
the sea-deities. According to Lycophron, 
Thetis became the mother of seven male 
children by Peleus, six of whom she threw 
into the fire. The Scholiast on Homer 
says that six of her children perished by 
this harsh experiment, and that she had, in 
like manner, thrown the seventh, after- 
wards named Achilles, into the flames, 
when Peleus, having beheld the deed, 
rescued his offspring from this perilous 
situation. Tzetzes, in his Scholia on Ly- 
cophron, following the authority of Apol- 
lodorus, gives his first name as Ligyron ; 
but Agamestor says, that the first name 
given to Achilles was Pyrisous, i. e. " saved 
from the fire." Homer makes Achilles 
say, that Thetis had no other child but 
himself ; and though a daughter of 
Peleus, named Polydora, is mentioned in 
a part of the Iliad (16. 175), she must 
have been, according to the best commen- 
tators, only a half sister of the hero. At 
variance with the account given by the 
bard is the more popular fiction, that 
Thetis plunged her son into the waters of 
the Styx, and by that immersion rendered 
the whole of his body invulnerable, except 
the heel, by which she held him. On 



| this subject Homer is altogether silent ; 
and, indeed, such a protection from danger 
would have derogated too much from the 
character of his hero. There are several 
passages in the Iliad which plainly show 
that the poet does not ascribe to Achilles 
the possession of any peculiar physical 
defence against the chances of battle. 
The care of his education was intrusted, 
according to the common authorities, to 
the Centaur Chiron, and to Phoenix, son 
of Amyntor. Homer, however, mentions 
Phoenix as his first instructor, while from 
another passage it would appear that the 
young chieftain merely learned from the 
Centaur the principles of the healing art. 
Those, however, who pay more regard in 
this case to the statements of other writers, 
make Chiron to have had chaTge of 
Achilles first, and to have fed him on the 
marrow of wild animals ; according to 
Libanius on that of lions ; but according 
to the compiler of the Etym. M. on that 
of stags. Calchas having predicted, when 
Achilles had attained the age of nine years, 
that Troy could not be taken without 
him, Thetis, well aware that her son, if he 
joined that expedition, was destined to 
perish, sent her offspring, disguised in 
female attire, to the court of Lycomedes, 
king of the island of Scyros, for the pur- 
pose of being concealed there, where he 
received the name of Pyrrha, (" Rufa") 
from his golden locks. In this state of 
concealment Achilles remained until dis- 
covered by Ulysses, who came to the 
island in the disguise of a travelling mer- 
chant. The chieftain of Ithaca offered, it 
seems, various articles of female attire for 
sale, and mingled with them some pieces 
of armour. On a sudden blast being given 
with a trumpet, Achilles discovered him- 
self by seizing on the arms. The young 
warrior then joined the army against Troy. 
This account of the concealment of Achilles 
is contradicted by the express authority of 
Homer, who represents him as proceeding 
directly to the Trojan war from the court 
of his father. As regards the forces which 
he brought with him, the poet makes them 
to have come from the Pelasgian Argos, 
from Alus, Alope, and Trachinia, and 
speaks of them as those who possessed 
Phthia and Hellas, and who were called 
Myrmidons, Hellenes, and Achaei. Hence, 
according to Heyne, the sway of Achilles 
extended from Trachis, at the foot of Mount 
(Eta, as far as the river Enipeus, where 
Pharsalus was situated, and thence to the 
Peneus. The Greeks, having made good 
their landing on the shores of Troas, proved 
so much superior to the enemy as to com- 



ACH 



ACH 



11 



pel them to seek shelter within their walls. 
No sooner was this done, than the Greeks 
were forced to turn their pi-incipal atten- 
tion to the means of supporting their 
numerous forces. A part of the army was, 
therefore, sent to cultivate the rich vales 
of the Thracian Chersonese, then ahan- 
doned by their inhabitants on account of 
the incursions of the barbarians from the 
interior. But the Grecian army, weakened 
by this separation of its force, could no 
longer deter the Trojans from again taking 
the field, or prevent succours and supplies 
from being sent into the city. Thus the 
siege was protracted to the length of ten 
years. During a great part of this time 
Achilles was employed in lessening the 
resources of Priam by the reduction of the 
tributary cities of Asia Minor. With a fleet 
of eleven vessels, he ravaged the coasts of 
Mysia, made frequent disembarkations of 
his forces, and succeeded eventually in 
destroying eleven cities, among which, ac- 
cording to Strabo, were Hypoplacian Thebe, 
Lyrnessus, and Pedasus, and laying waste 
the island of Lesbos. Among the spoils 
of Lyrnessus, Achilles obtained the beau- 
tiful Briseis ; while, at the taking of 
Thebes, Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, 
a priest of Apollo at Chrysa, became the 
prize of Agamemnon. A pestilence shortly 
after appeared in the Grecian camp, and 
Calchas, encouraged by the proffered pro- 
tection of Achilles, ventured to attribute 
it to Agamemnon's detention of the daugh- 
ter of Chryses, whom her father had en- 
deavoured to ransom, but in vain. The 
monarch, though deeply offended, was 
compelled at last to surrender his captive, 
but, as an act of retaliation, and to testify 
his resentment, he deprived Achilles of 
Briseis. Hence arose " the anger of the 
son of Peleus," on which is based the ac- 
tion of the Iliad. Achilles, on his part, 
withdrew his forces from the contest ; and 
neither prayers, nor entreaties, nor direct 
offers of reconciliation, couched in the 
most tempting and flattering terms, could 
induce him to return to the field. Among 
other things, the monarch promised to him, 
if he would forget the injurious treatment 
which he had received, the hand of one of 
his daughters, and the sovereignty of seven 
cities of the Peloponnesus. • The death of 
his friend Patroclus, however, by the hand 
of Hector, roused him at length to action 
and revenge ; and a reconciliation having 
on this taken place between the two Gre- 
cian leaders, Briseis was restored. As the 
arms of Achilles, having been worn by 
Patroclus, had become the prize of Hec- 
tor, Vulcan, at the request of Thetis, 



fabricated a suit of impenetrable armour 
for her son. Arrayed in this, Achilles took 
the field, and after a great slaughter of the 
Trojans, and a contest with the god of the 
Scamander, by whose waters he was nearly 
overwhelmed, met Hector, chased him 
thrice around the walls of Troy, and finally 
slew him by the aid of Minerva. Accord- 
ing to Homer, Achilles dragged the corpse 
of Hector, at his chariot-wheels, thrice 
round the tomb of Patroclus ; and, from 
the language of the poet, he would appear 
to have done this for several days in suc- 
cession. Virgil, however, makes Achilles 
to have dragged the body of Hector thrice 
round the walls of Troy. The corpse of 
the Trojan hero was at last yielded up to 
the tears and supplications of Priam, who 
had come for that purpose to the tent of 
Achilles, and a truce was granted to the 
Trojans for the performance of the funeral 
obsequies. Achilles did not long survive 
his illustrious opponent. Some accounts 
made him to have died the day after Hec- 
tor was slain. The common authorities, 
however, interpose the combats with Pen- 
thesilea and Memnon previous to his death. 
According to the more received account, 
Achilles, having become enamoured of 
Polyxena, daughter of Priam, signified to 
the monarch that he would become his 
ally on condition of receiving her hand in 
marriage. Priam consented, and the par- 
ties having come for that purpose to the 
temple of the Thymbraean Apollo, Achilles 
was treacherously slain by Paris, who had 
concealed himself there, being Avounded 
by him with an arrow in the heel. Another 
tradition, related by Arctinus, makes him 
to have been slain (in accordance with 
Hector's prophecy) in the Scsean gate, 
while rushing into the city. Hyginus 
states that Achilles went round the walls 
of Troy, boasting of his exploit in having 
slain Hector, until Apollo, in anger, 
assumed the form of Paris, and slew him 
with an arrow ; but, with surprising incon- 
sistency, he mentions in another place that 
he was slain by De'iphobus and Alexander 
or Paris. The Schol. Lycophr. says, that 
the Trojans would not give up the corpse 
of Achilles until the Greeks had restored 
the various presents with which Priam had 
redeemed the dead body of Hector. The 
ashes of the hero were mingled in a golden 
urn with those of Patroclus, and the pro- 
montory of Sigaeum is said to mark the 
place where both repose. A tomb was 
here erected to his memory, and near it 
Thetis caused funeral games to be cele- 
brated in honour of her son, which were 
afterwards annually observed by a decree 



12 



ACH 



ACI 



of the oracle of Dodona. After the taking 
of Troy, the ghost of Achilles is said to 
have appeared to the Greeks, and de- 
manded of them Polyxena, who was ac- 
cordingly sacrificed on his tomb by his son 
Neoptolemus or Pyrrhus. Another ac- 
count makes the Trojan princess to have 
killed herself through grief at his loss. 
The Thessalians, in accordance with the 
oracle just mentioned, erected a temple to 
his memory at Sigaeum, and rendered him 
divine honours. Every year they brought 
thither two bulls, one white and the other 
black, crowned with garlands, and along 
with them some of the water of the Sper- 
chius. Another and still stranger tradi- 
tion informs us that Achilles survived the 
fall of Troy, and married Helen; but others 
maintain that this union took place, after 
his death, in the island of Leuce, where 
many of the ancient heroes lived in a 
separate elysium. When Achilles was 
young, his mother asked him whether he 
preferred a long life spent in obscurity, or 
a brief existence of military glory. He 
decided in favour of the latter. Some ages 
after the Trojan war, Alexander, in the 
course of his march into the East, offered 
sacrifices on the tomb of Achilles, and ex- 
pressed his admiration as well of the hero 
as of the bard whom he had found to im- 
mortalise his name. It may not be amiss 
to add in this place a few of the predic- 
tions relative to Achilles found in different 
parts of the Iliad. He was to reap great 
glory at Troy, but was to die before its 
walls. Troy was not to fall by his hands. 
While he was yet alive, the bravest of 
the Myrmidons was to be slain, the name 
of Patroclus not being expressly men- 
tioned, and his own death was soon 
to follow that of Hector. — V. Tatius, 
a native of Alexandria, commonly as- 
signed to the second or third century of 
the Christian era, though the best critics 
place him after the time of Heliodorus, 
having discovered in him manifest imita- 
tions of the latter writer. Achilles Tatius 
is the author of a romance, " The Loves 
of Leucippe and Clitophon," which is 
usually regarded as one of the best Greek 
works of this class. The best edition is 
that of Jacobs, Leipsic, 1821. — VI. Tatius, 
an astronomical writer, supposed to have 
lived in the first half of the fourth century, 
since he is quoted by Firmicus, who wrote 
about the middle of the same century. 
Suidas confounds him with the individual 
mentioned above. We possess, under the 
title " Introduction to the Phenomena 
of Aratus," a fragment of his work on the 
Sphere. 



Achilleum, a town on the Cimmerian 
Bosphorus, where anciently was a temple 
of Achilles, near the modern Buschuk. 

Achilleus or Aquileus, I., a Roman 
general in Egypt, in the reign of Diocle- 
tian, who rebelled, and for five years main- 
tained the imperial dignity at Alexandria. 
Diocletian at last marched against him 
and took Alexandria after a siege of eight 
months, and exposed Achilleus to be de- 
voured by lions. — II. A relation of 
Zenobia invested with the purple by the 
people of Palmyra, when they revolted 
from Aurelian. He is called Antiochus 
by Zosimus. 

Achivi, properly speaking, the name 
of the Achaean race ('Axaiol) Latinised. 
Its derivation through the iEolic dialect 
is marked by the digammated sound of 
the letter v ('Axafol). This appellation 
was generally applied by the Roman poets, 
especially Virgil, as a name for the whole 
Greek nation, in imitation of the Homeric 
usage, though it should strictly have been 
confined to the inhabitants of the pro- 
vince of Achaia. Homer uses the appella- 
tion 'Axaioi frequently to designate the 
united Greek forces in the Trojan war, 
since at this period the Achaean tribe stood 
at the head of Greece. 

Acichorius, a general with Brennus in 
the expedition which the Gauls undertook 
against Pannonia. He was chosen by 
Brennus as his lieutenant, or rather as a 
kind of colleague, an office which the 
term in the ancient Gallic language is said 
to designate. 

Acidalius, a fountain in Orchomenus, 
a town of Boeotia, in which the Graces 
were supposed to bathe ; whence Venus is 
called Mater Acidalia. 

Acilia, a plebeian family at Rome 
which traced its pedigree up to the 
Trojans. The name of this family occurs 
five times in the consular fasti during the 
time of the republic, and twelve times in 
those of the empire down to the reign of 
Constantine. Many medals of this family 
are extant. Its two most celebrated 
branches were those of Acilms Glabrio and 
Acilius Balbus. See Acilius. 

Acilia lex, a law enacted a. u. c. 683, 
that in trials for extortion sentence should 
be passed after the cause was once pleaded, 
and that there should not be a second 
hearing. 

Acilius, I., Glabrio, M., was colleague 
of P. Cor. Scipio Nasica in the consul- 
ship, a. u. c. 561, and defeated Antiochus 
at Thermopylae, by adopting the sugges- 
tions of Cato the Censor. — III. Son of 
the consul Acilius Glabrio, the founder 



ACI 



ACR 



13 



of the family, was a decemvir, and erected I 
a temple to Piety, which his father had \ 
vowed to this goddess, when fighting 
against Antiochus. He also raised a j 
gilded statue to his father, the first of the 
kind ever seen at Rome. — IV. A Roman, 
who wrote a work in Greek on the history 
of his country, and commentaries on the i 
Twelve Tahles. He was a contemporary 
of Cato. His history was translated into 
Latin, and entitled A/males Acilienses. — V. 
Avola was lieutenant under Tiberius in 
Gaul, a. d. 19., and afterwards consul. 
He is said by Pliny and Valerius Maxi- 
mus to have recovered on the funeral pile, 
hut too late to be rescued from the flames. 

— VI. Aviola Manius, colleague of the 
Emperor Claudius in the consulship, 
a. d. 54. — VII. A consul with M. Ulpian 
Trajanus, who was subsequently raised to 
the imperial throne. He fought with wild 
beasts in the arena, and, being successful, 
was put to death by Domitian, who was 
jealous of his strength. 

Acis, a Sicilian shepherd, son of Faunus 
and the nymph Simaethis. Having gained 
the affections of Galataea, his rival, Poly- 
phemus, through jealousy, crushed him 
to death with a fragment of rock. The 
gods changed Acis into a stream which 
rises from Mount iEtna. According to 
Servius, it was also called Acilius. Clu- 
verius places this river about two miles dis- 
tant from the modern Castello di Acci. The 
story of Acis is given by Ovid (Met. 13.) 

Acgetes, one of the pirates who at- 
tempted to carry Bacchus into captivity. 
The crew were changed into sea-monsters, 
but Accetes was preserved, because he had 
espoused the cause of the god. The story 
of Accetes is beautifully narrated by Ovid 
(Met. 9.) 

Acontius, a youth of Cea, who, when 
he went to Delos to sacrifice to Diana, fell 
in love with Cydippe, a beautiful virgin ; 
and, unable to obtain her, had recourse to 
a stratagem. Having procured an apple, 
he wrote on it the words, " I swear by 
Diana I will marry Acontius," and pre- 
sented it to Cydippe in the temple. She 
read the inscription ; and as a sacred law 
compelled the fulfilment of every promise 
made in the temple of the goddess, she felt 
bound by the vow she had inadvertently 
made, and married Acontius. 

Acra, I., a town of Italy, — Eubcea, — 
Cyprus, — Acarnania, — Sicily, — Africa, 

— Sarmatia, &c. — II. A promontory of 
Calabria, now Cape di Leuca. 

Acradina, one of the five divisions of 
ancient Syracuse, so called from the wild 
pear trees (axpal) with which it abounded. 



It was strongly fortified, and is therefore 
sometimes, though incorrectly, called the 
citadel of Syracuse. It was densely 
peopled, and contained many splendid 
edifices. 

Acr^a, a surname of Diana, from a 
temple built to her, by Melampus, on a 
mountain near Argos. 

Acr^phnia, a city of Eceotia, cn 
Mount Ptous ; founded either by Atha- 
mas, or Acramheus, a son of Apollo. 

A CRAGALLiniE. See Crauallid^. 

Acragas, L, the Greek name for the 
city Agrigentum in Sicily. It was also 
the river on which Agrigentum was situ- 
ated. The modern name is San Blasio. — 
II. A celebrated engraver on silver whose 
drinking cups and hunting pieces, accord- 
ing to Pliny, were so beautiful as to be 
treasured up in the temple of Bacchus at 
Rhodes. His age and country are uncer- 
tain. 

Acuatus, a freedman of Nero, sent into 
Asia to plunder the temples of the gods, a 
commission which he readily executed, 
being, according to Tacitus, "cuicunque 
flagitio promptus," ready for every iniquity. 
Secundus Carinas was joined with him 
on this occasion, whom Lipsius suspects 
to be the same with the Carinas sent into 
exile by Caligula for declaiming against 
tyrants. 

Acridophagi, an ./Ethiopian nation, who 
fed on locusts, and lived not beyond their 
fortieth year. At the approach of old age, 
swarms of winged lice attacked them, and 
gnawed their belly and breast, till the 
patient, by rubbing himself, drew blood, 
which increased their number, and ended 
in his death. 

Acrisioneus, a patronymic applied to 
the Argives, from Acrisius, one of their 
ancient kings ; or from Acrisione, a town 
of Argolis, called after a daughter of Acri- 
sius of the same name. 

Acuisioniades, a patronymic of Perseus, 
from his grandfather Acrisius, as his 
daughter Danae was named Acrisioneis. 

Acrisius, son of Abas, king of Argos, 
and brother of Prcetus, whom, after many 
dissensions, he drove from Argos. Acri- 
sius was father of Danae by Eurydice, 
daughter of Laceda^mon : and, an oracle 
having declared that his daughter's son 
would put him to death, he endeavoured 
to frustrate the prediction by confining 
Danae in a brazen tower, to prevent her 
becoming a mother. But his efforts failed 
of success. See Danae. Many years af- 
terwards, Acrisius, having gone incognito 
to Larissa, Perseus, son of Jupiter and 
Danae, while displaying his skill in throw- 



14 



ACR 



ACT 



ing a quoit, killed an old man, who proved 
to be bis grandfather, and thus the oracle 
was fulfilled. Acrisius reigned about 
thirty-one years. 

Ac ritas, a promontory of Messenia in 
Peloponnesus, now Cape Gallo. 

A croathos or Acrothoum. The name 
Acroathos properly denotes the promon- 
tory of the peninsula of Athos, now Cape 
Monte Santo. By Acrothoum (or Acro- 
thoi) is meant a town on the peninsula of 
Athos. 

ACROCERAUNIA Or AcROCERAUNII MoN- 

tes. See Ceraunii Montes. 

Acrocorinthus, a high hill overhanging 
the city of Corinth, on which was erected 
a citadel, called also by the same name. 
This situation was so important as to be 
styled by Philip, " the fetters of Greece." 
The Acrocorinthus is clearly visible from 
Athens, though distant from it forty-four 
miles. See Corinthus. 

Acron, I., a king of Cenina, killed by 
Romulus in single combat, after the rape 
of the Sabines. His spoils were dedi- 
cated to Jupiter Feretrius. — II. a cele- 
brated physician of Agrigentum in Sicily, 
contemporary with Empedocles. Pliny 
makes him the founder of the sect of 
Empirics (Experimentalists) ; but the real 
origin of this sect is of a much later date. 
He was held in high estimation, and 
delivered the city of Athens from a pes- 
tilence, by purifying the air with certain 
perfumes, the secret of preparing which 

he had learned from the Egyptians 

III. Helenius, an ancient commentator. 
The period when he lived is uncertain, 
but he is thought to have been later than 
Servius. 

Acropatos, one of Alexander's officers, 
who obtained part of Media after the 
king's death. 

Acropolis, in a special sense, the citadel 
of Athens ; but applied generally to the 
citadel of any town. Thus the Acrocorin- 
thus is often called the Acropolis of 
Corinth. 

Acrotatus, I., son of Cleomenes, king of 
Sparta, died before his father, leaving a 
son called Areus. — II. A king of Sparta, 
son of Areus, and grandson of the pre- 
ceding. He reigned one year. Before 
ascending the throne he distinguished him- 
self by courageously defending Sparta 
against Pyrrhus. 

Acta or Acte, strictly speaking, a beach 
or shore, on which the waves break, from 
&yca, I break. According to Apollodorus 
the primitive name of Attica was 'A;ctt; 
(Acte), from the circumstance of two of 
its sides being washed by the sea. The 



name is also'applied by Thucydides to that 
part of the peninsula of Athos which is 
below the city of Sana and includes it. 

Actteon, a famous huntsman, son of 
Aristasus and Autonoe, daughter of Cad- 
mus, whence he is called Autoneius heros. 
Having inadvertently seen Diana and her 
attendants bathing near Gargaphia, he was 
changed by the goddess into a stag, and 
devoured by his own dogs. 

Actius, according to the most ancient 
writers, the first king of Attica. He was 
succeeded by Cecrops, who had married 
his daughter Agraulos, and hence the lat- 
ter is frequently, though erroneously, 
styled the first king of Attica. 

Acte, a freed woman of Asiatic origin, 
whom Nero was on the point of making 
his wife, after suborning certain individuals, 
of consular rank, to testify, on oath, that 
she was descended from Attalus. From 
a passage in Tacitus it would appear that 
Seneca introduced Acte to the notice 
of the tyrant in order to counteract, by 
her means, the dreaded ascendancy of 
Agrippina. 

Actia, games established by Augustus 
in commemoration of his victory at Actium. 
They were also styled Ludi Actiaci by the 
Latin writers, and celebrated in the suburbs 
of Nicopolis. Some writers say they were 
quinquennial, others triennial. 

Actis, one of the Heliades, or offspring 
of the Sun, who, according to Diodorus 
Siculus migrated from Rhodes into Egypt, 
founded Heliopolis, and taught the Egyp- 
tians astrology. 

Actisanes, a king of ^Ethiopia, who 
conquered Egypt, and expelled king Ama- 
sis. He was famous for his equity, and 
his severe punishment of robbers. 

Actium, originally the name of a pro- 
montory or small neck of land, called also 
Acte, at the entrance of the Sinus Ambracius, 
now the gulf of Arta, on which the inhab- 
itants of Anactorium had erected a temple 
in honour of Apollo. From the accounts 
given of it by the Roman writers, Actium 
was only a temple on a height, with a 
small harbour below ; but it is famous for 
the battle which was fought off the pro- 
montory, at the entrance to the gulf, a. c. 
29, and which decided the fate of Au 
gustus and Mark Antony, and, indeed, of 
the whole Roman world. 

Actius, a surname of Apollo, from 
Actium, where he had a temple. 

Actius Navius, I., an augur who cut a 
loadstone in two with a razor, in the pre- 
sence of Tarquin, in evidence of his skill as 
an augur. — II. Labeo. See Labeo. 

Actor, father of Menoetius by iEgina, 



ACU 



ADO 



15 



and grandfather of Patroclus, who is hence 
called Actorides. His birth is placed by 
some in Locris, by others in Thessaly ; 
and he is said to have resigned his throne 
to Peleus on account of the rebellion of 
his children. Actorides was also a name 
given to the sons of Actor and Molione. 
See Molionides. 

Aculeo, C, a Roman lawyer, of great 
talent and legal erudition. He married 
Cicero's maternal aunt. 

Acusilaus, an historian of Argos, who 
wrote on the genealogy of the royal line of 
that kingdom down to the time of Phoro- 
neus, from Avhom he dated the commence- 
ment of the historic era. He is supposed by 
Josephus to have lived a short time pre- 
viously to the Persian invasion of Greece. 

Ad Aquas, &c, a form common among 
the Romans to many names of places, indi- 
cating a spot selected for encampment, near 
which there was a supply of water. Ad 
quartum signified "at the fourth mile 
stone ;" (supply lapidem). 

Ada, sister of Artemisia, queen of 
Caria. She married her brother Hidrieus 
(such unions being permitted among the 
Carians), and on the death of Artemisia, 
ascended the throne, which she held 
seven years conjointly with her husband. 
Four years after the demise of the latter 
she was driven from her dominions by her 
youngest brother ; but was afterwards 
restored to her throne by Alexander the 
Great. She was the last queen of Caria. 

Adad, an Assyrian deity, supposed to 
be the Sun. 

Adamants a, Jupiter's nurse in Crete, 
who suspended him in his cradle from a 
tree, that he might be found neither on the 
earth, nor on the sea, nor in heaven. She 
is probably the same as Amalth^ea. 

Addua, Adda, a river of Cisalpine Gaul 
rising in the Rhsetian Alps, traversing the 
Lacus Larius, and falling into the Po to 
the west of Cremona. 

Ades. See Hades. 

Adgandestrius, a prince of the Catti, 
who offered to poison Arminius, and was 
answered by the Roman senate that the 
Romans destroyed their enemies in battle, 
not by perfidy. 

Adherbal, son of Micipsa, and grand- 
son of Masinissa, was besieged at Cirta, 
and put to death by Jugurtha, after vainly 
imploring the aid of Rome, b. c. 11 2. 

Adherbas. See Sich^eus. 

Adiabene, a region east of* the Tigris, 
in the northern part of Assyria. Under 
the Macedonians, it comprised all the 
country between the Zabus Major and 
Minor ; under the Parthian sway its 



limits extended to the Euphrates ; and it 
afterwards became the seat of a monarchy 
tributary to the Parthians, which, how- 
ever, disappeared from history, on the rise 
of the second Persian empire. 

Adiatorix, a governor of Galatia, who, 
to gain Antony's favour, slaughtered, in 
one night, all the inhabitants of the Roman 
colony of Heraclea in Pontus. He was 
taken at Actium, led in triumph by Au- 
gustus, and strangled in prison. 

Adimantus, I., son of JEcytus, the com- 
mander of the Corinthian fleet in the war 
against Xerxes, advised the Greeks to re- 
treat from Artemisium, but was bribed by 
Themistocles to remain, b. c. 480. He 
was said by the Athenians to have fled 
from the battle of Salamis, but this asser- 
tion he strongly denied. — II. An Athe- 
nian general associated with Alcibiades in 
his last command, b. c. 407, and subse- 
quently one of the commanders at the 
battle of iFgospotamos, b. c. 405, so dis- 
astrous to the Athenian navy. He alone 
was spared, when the other prisoners were 
put to death, on the ground that he had op- 
posed the cruel design entertained by his 
countrymen of cutting off the right hand 
of their captives, in the event of their 
being victorious. Pausanias says that the 
Spartans had bribed him. 

Admeta, daughter of Eurystheus, 
priestess of Juno's temple at Argos. 

Admetus, I., son of Pheres and Clymene, 
king of Pherse in Thessaly, brother of 
Lycurgus, and cousin of Jason. He was 
one of the Argonauts, and took part in the 
hunt of the Calydonian boar. He married 
Theone, daughter of Thestor; and after her 
death, Alcestis, daughter of Pelias. The 
latter had made the price of his daughter's 
hand a chariot drawn by a lion and a wild 
boar, which Admetus, by the aid of -Apollo, 
procured for him. Apollo, having during 
his exile from heaven tended the flocks of 
Admetus for nine years, obtained from the 
Parcae, that AdmetUs should never die, if 
another person laid down his life for him. 
This was cheerfully done by Alcestis ; but 
Admetus is said to have been so deeply 
affected at her loss, that Hercules de- 
scended to Hades, and brought her back 
to life. — II. A king of the Molossi, to 
whom Themistocles fled for protection. 
Cornelius Nepos says that a tie of hos- 
pitality existed between them ; but Thu- 
cydides and other Avriters make them to 
have been enemies. 

Adonia, a festival in honour of Adonis, 
celebrated at Byblos in Phoenicia, and in 
most of the Grecian cities. It lasted two 
days, and was celebrated by women exclu- 



16 



ADO 



ADR 



sively. On the first day they brought into 
the streets statues of Adonis, which were 
laid out as corpses, and observed all the 
rites customary at funerals, beating them- 
selves, and uttering lamentations. But 
the second day was spent in merriment 
and feasting, because Adonis was per- 
mitted to return to life, and spend half the 
year with Venus. 

Adonis, I., son of Cinyras, by his 
daughter Myrrha, (see Myrrha,) the fa- 
vourite of Venus, and famous for his 
beauty. He was ardently attached to the 
chase, and, notwithstanding the entreaties 
of Venus, exposed himself repeatedly to 
danger, and, at last, received a mortal 
wouna from the tusk of a wild boar. 
From his blood sprung the flower Ane- 
mone. The goddess was so inconsolable 
at his loss that Proserpine restored him 
to life, on condition that he should spend 
six months with her, and the rest of the 
year with Venus. This fable is evidently 
an allegorical allusion to the periodical 
return of summer and winter. Adonis 
was identical with the Syrian Thammuz, 
whose festival was celebrated even by the 
Jews, when they degenerated into idol- 
atry. — II. A river of Phoenicia, Nahr Ibra- 
him, which falls into the Mediterranean 
below Byblus. It was on the banks of 
this river that Adonis, or Thammuz as he 
is called in the East, is supposed to have 
been killed. At certain seasons of the 
year it acquires a high red colour, by 
ochrous particles from the mountains of 
Libanus, and hence the waters were fabled 
to flow with the blood of Adonis. Milton 
has beautifully alluded to these circum- 
stances, Paradise Lost, I. 415. 

Adramvttium, a city of Asia Minor, 
on the coast of Mysia, at the head of an 
extensive bay facing the island of Lesbos. 
The city became of importance under the 
kings of Pergamus, and continued so in 
the time of the Roman power. The mo- 
dern name is Adranyt, and, though small, 
is still of considerable commercial import- 
ance. 

Adrana, Eder, a river of Germany, in 
the territory of the Catti, flowing into the 
Visurgis. 

Adrastia or Adrastea, I., a region of 
Mysia, in Asia Minor, near Priapus, and 
containing a plain and city of the same 
name. It is famous for being the scene 
of Alexander's first victory over Darius. 
The name was said to have been de- 
rived from Adrastus, who founded there 
a temple to Nemesis. The city had ori- 
ginally an oracle of Apollo and Diana, 
afterwards removed to Parium, in its 



vicinity. — II. A daughter of Jupiter and 
Necessity, so called from the impossi- 
bility of the wicked escaping her power : 
a, priv., and dpdw, I flee. She is called by 
some Nemesis, and is the punisher of in- 
justice. 

Adrastus, I., son of Talaus and Lysi» 
mache, and king of Argos. He received 
with hospitality Polynices, son of QEdipus, 
when banished from Thebes by his brother 
Eteocles, and gave him his daughter Argia 
in marriage. He also aided him in his 
attempt to gain the crown of Thebes, and 
marched against it with an army headed 
by six of his most famous generals. The 
expedition, however, proved unsuccessful ; 
and all perished in the war except Adrastus, 
who fled to Athens, and implored Theseus 
to aid him in compelling the Thebans to 
allow the rites of burial to the slain. The- 
seus went to his assistance, and was vic- 
torious. Ten years afterwards a new army 
was sent against Thebes, commanded by 
the sons of the six generals who had 
fallen in the previous war. The Thebans 
were defeated, and their city captured ; 
but his favourite son iEgialeus was slain, 
and Adrastus died through grief at his 
loss. Adrastus supplicating Theseus 
for aid became a favourite theme with 
the Attic writers, when celebrating the 
praises of Athens. It forms the ground- 
work of the Supplices of Euripides. — II. 
A Peripatetic philosopher, born at Aphro- 
disias, in Caria, about the beginning of the 
second century. He wrote a treatise on the 
philosophy of Aristotle, and the order of 
his works. — III. A Phrygian prince, 
who, having inadvertently killed his 
brother, fled to Croesus, where he was hu- 
manely received, and intrusted wkh the 
care of his son Atys. In hunting a wild 
boar, Adrastus had the misfortune to kill 
the young prince by a blow from his jave- 
lin, and in his despair killed himself on 
his grave. 

Adria, Atria, or Hadria, I., in the 
time of the Romans a small city of Cisal- 
pine Gaul, on the river Tartarus, near the 
Po. Its site is still occupied by the mo- 
dern town of Atri. Adria appears to have 
been a powerful and flourishing commercial 
city, as far as an opinion may be deduced 
from the circumstance of its having given 
name to the Adriatic, and also from the 
numerous canals in its vicinity. It had 
been founded by a colony of Etrurians, to 
whose labours these canals must evidently 
be ascribed ; the name given to them by 
the Romans (fossiones Philistines) proving 
clearly that they were not the work of 
that people. The fall of Adria was owing 



ADR 



JEAC 



17 



to the inroads of the Gallic nations, and I 
the consequent neglect of the canals. 
— II. A town of Picenum, capital of j 
the Praetutii, on the coast of the Adriatic. 
Here the family of the emperor Adrian, 
according to his own account, took its rise. 
The modern name is Adri or Atri. 

Adrianopolis, or rather Adrianuiolis, 

I. , one of the most important cities of 
Thrace, founded by the emperor Adrian. 
The site of this city was previously occu- 
pied by a small Thracian settlement named 
Uskudama, and its very advantageous 
situation induced the emperor to erect a 
large city on the spot. The modern name 
is Adrianople, or rather Edrineh. It is 
the second city in the Turkish empire, 
having a population of about 100,000. — 

II. A city of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, 
founded by Adrian. D'Anville places it 
in the southern part of the territory of the 
Mariandyni, and identifies it with the 
modern Boli. — III. Another city of Bi- 
thynia, called more properly Adrian i. 
From its being styled Adriani near Olym- 
pus on existing medals, D'Anville places 
it in the district Olympessa, and identities 
it with the modern Edrenosj but, accord- 
ing to Mannert, its site was in the imme- 
diate vicinity of the river Rhyndacus. — 
IV. A city of Epirus, in the district of 
Thesprotia, situated to the north-east of 
Antigonea, on the river Celydnus. Its ruins 
are still found upon a spot called Drino- 
polis, an evident corruption of the ancient 
name. — V. A name given to a part of 
Athens which the emperor Adrian had em- 
bellished with many beautiful structures. 

Adrianus. See Hadrianus. 

Adri as, the name properly of the ter- 
ritory in which the city of Adria in Cis- 
alpine Gaul was situated. Herodotus first 
speaks of it under this appellation; but it 
is given also by many Greek writers, 
most of whom, however, considered it very 
probably a name for the Adriatic. 

Adriaticuji, or Hadriaticum mare, 
called also Sinus Adriaticus or Hadriaticus, 
the arm of the sea between Italy and the 
opposite shores of Illyricum, Epirus, and 
Greece, comprehending, not only the Gulf 
of Venice, but also the Ionian sea. The 
Mare Superum of the Roman writers is 
represented on classical charts as coinciding 
with the Sinus Hadriaticus ; but by Mare 
Superum appears to have been meant, not 
only the present Adriatic, but also the sea 
along the southern coast of Italy, as far as 
the Sicilian straits. 

Adrumetum, a town of Africa, on the 
Mediterranean, built by the Phoenicians, 
now Mahometta. 



I Aduatici, a German nation, which ori- 
| ginally formed part of the great invading 
army of the Teutones and Cimbri ; but, 
j having been left behind in Gaul to guard 
part of the baggage, finally settled there. 
Their territory extended from the Scaldis 
or Scheldt eastward as far as Mosa? Pons, 
or Maestricht. 

Aduatucum, a city of Gaul, in the ter- 
ritory of the Tungri, who appear to have 
been the same with the Aduatuci or 
Aduatici of Cassar, unless the former ap- 
pellation is to be regarded as a general 
term for the united German tribes, of whom 
the Aduatici formed a part. Mannert 
identifies it with the modern Tongres, and 
D'Anville with Falais on the Mehaigne. 

Adulis, called by Pliny Oppidum Adu- 
litarum, the principal commercial city 
along the coast of ^Ethiopia. It was 
founded by fugitive slaves from Egypt, 
but fell subsequently under the power of 
the neighbouring kingdom of Auxume. 
Two remarkable Greek inscriptions have 
been found at Adulis : one relating to the 
! exploits of Ptolemy Euergetes in Asia 
Minor, Thrace, and Upper Egypt ; the 
other, which was long considered to be a 
continuation of the former, has been proved 
by Salt and Buttman to be of much later 
date, and to be a mere imitation. 

AdyrmachYd^s, a maritime people of 
Africa, near Egypt, who were driven into 
the interior of the country when the Greeks 
began to settle along the coast. 

JEacea, a festival instituted at iEgina 
in honour of iEacus. The details of the 
festival are not known ; but the victor in 
the games solemnised on the occasion 
consecrated his chaplet in the magnificent 
temple of iEacus. 

JEacidas, a king of Epirus, son of Neo- 
ptolemus, brother of Olympias, and father 
of the celebrated Pyrrhus, afterwards king 
of Epirus. He was expelled by his sub- 
jects for his continual wars with Macedonia. 

.ZEacides, a patronymic of the descend- 
ants of iEacus, such as Achilles, Peleus, 
Pyrrhus, &c. Peleus and Telemon were 
the only sons of iEacus that left issue. 
From Peleus sprang Achilles, (the father 
of Pyrrhus, from whom came the line of 
the kings of Epirus,) and from Telemon 
Ajax and Teucer ; from the former of whom 
sprang some of the most illustrious Athe- 
nian families, and from the latter the 
princes of Cyprus. 

iEXcus, son of Jupiter by iEgina, 
daughter of Asopus, and king of the island 
of OZnone, which he changed to iEgina, 
in honour of his mother. He was a prince 
of the greatest wisdom and power, and was 



18 



JEM 



MET 



eminent for his piety. Hence, on one oc- 
casion, when Greece was suffering from a 
famine, his prayers, offered up by advice of 
the oracle, caused the calamity to cease. At 
another time, a pestilence having destroyed 
all his subjects, he entreated Jupiter to re- 
people his kingdom ; and according to his 
desire, all the ants which were in an old 
oak were changed to men, and called by 
iEacus myrmidons, from /xvpfxr]^, an ant. 
On account of his integrity, the ancients 
made him one of the judges of Hades, with 
Minos and Rhadamanthus. He was the 
father of Peleus and Telemon by his first 
wife, Endeis ; and of Phocus by his second 
wife, Psamathe, one of the Nereids. 

Mm, Ma, or Mma, an island of Colchis, 
in the Phasis. Msea. was a name given to 
Circe because she was queen of Ma. 

jEanteum, a small settlement on the 
coast of Troas, near the promontory of 
Rhoeteum ; founded by the Rhodians, and 
remarkable for containing the tomb of Ajax, 
and a temple dedicated to his memory. 
The old statue of the hero was carried away 
by Antony to Egypt, but was restored by 
Augustus. 

jEantides, one of the seven tragic plei- 
ades ; the other six being Alexander the 
iEtolian, Philiscus of Corcyra, Sositheus, 
Homer the younger, Sosiphanes, and 
Lycophron. 

JEas, a river of Epirus, thought to be 
the modern Vajussa, falling into the Ionian 
sea. In the fable of Io, Ovid describes 
the deities of this river meeting together in 
the cave of the Peneus. 

JEatus, son of Philip, brother of Poly- 
elea, and descended from Hercules. An 
oracle having said that whoever of the two 
first touched the land after crossing the 
Achelous should obtain the kingdom, Po- 
lyclea pretended to be lame, and prevailed 
on her brother to carry her across on his 
shoulders. When they came near the op- 
posite side, Polyclea leaped ashore from 
her brother's back, exclaiming that the 
kingdom was her own. iEatus, pleased with 
the stratagem, married her, and reigned 
conjointly with her. Their son Thessalus 
gave his name to Thessaly. 

iEcHMis succeeded his father Polym- 
nestor on the throne of Arcadia, in the 
reign of Theopompus of Sparta. 

JEdepsus, a town of Eubcea in the 
district Histiaeotis, famed for its hot baths, 
which, even at the present day, are the most 
celebrated in Greece. The modern name is 
JEdipso or Dipso, evidently a corruption of 
the ancient name. 

iEDiLEs, Roman magistrates so called 
from their care of buildings (aedes). They 



were divided into two classes, distinguished 
by the epithets Plebeian and Curule. The 
JEdiles Plebeii, so called from their being 
elected from the people, were first created 
a. u. c. 260, in the Comitia Curiata, at 
the same time with the tribunes of the 
commons, to be as it were their assistants, 
and to determine certain minor causes 
They were afterwards created, as the otheT 
inferior magistrates, at the Comitia Tributa. 
The JEdiles Curides, so called from their 
privilege of giving judgment on ivory seats 
(settee curules),\veve created a. u. c. 387, and 
were originally elected from the patricians, 
but afterwards from both plebeians and 
patricians promiscuously. This magistracy 
was one of the most dignified in the state, 
and was allowed the use of the robe of 
honour (toga prcetexta) and a certain pre- 
cedence in the senate. Their peculiar 
office was to superintend public works, 
markets, weights, &c. , in the city. They were 
bound also, and more especially the Curule 
iEdiles,to exhibit public games, which they 
often did at a vast expense to court popu- 
larity. Julius Caasar afterwards added two 
plebeian aediles, called JEdiles Cereales, to 
inspect the public stores of corn and other 
provisions. 

Aedon, daughterof Pandarus, and wife of 
Zethus, brother of Amphion, by whom she 
had a son called Itylus. Being jealous of 
her sister-in-law Niobe, because she had 
more children than herself, she resolved to 
murder the most beautiful of her nephews, 
who was educated along with Itylus ; but 
by mistake she killed her own son, and was 
changed into a nightingale, as she at- 
tempted to commit suicide in despair. See 
Philomela. 

iEDui, or Hedui, a powerful nation of 
Celtic Gaul, known for their valour in the 
wars of Ca?sar. Their confederation em- 
braced all the tract of country between 
the Allier, the middle Loire, andthe^adree ; 
and their political influence extended to the 
Mandubii, Ambarri, Insubres, the Bituri- 
ges, and many other powerful Gallic tribes. 
When Caesar invaded Gaul, he found the 
JEdui had sustained a defeat from the 
Averni and Sequani, with whom they had 
long contended for the sovereignty of the 
country; but the Roman arms soon re- 
stored to the iEdui their supremacy in the 
country, and they afterwards became va- 
luable allies to Caesar in his Gallic con- 
quests. Bibracte and Noviodunum were 
their chief cities. 

JEeta, or iEijTEs, king of Colchis, son 
of Sol and Perseis, daughter of Oceanus, 
and father of Medea, Absyrtus, and Chal- 
ciope, by Idyia, one of the Oceanides. He 



JEET 



JEG1 



19 



killed Phryxus, son of Athamas, in order to 
obtain the golden fleece of the ram which 
had conveyed the latter to his court. But 
the Argonauts came against Colchis, and re- 
covered the golden fleece by means of Me- 
dea, though it was guarded by a venomous 
dragon, and by bulls which breathed fire. 

JEetias, a patronymic given to Medea, 
as daughter of iEetes. 

JEga, an island of the iEgean sea, be- 
tween Chios and Tenedos, now Lola della 
Capre. 

M.GM, I., a small town on the western 
coast of Euboea, south-east of JEdepsus. 
It contained a temple sacred to Neptune, 
and was supposed to have given name to 
the iEgean. — II. A town of Achaia, near 
the mouth of the Crathis, abandoned by the 
inhabitants in favour of iEgira, for some 
reason unknown. — III. A town and sea- 
port of Cilicia Campestris. The modern 
village of Ayas occupies its site. 

iEo^EON, the son of Ccelus, or of Pontus 
and Terra ; the same as Briareus. See 
Briareus. 

iEGJEUM mare, that part of the Me- 
diterranean lying between Greece and Asia 
Minor. It is full of islands, some of which 
are called Cyclades, others Sporades, &c. 
It is now called the Archipelago, an appel- 
lation supposed to be a corruption of Egio 
Pelago, itself a modern Greek form for 
Klycuov ireXayos. 

iEG^EUs, a surname of Neptune, equiva- 
lent to god of the waves. 

JEgaleos, or ./Egaleum, a mountain of 
Attica, from the summit of which Xerxes 
witnessed the battle of Salamis. The mo- 
dern name, according to Stuart and Gell, 
is Scaramanga. 

jEgates, or JEguste, three islands off 
the western extremity of Sicily, between 
Drepana and Lilybaeum. The name iEgusa 
originally belonged only to the principal 
island, now Favignana. The Romans cor- 
rupted the name into iEgades. Off these 
islands the Roman fleet, under Lutatius 
Catulus, obtained the decisive victory over 
that of the Carthaginians which put an 
end to the first Punic war. 

JEgeleon, a town of Macedonia, taken 
by king Attalus. 

jEgeria. See Egeria. 

.ZEgesta, an ancient city of Sicily, near 
Mt. Eryx. In a later age, when the 
inhabitants attached themselves to the 
Roman power, they called their city Se- 
gesta, and themselves Segestani, according 
to Festus. Thucydides states that, after the 
destruction of Troy, a body of the fugitives 
found their way to this quarter, and, uniting 
with the Sicani, whom they found settled 



here, formed with them one people, under 
the name of Elymi. 

iEGESTEs, iEGEsxus, or, as Virgil writes 
it, Acestes, a son of the river god Cri- 
misus, according to one account, while 
another makes his parents of Trojan origin. 
He reigned over that part of Sicily which 
lay in the vicinity of Mt. Eryx, assisted 
Priam in the Trojan war, gave a hospitable 
reception to iEneas when he visited Sicily 
in the course of his wanderings, and assisted 
him to bury Anchises on Mt. Eryx. 

iEGEus, son of Pandion, and king of 
Athens, was brought by a mysterious 
oracle to the court of Pittheus, king of 
Troezene, who gave him his daughter 
JEthra in marriage. Aware of the jea- 
lousy of his brothers, who had long cast a 
wishful eye to his inheritance, he returned 
to Athens without his wife ; but at part- 
ing he showed her a large stone, under 
which he had deposited his sword, and told 
her that as soon as her child, if a boy, was 
able to lift the stone, she should send him, 
with the token it contained, to Athens, 
where he should claim iEgeus as his fa- 
ther. When Theseus — for this was the 
name given by iEthra to her son — had 
grown up, and been acknowledged by his 
father (see Theseus), he freed the latter 
from the cruel tribute imposed by Minos ; 
but on his return to Crete, after destroying 
the Minotaur (see Minotaur), he forgot 
to hoist the white sails, the preconcerted 
signal of success ; and iEgeus, concluding 
that his son had perished, threw himself 
into the sea, which, from him, as some sup- 
pose, has been called the iEgean. iEgeus 
reigned 48 years, and died b. c. 1 235. 

jEgial^ea, I., a daughter of Adrastus, 
but more probably of his son iEgialeus, 
and wife of Diomede. She was said to have 
been unfaithful to her husband during his 
absence in the Trojan war ; but the beau- 
tiful passage in the Iliad in which she is 
mentioned (v. 412, &c.) strongly favours the 
supposition that the story of her improper 
conduct is a mere posthomeric or Cyclic 
fable. — II. An island of the iEgean, be- 
tween Cythera and Crete, called AlytXia by 
Herodotus, and iEgialia by Pliny. The 
modern name is Cerigotto. — III. The 
ancient name of Peloponnesus, or rather 
of the country along the northern coast. 

iEdALEUs, son of Adrastus by Am- 
phithea, daughter of Pronax, and a member 
of the second expedition against Thebes 
conducted by the Epigoni. He was the 
only leader slain in this war. See Adras- 
tus. 

iEoinEs, a patronymic of Theseus, from 
his father iEgeus. 



20 



IEGI 



JEGI 



tEgila, a town in Laconia, where 
Ceres had a temple. See Aristomenes. 

JEgimjus, a king of that part of Thessaly 
which borders on the range of Pindus. 
According to the Doric legend, he assisted 
Hercules to conquer the Lapitha?, and re- 
ceived as a reward the territory from 
which they were driven. iEgimius is a 
conspicuous name among the founders of 
the Doric line. The posterity of iEgimius 
shared in the expedition against the Pelo- 
ponnesus ; and Pindar speaks of the Doric 
government being founded on his institu- 
tions. 

JEgimurus, a small island in the gulf of 
Carthage, near which were two rocks, 
called Arcs JEgimuri, so named because the 
Romans and Carthaginians concluded a i 
treaty on them. The modern name is | 
Zowamoore or Zimbra. 

JEgina, I., a daughter of the river god 
Asopus, carried away by Jupiter, under the 
form of an eagle, from Phlius to the island 
of (Enone. See Asopus. — II. An island 
in the Sinus Saronicus, near the coast of 
Argolis. The earliest Grecian accounts 
describe it as originally uninhabited, and, 
while in this state, named (Enone ; but it 
afterwards took the name of iEgina, from 
the daughter of the Asopus. iEgina was 
early celebrated for its wealth. Its po- 
sition was very favourable for commercial 
pursuits, and it was indebted for its great- 
ness to the zeal and success with which it 
carried them on. At one period its naval 
power was superior to that of Athens, and 
the spirit of commercial rivalry terminated 
eventually in open hostilities. When 
Darius sent deputies into Greece to de- 
mand earth and water, the people of 
iEgina, partly from hatred towards the 
Athenians, and partly from a wish to pro- 
tect their extensive commerce along the 
coasts of the Persian monarchy, gave these 
tokens of submission. For this conduct 
they were punished by the Spartans. In the 
war with Xerxes, therefore, they sided with 
their countrymen, and fought so bravely 
in the battle of Salamis as to bear off the 
prize of valour from their competitors by 
the suffrages of all the Greeks. After the 
termination of the Persian war, the strength j 
of Athens proved too great for them, j 
Their fleet of 70 sail was annihilated in a 
sea-fight by Pericles, and many of the in- 
habitants were driven from the island, 
while the remainder were reduced to the j 
condition of tributaries. After various 
vicissitudes, iEgina was restored to a 
nominal independence by Augustus ; but j 
it never regained its former prosperity, and 
has generally, folio wed the fortunes of the 



adjacent coast of Greece. In modern times 
the island nearly retains its ancient name, 
being called Egina, or, with a slight cor- 
ruption, Engia. It still boasts of one of 
the most picturesque and interesting ruins 
of Greece, — the temple of Jupiter Pan- 
hellenius, erected by iEacus, his grandson. 
It stands on a hill, about four hours' dis- 
tance from the port, and is regarded as one 
of the oldest specimens of Doric archi- 
tecture. 

iEGiNETA Paulus, or Paul of iEgina, a 
celebrated Greek physician, born in the 
island of iEgina. According to Rene 
Moreau and Leclerc, he was born in the 
fourth century ; but it is more probable 
that he lived during the conquests of the 
Caliph Omar, and, consequently, in the 
seventh century. Paul of iEgina closes 
the list of the classic Greek physicians; for 
after him the healing art fell into neglect 
and barbarism, from which it did not re- 
cover till about the twelfth century. His 
work entitled " An Abridgment of all 
Medicine" has come down to our times, 
and has passed through numerous editions. 

iEGiNETES, a king of Arcadia, in whose 
age Lycurgus instituted his famous laws. 

iEGiocmjs, or " iEgis-bearer," a sur- 
name of Jupiter, from his using the goat 
Amaltha?a's skin, instead of a shield, in the 
war of the Titans. 

JEgipan, a poetical appellation of Pan, 
either from his having the legs of a goat, 
or from his being the guardian of goats. 
Pomp. Mela mentions a nation called 
JEgipanes, dwelling in the interior of 
Africa, and having a form half human, and 
half that of a goat. Pliny places them in 
the solitudes of Mt. Atias. 

iEGiRA, a city of Achaia, near the coast 
of the Sinus Corinthiacus. It was a city 
of some importance, and the population is 
supposed to have been from 8,000 to 1 0,000. 
The modern name is Vostica. 

iEds, the shield of Jupiter, made by 
Vulcan, but borne also by Minerva, 
who, by fixing on it the head of Medusa, 
gave it the power of turning into stone all 
who looked upon it. The term is usually 
said to be derived from the fact of the 
shield having been covered with the skin 
of the goat (a*£) which suckled Jupiter ; 
but a better etymology derives it from 
ai'cracti, to arouse or move rapidly, as more 
consonant to the idea of a terror-inspiring 
shield, which, as Homer says, was charac- 
teristic of its movements. {Iliad, xvii. 394.) 
The word cegis is also employed to denote 
any protection for the body. 

iEdSTHUs, king of Argos, and son of 
Thyestes by his daughter Pelopea. Having 



JEGI 



iEGY 



21 



been left guardian of Agamemnon's king- 
dom when he sailed for Troy, he gained 
the affections of his wife Clytemnestra 
during his absence, and on his return to 
his kingdom caused him to be slain. He 
then usurped the throne, which he held 
seven years, at the lapse of which he, 
together with Clytemnestra, was slain by 
Orestes, the son of Agamemnon. See 
Atreus, Orestes. 

.3DGITIUM, a town of JEtolia, north-east 
of Xaupactus. It occupied an elevated 
situation in a mountainous tract of country. 

iEGimr, a city of Achaia, on the coast 
of the Sinus Corinthiacus, and north-west 
of iEgira. After the submersion of Helice 
it became the chief place in the country, 
and here the deputies from the states of 
Achaia long held their assemblies, until a 
law was made by Philopcemen ordaining 
that each of the federal cities should be- 
come in its turn the place of rendezvous. 
The modern town Vostitza lies in the im- 
mediate vicinity of iEgium. 

JEgle, I., one of the Hesperides. — II. 
The fairest of the Xaiads. 

JEgles, a Samian wrestler, born dumb. 
Seeing some unlawful measure pursued in 
a contest which would deprive him of the 
prize, his rage and indignation gave him 
on a sudden the power of utterance, which 
had been denied him from his birth, and 
he ever after spoke with ease. 

JEgletes, a surname of Apollo, as the 
god of day, from cujXtj, brightness. 

iEGOBoixs, an appellation given to 
Bacchus at Potnia? in Bceotia, because he 
had substituted a goat in the place of a 
youth annually sacrificed there. 

JEgoceros. See Capricornds. 

iEGOx, L, a name of the iEgean sea. — 
II. A boxer of Zacynthus, who dragged a 
large bull by the heel from a mountain 
into the city. 

iEGOs-PoTAMos, the goat's river, called 
also iEgos-Potamoi, and by the Latin 
writers iEgos Flumen, a small river in the 
Thracian Chersonese, and south of Calli- 
polis, which apparently gave its name to a 
town or port situated at its mouth. At 
iEgos-Potamos the Athenian fleet was de- 
feated by the Spartan admiral Lysander, 
b. c. 405 ; an event which completely 
destroyed the power of the Athenians, 
and finally led to the capture of Athens. 
The village of Galata probably stands on 
the site of the town or harbour. 

JEGOSAGiE, a Gallic nation which served 
in one of the expeditions of Attalus, who 
afterwards assigned them a settlement 
along the Hellespont. 

JEgus and Roscillus, two brothers 



amongst the Allobroges, who deserted from 
Cassar to Pompey. 

Mgys, a town of Laconia, on the bor- 
ders of Arcadia, destroyed by the Spartans, 
because they suspected the inhabitants of 
favouring the x\rcadians. 

JEgypsus, or, more correctly, iEGYSsus, 
a city of Mcesa Inferior, in the region 
called Parva Scythia, not far from the 
mouth of the Danube. 

iEGYPTii, the inhabitants of Egypt. 
See iEGYPTus. 

JEgyptium mare, that part of the 
Mediterranean sea which is on the coast 
of Egypt. 

./Egypt I* s, I., son of Belus and Anchino?, 
daughter of Nilus, succeeded his father in 
the kingdom of Arabia, his brother Da- 
naus having received Libya as his inherit- 
ance. According to the fable, iEgyptus 
was the father of fifty sons, and Danaus of 
as many daughters. Discord having arisen 
between the brothers, Danaus fled to Ar- 
gos, where Gelanor resigned to him his 
sovereignty ; but the sons of iEgyptus fol- 
lowed their uncle, entreated him to forego 
his anger, and to bestow on them his daugh- 
ters in marriage. Danaus, though distrust- 
ing their professions, and still harbouring 
resentment, consented to the proposal ; but 
on the marriage-day, he armed the hands of 
the brides with daggers, to murder their 
unsuspecting husbands during the night ; 
and Hypermnestra alone spared her hus- 
band Lynceus. See Danaides. — II. 
iEgyptus, the earliest seat of science, lite- 
rature and art, and celebrated alike 
for the historical events of which it has 
been the scene, its magnificent monuments, 
and physical character, is an extensive 
country of Africa, bounded on the west 
by Marmorica and the deserts of Libya, 
on the north by the Mediterranean, on 
the east by the Sinus Arabicus or lied 
Sea, and a line drawn from Arsinoe or 
Suez to Rhinocolura or El-Arish, and on 
the south by iEthiopia. In general lan- 
guage, Egypt may be described as an im- 
mense valley or longitudinal basin, termi- 
nating in a delta or triangular plain of al- 
luvial formation, being altogether, from the 
heights of the Syene to the shores of the Me- 
diterranean, about 600 miles in length, and of 
I various width. Egypt is indebted for its ex- 
j istence as a habitable country entirely to the 
Nile, whose annual inundations transform 
[ into one of the most fertile countries in the 
world that which would otherwise be an 
irreclaimable desert. The whole country 
l was divided into two great districts, 
I iEgyptus Inferior or Loiver Egypt, bor- 
dering on the Mediterranean, and iEgyptus 



22 JEGY 



;eli 



Superior or Upper Egypt, or Thebais, so 
called from containing within its limits the 
important city Thebes. Between JEgyp- 
tus Superior and Inferior was situated a 
small district, called Heptanomis, contain- 
ing, as its name imports, seven of those 
subdivisions or prefectures (^vojxoi), into 
fifty-three of which the whole country was 
parcelled out. It would be impossible 
within our limits to enter into any details 
respecting the various peculiarities, phy- 
sical, moral, and religious, by which Egypt 
was distinguished. Its monuments, tombs, 
hieroglyphics, and mythology will be 
found noticed under their separate heads ; 
and we will here merely attempt to give 
an outline of its history. As might have 
been expected, the early history of Egypt 
is involved in deep obscurity ; but there 
is no doubt that, in all the qualities 
of a highly civilised country, religion, 
art, science, and wealth, Egypt had 
made great and singular advances when 
the surrounding countries were still in- 
volved in the grossest barbarism. Down 
even to the period of Menes and Sesostris, 
two of its most celebrated sovereigns, 
the history of Egypt is largely tinctured 
with fable ; and it is not till during the 
reign of Psammetichus (650 b. c.) that 
it begins to emerge into authentic his- 
tory. In 553 b. c. Cambyses, emperor of 
Persia, added Egypt to his other pro- 
vinces. It continued attached to Persia 
for 1 93 years, though often in open rebel- 
lion against its conquerors. Alexander 
the Great had little difficulty in effecting 
its conquest ; and it has been inferred from 
his foundation of Alexandria, which soon 
became the centre of an extensive com- 
merce, that he intended to establish in it 
the seat of the government of his vast em- 
pire. On the death of Alexander, Pto- 
lemy, the son of Lagus, became master of 
the country. Under this able prince and 
his immediate successors Egypt recovered 
the greater portion of its ancient prosperity, 
and was for three centuries the favoured 
seat of commerce, art, and science. The 
feebleness and indolence of the last sove- 
reigns of the Macedonian dynasty facilitated 
the conquest of Egypt by the Romans. 
Augustus possessed himself of it after a 
struggle of some duration, and for the next 
400 years it belonged to the Roman empire, 
constituted its most valuable province, and 
was long the granary, as it were, of Rome. 
Christianity struck root in Egypt at a very 
early period ; but she soon became the 
fruitful soil of mysticism, and many of the 
most pernicious doctrines which still harass 



the church ; and her power and civilisation 
gradually disappeared. In the division of 
the Roman empire by Theodosius the 
Great (a. d. 395), Egypt, which had be- 
come a mere province of the Eastern Em- 
pire, sank deeper and deeper, and struggled 
on during two centuries of misery and 
degradation, till she fell (a. d. 642) under 
the Arabs on the storming of her capital 
Alexandria by Amrou, general of Omar, 
second kaliph of the Mahommedans or 
Saracens. She remained in subjection to 
her Arabian masters till the year 969, 
when the vast empire of the kaliphs being 
dismembered through the incapacity of its 
sovereigns, she once more became an inde- 
pendent state, and remained so till 1171, 
when the victorious Saladin dethroned her 
native princes and replaced them by others, 
under whose sway she attained to greater 
prosperity than at any subsequent period. 
In the year 1250, however, she was subju- 
gated by the wild and ferocious Mame- 
lukes, and from that moment every trace 
of her former greatness and civilisation 
disappeared. Nearly two centuries and a 
half later she fell into the possession of the 
Turks, who, with the brief interruption of 
the French invasion under Buonaparte, re- 
tained her till 1804, when she was wrested 
from their grasp (1804) by Mohammed 
Ali, the present pacha, under whose sway 
she has once more attained considerable 
prosperity. 

^Elia, I., (Gens,) a distinguished ple- 
beian family at Rome, of which there were 
various branches, such as the Paeti, La- 
mias, Tuberones, Galli, &c. — II. Paetina, 
of the Tubero family, and wife of the em- 
peror Claudius, who afterwards repudiated 
her in order to make way for Messalina. — 
III. Lex, a law proposed by the consul 
Q. Acilius Paetus, and enacted a. u. c. 
559, for sending ten colonies into Brut- 
tium. — IV. (Lex) JElia and Fusia, two 
separate laws, though sometimes joined, 
enacted a. u. c. 586 and 617 respectively, 
to regulate the period and time best fitted 
to enact laws. — V. Lex Sentia, proposed 
by the consuls iElius and Sentius, and 
enacted a. u. c. 756. It declared that 
no slave who had ever been publicly 
whipped or branded for c? ime should ever, 
though freed by his master, be capable of 
becoming a Roman citizen, but should 
remain in the class of the dedititii, who, 
though free, had not the privileges of 
Roman citizens. — JElia was also the name 
given to various cities repaired or built by 
the emperor Hadrian, whose family name 
was iElius. 



MLI 



iEMI 



23 



iELiANUs, I., a Greek writer, who 
lived about the middle of the second 
century, and composed a treatise on mi- 
litary tactics, which he dedicated to the 
emperor Adrian. — II. Claudius, a native 
of Prseneste, who flourished during the 
reigns of Heliogabalus and Alexander 
Severus (218 — 235 a. d.). Though born 
of Latin parents, and seldom, if ever, be- 
yond the limits of Italy, he acquired such 
a thorough knowledge of the Greek lan- 
guage as to have been compared to the 
purest Attic writers. His " Various His- 
tory," in fourteen books, consists chiefly of 
extracts from different works, which were 
compiled, in all probability, merely to 
exercise himself in the Greek tongue, 
and must have been indiscreetly given 
to the world ; for it evinces neither 
taste, judgment, nor critical #cumen. 
These extracts may be regarded as the 
earliest on the list of Ana. iElian led a 
life of celibacy, and died about his sixtieth 
year. 

JElius, a name common to many Ro- 
mans, and marking also the plebeian 
house of the iElii. The most celebrated 
individuals who bore this name were — 
I. Gallus. See Gallus III. — II. Pub- 
Hus, one of the first quaestors chosen from 
the plebeians at Rome, a.u. c. 346. — III. 
Saturninus, a satirist, thrown down from 
the Tarpeian rock for writing verses against 
Tiberius. — IV. Sejanus. See Sejanus. — 
V. Sextus Catus, an eminent Roman 
lawyer, who lived in the sixth cent. u. c. 
He filled the offices of aedile, consul, and 
censor, and gave his name to a part of the 
Roman law. When Cneius Flavius, the 
clerk of Appius Claudius Ceecus, had 
made known to the people the forms to be 
observed in prosecuting lawsuits, and the 
days on which actions could be brought, 
the patricians, in displeasure, contrived 
new forms of process, and expressed them 
in writing by secret marks. These forms 
were subsequently published by JElius 
Catus, and his book was named Jus iEli- 
anum, as that of Flavius was styled Jus 
Flavianum. He is considered also as the 
author of the work entitled Tripartita iElii, 
so called from its containing the text of 
the law, its interpretation, and the various 
forms to be observed in going to law. On 
being created consul he became remark- 
able for the simplicity of his manners ; 
and when censor with Cethegus, he as- 
signed to the senate separate seats from 
the people at the public games. 

Aello. One of the Flarpies. See 
Habpyije. The name is derived from 
#eAAa, a tempest. 



iEMATHioN and JEmathia. See Ema- 
thion and Emathia. 

iEiviixiA, (Gens,) I. one of the most 
ancient patrician houses at Rome, which 
was said to be of Oscan or of Sabine de- 
scent, and reckoned among its mythic an- 
cestors Amulius, brother of Numitor king 
of Alba, and iEmylus, son of Ascanius. 
There were numerous branches of this fa- 
mily, of which the most conspicuous were 
the Lepidi, Mamerci, Papi, and Scauri. 
It dated its curule magistracies from Z, 
iEmilius Mamercus, b. c. 494. — II. A 
vestal who, when the sacred fire of Vesta 
was extinguished, and she was condemned 
to die for her negligence in watching it, 
miraculously rekindled the embers by 

putting her robe over them III. Tertia, 

daughter of iEmilius Paulus L, wife of 
Scipio Africanus the elder, and mother of 
Cornelia, the celebrated mother of the 
Gracchi, was famous for her behaviour to 
her husband on discovering his infidelity. — 
IV. Lepida, daughter of Lepidus, and wife 
of Drusus the younger, whom she disgraced 
by her licentious conduct. She was screened 
from punishment during her father's life- 
time ; but being afterwards accused of adul- 
tery with a slave, she perished by her own 
hand. — V. A public road leading from 
Placentia to Ariminum, called after the con- 
sul iEmilius, who is supposed tohave made 
it. — VI. (Lex), a law of the dictator 
iEmilius, a. u. c. 309, ordaining that the 
censorship, which was before quinquennial, 
should be limited to one year and a half. — 
VII. Sumptuaria or Cibaria, a sumptuary 
law proposed by M. iEmilius Lepidus, 
a. u. c. 675, limiting the kind and quan- 
tity of meats to be used at an entertain- 
ment. Pliny ascribes this law to M. 
Scaurus. 

iEMiLiANus, L, the second agnomen of 
P. Corn. Scipio Africanus the younger, 
which he received as being the son of 
Paulus iEmilius. His adoption by the 
elder Africanus united the houses of the 
Scipios and iEmilii. — II. A native of 
Mauritania, who was born a. d. 208, be- 
came governor of Pannonia and Moesia 
under Hostilianus and Gallus, and was 
proclaimed emperor by his soldiers for 
some successes over the barbarians. Gal- 
lus marched against him, but was mur- 
dered, with his son Volusianus, by his own 
soldiers, who went over to iEmilianus. 
His reign, however, was of short duration, 
less than four months intervening between 
his victory and his fall. Valerian, one of 
the generals of Gallus, who had been sent 
by that emperor to bring the legions of 
Gaul and Germany to his aid, met 



24 



JEMI 



iEmilianus in the plains of Spoleto, where 
the latter, like Gallus, was murdei-ed by 
his own troops, who thereupon went over 
to Valerian. — III. A prefect of Egypt, in 
the reign of Gallienus, about a. d. 263. 
He assumed the imperial purple ; but was 
defeated by Theodotus, a general of the 
emperor, and sent captive to Rome, where 
he was strangled. 

JEmilius, a name common to many in- 
dividuals, the most remarkable among 
whom were — I. Lepidus, twice consul, 
once censor, and six times pontifex maxi- 
mus ; he was also princeps senatus, and 
guardian to Ptolemy Epiphanes, in the 
name of the Roman people. It was this 
individual to whom, when a youth of 
fifteen, a ci\ ic crown was given for having 
saved the life of a citizen in a battle, an 
allusion to which is made on the medals of 
the JEmilian family. — II. L., three times 
consul, and the conqueror of the Volsci. 
See Mamercus I. — III. A triumvir with 
Octavius. See Lepidus. — IV. Scaurus. 
See Scaurus. — V. Mamercus, once consul 
and three times dictator. See Mamer- 
cus II. — VI. Paulus, father of the cele- 
brated Paulus JEmilius Macedonicus. See 
Paulus I. — VII. Paulus Macedonicus. 
See Paulus II. — VIII. Lucius Regillus, 
praetor, b. c. 190. See Regillus. — IX. 
Macer. See Macer. — X. Papinianus. 
See Papinianus. — XI. Tiberius Mamer- 
cinus. See Mamercinus. 

jEjionia. See H^emonia. 

/En aria, a volcanic island off the coast 
of Campania, at the entrance of the bay 
of Naples. Properly speaking, there are 
two islands ; and hence the plural form 
which the Greeks applied to them, at 
Ylidy]Kov<rai, Pithecusce. The Romans called 
the largest of the two islands JEnaria, 
probably from the copper which they 
found in it. Virgil gives it the name of 
Inarime, in accordance with the old tradi- 
tions, which placed the body of Typhbeus 
under this island and the Phlegraoan plain. 
The modern name is Ischia. 

JEnea, a town of Macedonia, founded 
by a colony of Corinthians and Po- 
tidasans, though alleged by the inhabit- 
ants to have had iEneas for its founder. 
It was a place of some importance in the 
war between the Macedonians and Romans, 
but it soon afterwards disappeared from 
history. 

iENEAD-as, a name given by Virgil to 
the friends and companions of iEneas ; and 
by Lucretius to the whole Roman people 
as the descendants of JEneas. 

jEneas, I , a Trojan prince, son of An- 
ehises and Venus, whose wanderings and 



adventures form the subject of Virgil's 
JEneid, and from whose final settlement 
in Italy the Romans traced their origin. 
He was born on Mount Ida, nurtured by 
the Dryads, educated by Chiron, and , on 
reaching maturity, married Creusa, a 
daughter of Priam. During the Trojan 
war he commanded the Dardanians ; and, 
after Hector, he was considered as the 
bravest and boldest of the Trojan heroes. 
On the night when Troy was in flames, 
or, as is sometimes said, before its capture, 
he quitted the city, carrying on his 
shoulders his aged father Anchises and 
the images of his household gods, and ac- 
companied by his wife Creusa, who paused 
by the way, and his only son lulus or As- 
canius. From this period the legends 
respecting JEneas differ. According to 
Virgil, and other Latin poets from whom 
he has borrowed, iEneas set sail in the 
second year after the destruction of Troy 
with a newly-constructed fleet of twenty 
vessels from the Trojan shores, to seek his 
fortune in the unknown regions of the 
West. After visiting Thrace and Sicily, 
he sailed for Italy ; but was driven on the 
coasts of Africa, and kindly received by 
Dido, queen of Carthage, who wished to 
marry him. But the gods had otherwise 
decreed. He accordingly left Carthage, 
and in the seventh year of his wanderings 
he reached the coast of Latium with a 
hundred followers, and was received with 
great hospitality by Latinus, king of the 
country, who assigned a small tract of 
ground as a settlement for the Trojans. 
But disturbances soon broke out between 
the natives and the new settlers. All the 
petty kings of Italy (except Evander) com- 
bined with Latinus to expel the foreigners ; 
and after various engagements, in the first 
of which Latinus was killed, it was at last 
determined that ^Eneas and his great rival 
Turnus should decide their difference by 
single combat, in which Turnus was killed. 
iEneas then obtained in marriage Lavinia, 
the daughter of Latinus, as a reward of his 
victory, succeeded by her right to the 
throne of Latium, and built the city of 
Lavinium in honour of his wife. After a 
short reign, he was killed in an engage- 
ment with Mezentius, king of the Tuscans, 
and was succeeded by his son Ascanius. 
Divine honours were paid to him after 
his death by his subjects ; and the Romans 
in later ages offered annual sacrifices to 
him as Jupiter Indiges. Such is a sketch 
of the history of this celebrated Trojan ; 
but it must be admitted that the ancient 
traditions respecting him are so discrepant 
as to be wholly irreconcileable either with 



iENE 



iEOL 



25 



fact or with each other. — II. A son of 
^Eneas and Lavinia, called Silvius, because 
his mother retired with him into the woods 
after his father's death. By some he is 
considered as the son and successor of As- 
canius. — III. An ancient writer, sur- 
named Tacticus, from his works on military 
tactics. By some he is supposed to have 
flourished b. c. 148 ; but Casaubon sus- 
pects that he is the same with iEneas of 
Stymphalus, commander of the Arcadians 
at the time of the battle of Mantinea, about 
B. c. 360. — IV. A native of Gaza, and dis- 
ciple of Hierocles, who flourished about 
A. d. 480. He abjured paganism, and 
was an eye-witness of the persecution 
which Huneric king of the Vandals in- 
stituted against the Christians, a. d, 484. 
Though a Christian, he professed Pla- 
tonism. 

-ZEneis, a poem of Virgil, which has for 
its subject the settlement of iEneas in Italy. 
Virgil died before he had corrected it, and 
at his death desired that it might be burnt. 
This was happily disobeyed. The JEneid 
had engaged the attention of the poet for 
eleven years, and in the first six books it 
seems that it was Virgil's design to imitate 
Homer's Odyssey, and in the last the Iliad. 
The action of the poem comprises eight 
years, one of which only, the last, is really 
taken up by action, as the seven first are 
merely episodes ; such as Juno's attempts to 
destroy the Trojans, the loves of iEneas and 
Dido, the relation of the fall of Troy, &c. 

iENEsiniiMus, a philosopher of Alex- 
andria, born at Gnossus in Crete, a short 
time subsequent to Cicero. He revived 
the scepticism which had been silenced in 
the Academy, and wrote eight books on 
the doctrines of Pyrrho, of which extracts 
are to be found in Photius. 

.ZEnianes, or ENiENES,aThessaliantribe, 
apparently of great antiquity, but of un- 
certain origin. They belonged to the Am- 
phictyonic council ; and at a later period 
they joined other Grecian states against 
Macedonia, in the confederacy which gave 
rise to the Lamiac war. They were ulti- 
mately nearly exterminated by the iEtolians 
and Athamanes, on whose territories they 
bordered. Their principal town was Hy- 
pata, on the river Sperchius. 

iENOBARBiJs, or Ahenobarbus, the sur- 
name of L. Domitius. When Castor and 
Pollux acquainted him with a victory, he 
discredited them ; on which they touched 
his chin and beard, which instantly became 
of a brazen colour, whence the surname 
given to himself and his descendants. This 
victory was gained by the Romans over 
the Tarquin family and their Latin allies. 
C Diet. 



Mtsos, a city of Thrace, at the mouth of 
the Hebrus. Its more ancient name was 
Poltyobria, " City of Poltys," from a 
Thracian leader. The modern city of Eno 
occupies its site, but the harbour is now a 
mere marsh. 

iEouss, or iEoLii, one of the main 
branches of the great Hellenic race (see 
Hellenes), who are said to have derived 
their name from iEolus, eldest son of 
Hellen. From iEolus, the Hellenes, in 
Hellas, properly so called, and the Phthi- 
otic Pelasgi, who became blended with 
them into one common race, received the 
appellation of iEolians. The sons and 
later descendants of iEolus spread the name 
of iEolia beyond these primitive seats of 
the iEolic tribe. An examination, indeed, 
into the history of iEolus and his descend- 
ants would sho A' that, long before the 
Trojan war, the Hellen- iEolic stem was 
spread in Northern Greece, over almost all 
Thessaly, Pieria, Paeonia, and Athamania ; 
in Central Greece, over the greater part of 
Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, iEtolia, and Acar- 
nania; and m Southern Greece, over Argos, 
Elis, and Messenia. During this period 
also the Leleges, Curetes, Pelasgi, Hyan- 
tes, and Lapithaa became intermingled 
with the tribes in question ; and a close 
union was likewise formed between the 
latter and the Phoenician Cadmasans in 
Bceotia. This state of things continued 
till the Trojan war ; and the subsequent 
invasion of the Peloponnesus by the 
Dorians produced a complete revolution, 
and caused the tide of emigration to flow 
to all quarters of the world, 

iEoLiA, or iEoLis, a region of Asia 
Minor, deriving its namefrom the iEolians, 
who settled there. It extended in the in- 
terior from the Hermus, on the south, to 
the Ca'icus, or perhaps, to speak more 
correctly, as far as the country round Mt. 
Ida ; and on the coast it reached from Cyme 
to Pitane. The island of Lesbos was the 
chief seat of power. In it, and along the 
neighbouring shores of the gulf of Elea, 
the inhabitants built their principal cities, 
and formed the celebrated federal union, 
known by the name of the iEolian League, 
consisting of twelve states or cities, with 
thirty inferior towns. Of these twelve 
cities, Cyme and Smyrna were the princi- 
pal; but the latter was subsequently wrested 
from the iEolians by the Ionians. The his- 
tory of iEolia was as changeful as its limits. 
The cities were all originally independent ; 
at a later period they were governed by 
arbitrary rulers ; they then fell into the 
possession of Croesus, and, on his overthrow 
by Cyrus, were incorporated with the 
c * 



£6 



i£OL 



JESC 



Persian empire, where they remained till 
the Romans wrested them from Antiochus 
the Great, and annexed them to the do- 
minions of Eumenes. 

JE01X&, and JEolides, seven islands off 
the northern coast of Sicily, identical with 
Homer's UKayKrai, or "wandering islands." 
They were so called from being the fabled 
residence of iEolus, god of the winds. 
They sometimes bear the name of Vulcanice 
and HephcBstiades, and are known now 
under the general appellation of Lipari 
islands, from Lipara, the largest of them. 

Bolides, a patronymic of Ulysses, from 
iEolus ; his mother, Anticlea, having been 
pregnant by Sisyphus, son of iEolus, when 
she married Laertes. It is also given to 
Athamas and Sisyphus, sons, and to Ce- 
phalus, grandson of iEolus. Misenus, 
trumpeter of iEneas, is called JEolides, 
from his skill in playing on the trumpet. 

iEoLus, L, the god of the winds, son 
of Hippotas and Melanippe, daughter 
of Chiron, and king of the JEolian 
islands. His great protectress was Juno ; 
which accords very well with the ideas 
of the ancient poets, who represented Juno 
merely as a type of the atmosphere, the 
movements of which produce the winds. 
For an account of the adventures of Ulys- 
ses at the court of iEolus, see Ulysses. 
The name iEolus is derived from the Gr. 
aio\os, varying or unsteady, a descriptive 
epithet of the winds. — II. A son of Hel- 
len, father of Sisyphus, Cretheus, and 
Athamas, and the mythic progenitor of the 
great iEolic race. 

iEoNEs (Gr. aiwvss), a term employed 
by the Gnostics to indicate the emanations 
from the divine nature. They were of 
two classes, good and bad, and resembled 
in their nature the Persian Arimanius and 
Ormuzd. See Arimanius. 

iEpEA, or iEpEiA, a town in the island 
of Cyprus. See Sqloe. 

iEpYTtrs, I., son of Cresphontes, and 
king of Messenia. His father and two 
brothers having been slain by Polyphontes, 
who usurped the throne, his mother, 
Merope, who had been forced to marry 
the usurper, saved the life of iEpytus, 
and sent him to the court of her father, 
Cypselus, king of Arcadia, to be educated. 
On attaining to manhood, he slew Poly- 
phontes, and recovered the throne. His 
descendants were called iEpytida?. — II. 
A king of Arcadia, contemporary of 
Orestes, son of Agamemnon. Having pro- 
fanely entered into the temple of Neptune, 
near Mantinea, he was struck blind by a 
sudden irruption of salt water, and is said 
to have died soon after. 



iEciui, or JEquicoli, a people of Italy, 
distinguished for their incessant hostility 
against Rome, more than for the extent of 
their territory or their numbers. They are 
said at one time to have been possessed 
of forty towns ; but Varea and Carneoli, on 
the Via Valeria, are alone worthy of note. 
Niebuhr is of opinion that the iEqui and 
the Volsci were one people ; but it is more 
probable that they are quite distinct, 
though they originated from the same 
parent race, and their boundaries were often 
so intermixed as to be almost inseparable. 

Aerope, L, daughter of Catreus, king 
of Crete, and wife of Plisthenes, by whom 
she became the mother of Agamemnon and 
Menelaus. On the death of Plisthenes 
she married her father-in-law Atreus, but 
was subsequently seduced by his brother 
Thyestes, an act which was fearfully 
punished by the injured husband. — II. A 
daughter of Cepheus, who became the 
mother of Aeropus by Mars, the god of war, 
and died in giving birth to her offspring. 

Aeroius, I., son of Temenus, who, 
with his two brothers, left Argos, and 
settled in Macedonia. There were various 
kings and regents of that name in Mace- 
donia, the chief of whom usurped the 
supreme power during the minority of 
Orestes, son of Archelaus, and held it from 
b. c. 400 to b. c. 394. — II. A mountain 
of Epirus, now ML Trebeeshna. 

iEsicus, a son of Priam, by Alexirrhoe. 
He became enamoured of Hesperia ; but 
his love was unrequited, and the nymph, 
to escape his importunities, threw herself 
into the sea, and was changed into a bird. 
iEsacus, in despair, followed her example, 
and was changed into a cormorant. But 
a wholly different story is told by Apollo- 
dorus. 

iEslRus, a river of Bruttium, on which 
Crotona was situated. See Crotona. 

iEscmNEs, I., an Athenian orator, born 
b. c. 389, sixteen years before Demosthenes. 
His father was of a family which had a 
community of altars with the race of 
the Eteobutada?. Having lost his pro- 
perty by the calamities of war, he turned 
his attention to gymnastic exercises ; but 
being subsequently driven out by the thirty 
tyrants, he retired to Asia, where he served 
in a military capacity, and greatly dis- 
tinguished himself. He contributed after- 
wards to the restoration of the popular 
power in Athens. This is the account 
given by iEschines himself ; but Demos- 
thenes maintained that, after a youth spent 
in poverty and the most menial duties, 
iEschines aided his father in the manage- 
ment of a school, became clerk to one of 



iESC 



27 



the lower class of magistrates, and at last 
attached himself to a company of tra- 
gedians, but was intrusted merely with 
third-rate characters. But be this as it j 
may, it is certain that he was in the battle 
of Mantinea, b. c. 362, and received public 
honours flfr his gallant conduct in the 
battle of Tamynae, in Euhcea, b. c. 350. j 
It was along time before iEschines became 
known as a public speaker, and he was al- 
ready advanced in life when he commenced ; 
taking part in the politics of the day. | 
After the capture of Olynthus by Philip, i 
B. c, 347, an embassy to Megalopolis hav- j 
ing been proposed by Eubulus to excite 
the Arcadians against the Macedonian 
monarch, iEschines was named one of the 
ambassadors ; and on his return he bit- 
terly inveighed against Philip. The Athe- 
nians being subsequently informed that i 
Philip was willing to make peace with [ 
them, ten ambassadors, among whom were 
iEschines and Demosthenes, were sent to 
negotiate ; and we have the express testi- 
mony of the latter in favour of the integrity 
which, on this occasion, marked the conduct 
of his future rival. Philip, however, had 
succeeded by his skilful management in 
deceiving the .Athenians ; and three years 
afterwards Demosthenes preferred an im- 
peachment against iEschines, on the 
grounds of having sold himself to Philip, 
and sacrificed the interests of Athens to his 
own. Meanwhile, iEschines anticipated 
the attack by an accusation of Timarchus, 
whom Demosthenes had associated with 
himself in the prosecution, and spoke with 
so much energy that Timarchus either 
hung himself, or was condemned and de- 
prived of his rights as a citizen. De- 
mosthenes, however, not intimidated by 
the blow, preferred his original charge 
against iEschines, who, aided by the active 
interference of his friend Eubulus, an 
open enemy of Demosthenes, was ac- 
quitted by thirty votes, b. c. 343. The 
speeches both of the accuser and defender 
are extant ; and though it would be diffi- 
cult to pronounce as to the guilt or inno- 
cence of iEschines, there can be doubt 
as to the great ability of his speech. 
The only other great event in the life of 
iEschines is his famous controversy with 
Demosthenes in reference to the crown. 
A little after the battle of Cha?ronea, 
Demosthenes was commissioned to re- 
pair the fortifications of Athens. He ex- 
pended, in the performance of this task, 
thirteen talents, ten of which he received 
from the public treasury, while the remain- 
ing three were generously given from his 
own private purse. As a mark of public 



gratitude for this act of liberality, Ctesiphon 
proposed to the people to decree a crown 
of gold to the orator. iEschines imme- 
diately preferred an impeachment against 
Ctesiphon, alleging that such a decree was 
an infringement of the established laws of 
the republic. Demosthenes, on whom the 
attack was virtually made, appeared in 
defence of the accused. Ability and elo- 
quence were displayed on both sides ; but 
the palm was won by Demosthenes, and 
his rival found guilty of having brought 
an unjust accusation. iEschines retired to 
Asia, with the intention of presenting him- 
self before Alexander, but the death of that 
monarch compelled him to change his 
views, and take up his residence at Rhodes. 
Here he opened a school of eloquence, and 
commenced his lectures by reading the 
two orations which had been the occasion 
of his banishment. His hearers loudly 
applauded his own speech ; but when he 
came to that of Demosthenes, they were 
thrown into transports of admiration. 
" What would you have said," exclaimed 
iEschines, " had you heard Demosthenes 
himself pronounce this oration ? " He died 
at Samos at the age of 75. — II. An 
Athenian philosopher, called the Socratic, 
to distinguish him from the orator of 
the same name. He was a disciple of 
Socrates, who honoured his ardent zeal for 
knowledge, and held him in high estima- 
tion. But modern critics have decided 
against his authorship of the dialogues 
which pass under his name. 

iEscHRioN, L, a Mitylenaean poet, inti- 
mate with Aristotle. He accompanied 
Alexander in his Asiatic expedition. — II. 
An Iambic poet of Samos. Some of his 
verses have been preserved by Athenaeus, 
and in the Anthology. — III. A physician, 
the preceptor of Galen. 

iEscHYLUs, a celebrated tragic writer, 
son of Euphorion, born of a noble family 
at Eleusis in Attica, b. c. 525 ; died at 
Gela, b. c. 456. At the age of 25, ^Es- 
chylus made his first public attempt as a 
tragic author. With his two celebrated 
brothers, Cynaegirus and Aminias, he was 
graced at Marathon with the praises due 
to pre-eminent bravery, being then in his 
35th year. Six years after that memorable 
battle, he gained his first tragic victory. 
Four years after this was fought the battle 
of Salamis, in which iEschylus took part 
with his brother Aminias, to whose extra- 
ordinary valour the apitrrela were decreed. 
In the following year he served with the 
Athenian troops at Plataea. Eight years 
afterwards he gained the prize with a 
tetralogy, composed of the Persce, Phineus, 
c 2 



28 



JESO 



Glaucvs Potniensis, and Prometheus Ignifer, 
a satiric drama. The latter part of the 
poet's life is involved in much obscurity. 
That he quitted Athens, and died in 
Sicily, is agreed on all hands, but the time 
and cause of his departure are points of 
doubt and conjecture. It seems that 
iEschylus had laid himself open to a 
charge of profanation, by too boldly intro- 
ducing on the stage something connected 
with the mysteries. An anonymous life 
of iEschylus mentions, among other reasons 
assigned for his voluntary banishment, a 
victory obtained over him by Simonides 
in an elegiac contest ; and, what is more 
probable, the success of Sophocles, who 
carried off from him the tragic prize, 
according to the common account, in the 
78th Olymp. (b. c. 468. ) Plutarch, in his 
Life of Cimon, confirms the latter state- 
ment. During the remainder of his life, 
it is doubtful whether he ever returned to 
Athens. His residence in Sicily must 
have been of considerable length, as it was 
sufficient to affect the purity of his 
language. His death, if the common 
accounts be true, was of a most singular 
nature. Sitting motionless, in silence and 
meditation, in the fields, his head, now 
bald, was mistaken for a stone by an 
eagle, which happened to be flying over 
him with a tortoise in her bill. The bird 
dropped the tortoise to break the shell, 
and the poet was killed by the blow. The 
Geloans interred him with much pomp in 
the public cemetery. iEschylus is said to 
have composed seventy dramas. Only 
seven of his tragedies remain, together 
with fragments of others. 

iEscuLAPius, son of Apollo, and the 
nymph Coronis, and god of the healing 
art. Three different accounts of his origin 
are given by Pausanias. The story of 
Ovid makes Coronis to have been un- 
faithful to Apollo, who, informed of the 
fact by a raven, consequently put her to 
death, but preserved her offspring. The 
angry deity is said to have changed the 
colour of the raven from white to black, as 
a punishment for his unwelcome officious- 
ness. As Coronis in Greek signifies " a 
crow," another fable arose, that iEsculapius 
had sprung from an egg of that bird, under 
the figure of a serpent. At an early age 
iEsculapius was placed under the centaur 
Chiron ; and being of a quick and lively 
genius, he made such progress as soon to 
become not only a great physician, but at 
length to be reckoned the gpd and inventor 
of medicine. iEsculapius acpompanied 
Jason in his expedition to Colchis, and in 
his medical capacity was of great service 



to the Argonauts. He married Epione, 
whom some call Lampetia, by whom he 
bad two sons, Machaon and Podalirius, and 
four daughters, Hygeia, iEgle, Panacea, 
and Iaso, of whom Hygeia, goddess of 
health, was the most celebrated. In the 
fabulous traditions of antiquUy, iEscula- 
pius is said to have restored many to 
life. Jupiter, alarmed at this, and fearing 
lest men, being put in possession of the 
means of triumphing over death, might 
cease to render honour to the gods, struck 
iEsculapius with thunder. Apollo, en- 
raged at the loss of his son, destroyed the 
Cyclopes, who forged the thunderbolts of 
Jove ; for which offence the monarch of the 
skies was about to hurl him into Tartarus, 
but, on the supplication of Latona, ba- 
nished him for a season from Olympus, 
and compelled him to serve with Admetus, 
king of Thessaly. The chief seat of the 
worship of iEsculapius was at Epidaurus. 
He was variously represented, though 
most generally as an old man resting on a 
staff round which a serpent is entwined. 
The cock was sacred to him. 

iEsEFUs, a river of Mysia, rising from 
Mt. Cotylus, and flowing into the Pro- 
pontis, after a course of 500 miles. 

iEsEiiNiA, now hernia, a city of Sam- 
nium, colonised by the Romans about the 
beginning of the first Punic war, and 
afterwards distinguished by its firm adhe- 
rence to the Roman power during the war 
with Hannibal. 

iEsoN, son of Cretheus, king of Iolchos, 
whom he succeeded, but was afterwards 
dethroned by his half-brother, Pelias. By 
Alcimeda he became the father of Jason, 
the leader of the Argonauts. See Jason. 
During the absence of Jason, according to 
one story, the tyranny of Pelias drove 
iEson to self-destruction ; but Ovid says 
that Jason, on his return with Medea, 
found his father still alive, but enfeebled 
with age ; and the Colchian enchantress, 
by drawing the blood from his veins, and 
refilling them with the juice of certain 
herbs, restored him to the vigour and 
bloom of manhood. 

iEsoNiDES, a patronymic of Jason, as 
being descended from iEson. 

iEsopus, I., a celebrated fabulist, who is 
supposed to have flourished about b. c. 
620. Most authorities are in favour of 
his having been a Phrygian, and born at 
CotyaDum. All appear to agree in repre- 
senting him as of servile origin, and owned 
in succession by several masters. The 
first of these was Demarchus, or Timar- 
chus, and resided at Athens, where iEsop 
consequently must have had many means 



JESO 



MTH 



29 



of improvement within his reach. From | 
Demarchus he came into the possession of j 
Xanthus, a Samian, who sold him to | 
Iadmon, a philosopher of the same island, 
under whose roof he had for a fellow-slave ' 
the famous courtesan Rhodope. Iadmon 
subsequently gave him his freedom, on ac- 
count of the talents which he displayed ; 
and iEsop now turned his attention to 
foreign travel, partly to extend the sphere 
of his own knowledge, and partly to com- 
municate instruction to others. The 
vehicles in which this instruction was 
conveyed were fables. He is said to have 
visited Persia, Egypt, Asia Minor, and 
Greece, and to have been invited by 
Croesus to take up his permanent residence 
at the Lydian court, where his celebrated 
conversation with Solon is reported to 
have occurred. The latter having offended 
Croesus, by the low estimation in which 
he held riches as an ingredient of happi- 
ness, and being, in consequence, treated 
with indifference, iEsop gave him the 
following advice : — "A wise man should 
resolve either not to converse with kings 
at all, or to converse with them agreeably." 
To which Solon replied, " Nay, he should 
either not converse with them at all, or 
converse with them usefully." Being 
charged by Croesus with an embassy to 
Delphi, in the view of sacrificing largely 
to Apollo, and of disbursing to every citi- 
zen a certain sum, a quarrel arose between 
iEsop and the citizens, in consequence of 
which he returned the money to his patron, 
alleging that those for whom it was in- 
tended were utterly unworthy of it. The 
irritated Delphians, with one accord, ac- 
cused him of sacrilege, and he was thrown 
down the rock Hyampea. A pestilence 
which ensued was attributed to this crime ; 
and the Delphians made proclamation at 
all the assemblies of the Greeks of their 
willingness to make compensation for 
iEsop's death to any one who should ap- 
pear to claim it. At length a grandson of 
his master Iadmon claimed and received 
it. The memory of iEsop was highly 
honoured throughout Greece, and the 
Athenians erected a statue to him, the 
work of the celebrated Lysippus, which 
was placed opposite to those of the seven 
sages. His death took place about the 
year 550 — 544 b. c. — II. An eminent Ro- 
man tragedian, and the most formidable 
rival of the celebrated lloscius, though in 
a different line. He is supposed to have 
been born in the first half of the seventh 
cent, of Rome. Plutarch informs us that 
on one occasion, as ^Esop was performing 
the part of Atreus, at the moment when he 



is meditating vengeance, he gave so violent 
a blow with his sceptre to a slave who 
approached as to strike him lifeless to the 
earth. iEsop, like Roscius, lived in great 
intimacy with Cicero. He appeared for 
the last time in public on the day when 
the theatre of Pompey was dedicated, 
a. u. c. 699 ; but his physical powers were 
unequal to the effort, and his voice failed 
him at the very beginning of an adjuration 
" Si sciens fallo." He amassed a very large 
fortune, which his son squandered in the 
most ridiculous extravagance. Compare 
Horace, Sat. II. 3. 239, and Pliny, 9. 50. 

iEsTii, or iEsTiiEi, a people of Germany, 
who lived along the eastern shores of the 
Baltic, which is in German called the Ost 
or East. They carried on a consider- 
able traffic in amber, which was found in 
great abundance along their coasts. See 
Tacitus, De Mor. Germ. 45. 

iEsYEi'ES, a Trojan prince, according to 
some the parent of Antenor and Ucalegon, 
but to others, descended from a more ancient 
Ucalegon, who had married Ilios, daughter 
of Laomedon. Homer mentions Alcathous 
as the son of iEsyetes, and the son-in-law 
of Anchises, who had given him his eldest 
daughter Hippodamia in marriage. Ho- 
mer alludes to the tomb of iEsyetes in the 
13th Book of the Iliad. In the Trojan 
war it afforded a very convenient post of 
observation. See Clarke's Travels, vol. iii. 
p. 92. 

iETHALiA. See Ilva. 

iETHALiDEs, son of Mercury, a herald, 
to whom it was granted to be amongst 
the dead and the living at stated times. 
He is also said to have undergone several 
transmigrations, and to have appeared as 
Euphorbus, Pyrus the Cretan, and Py- 
thagoras, &c. 

iETHicEs, a Thessalian tribe of uncer- 
tain, but ancient origin. Homer states 
that the Centaurs, expelled by Pirithous 
from Mt. Pelion, withdrew to the iEthices. 

iETHiopiA, a country of Africa. The 
word iEthiops was used by the Greeks 
for every thing which had contracted a dark 
or swarthy colour from exposure to the heat 
of the sun. ( Gr. aWca, I burn ; and oo\f/ t 
the visage. ) The term was applied also to 
men of a dark complexion ; and the early 
Greeks named all of such a colour iEthi- 
opes, and their country /Ethiopia, wher- 
ever situated. Homer speaks of two di- 
visions of Ethiopians, the Eastern and 
Western. By the Eastern Ethiopians, he 
means the embrowned natives of Southern 
Arabia ; by the Western, the Libyans. 
iEthiopia, according to Herodotus, includes 
the countries above Egypt, the present 
c 3 



30 



ETH 



AFE 



Nubia and Abyssinia. The ./Ethiopians 
he distinguishes into the inhabitants of 
Meroe and the Macrobii. The Ethiopians 
were supposed to enjoy, in an especial 
manner, the favour of the gods. In the 
early ages of their monarchy they were 
intimately connected with the Egyptians ; 
and Ethiopian princes and whole dynasties 
occupied the throne of the Pharaohs at 
various times, even to a late period before 
the Persian conquest. Religious solem- 
nities were observed in common between 
the two nations. The Ethiopians claimed 
the invention of the Egyptian arts and phi- 
losophy, and even pretended to have planted 
the first colonies in Egypt. In later times 
they had political relations with the Ptole- 
mies, and sent ambassadors to Egypt even 
down to the time of Augustus. The in- 
vestigations of the moderns have clearly es- 
tablished that the Cush so often mentioned 
in Scripture are identical with the Ethi- 
opians. 

Ethra, a daughter of Pittheus, king of 
Troezene, andmother of Theseusby Egeus. 
See Egeus. She was afterwards carried 
away by Castor and Pollux, when they re- 
covered their sister Helen, whom Theseus 
had stolen, and given her to keep. She 
accompanied Helen to Troy when the 
latter was abducted by Paris, and on the 
fall of Troy was restored to her home by 
the sons of Theseus. 

Aetion, a famous painter, who lived in 
the time of Alexander the Great. He 
painted the nuptials of Alexander and 
Roxana so exquisitely, that on being ex- 
posed to public view at the Olympic games, 
the president of the games gave the artist 
his daughter in marriage. Raphael is 
said to have traced one of his most bril- 
liant compositions from Lucian's descrip- 
tion of this work of art. 

Etna, L, a celebrated volcano of Sicily, 
Etna, or Monte Gibello ; the latter of these 
modern appellations being adopted from 
the Arabic Gibel, "a mountain," onaccount 
of its vast size. This volcano, so immense 
in size that Vesuvius sinks into insignifi- 
cance in comparison, rises on the eastern 
side of Sicily. It is 180 miles in cir- 
cumference at the base, and attains, by a 
gradual ascent, to the height of 10,954 
feet above the level of the sea. From Ca- 
tania (the ancient Catana), which stands at 
the foot, to the summit, is thirty miles. It is 
remarkable that Homer is silent as to the 
fires of Etna. The author of the Orphic 
poems and Pindar make the earliest allu- 
sions to its eruptions. In the mythological 
legends of the Greeks, Etna was supposed 
to be placed on part of the giant form of 



Typhon; and according to Virgil, Ea- 
celadus lay beneath the mountain. Up- 
wards of eighty eruptions of Etna are on 
record ; and of these, nine have taken place 
since the commencement of the nineteenth 
century. — II. A small city on the southern 
declivity of Etna. The first name of the 
place was Inessa, which was changed to 
Etna by the remains of the colony which 
Hiero had settled at Catana ( 01. 79. 4. ), 
and which the Sieuli had thence expelled. 
The modern name is Castro. 

Etolia, a country of Greece, to the 
east of Acarnania. It was originally pos- 
sessed by the Curetes, from whom it re- 
ceived the name of Curetes ; but Etolus, 
son of Endymion, at the head of a band of 
followers from Elis, having defeated the 
Curetes in several actions, forced them to 
abandon their country, and gave to their 
territories the name of Etolia. Home7 
informs us that the Etolians took part in 
the siege of Troy, under the command of 
Thoas their chief, and often alludes to 
their prowess in the field. They long 
preserved the uncivilised habits of a bar- 
barous age ; and after they emerged into 
historical importance they were for cen- 
turies engaged in perpetual broils with 
their neighbours the Acarnanians. On 
the decline of Athens and Sparta, the 
Etolians rose into political importance, 
but their history is not distinguished by 
any noble or honourable achievements. 
They suffered severely in their wars with 
the Macedonians ; but afterwards, in al- 
liance with the Romans, acquired a large 
extent of territory. They afterwards en- 
tered into an alliance with Antiochus, king 
of Syria, against the Romans, but were ul- 
timately defeated, and their territory was 
incorporated with the Roman empire. See 
Acarnania. 

Etolus, son of Endymion of Elis and 
Iphianassa, married Pronoe, by whom he 
had Pleuron and Calydon. Having acci- 
dentally killed Apis, son of the Pelasgie 
Phoroneus, he fled with a band of followers 
into that part of Greece which has been 
called from him Etolia. 

Ex, a rocky island between Tenos and 
Chios, so called from its resemblance to a. 
goat ( Gr. £»£), and sometimes alleged to 
have given its name to the jEgean sea. 

Afer, L, the surname of the emperor 
Hadrian's father, i. e. Elius Hadrianus 
Afer. — II. Cn. Domitus, an orator, during 
the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, 
and Nero ; born at Nemausus (Nismes)* 
b. c. 15 or 16, of obscure parents. After 
receiving a good education in his native 
city, he removed at an early age to Rome* 



AFR 



AFR 



31 



where he distinguished himself by his 
talents at the bar, and rose to high ho- 
nours under Tiberius by his services as 
an informer. In this infamous trade he 
numbered among his victims Claudia Pul- 
chra, the cousin, and Quintilius Varus, 
the son, of Agrippina. A skilful flatterer, 
he managed to secure the favour of the 
three immediate successors of Tiberius ; 
and ultimately died of intemperance under 
Nero, a. d. 59. He was preceptor of 
Quintilian. 

Afranics, I., a Latin comic poet, who 
lived about b. c. 100, and lauded by 
Cicero for acuteness of perception and for 
an easy style. Quintilian also speaks 
highly of his talent, but inveighs against 
his coarseness. Of all his works only 266 
verses remain. — II. Lucius, a Roman 
commander of obscure origin, who attached 
himself to the service of Cn. Pompey, b.c. 
77. He accompanied Pompey into Spain, 
was present at the battle on the Suero, and 
afterwards destroyed with circumstances 
of peculiar atrocity the city of Calagurris. 
After the third Mithridatic war, in which 
he commanded a division in Armenia, he 
returned to Rome, and was elected consul 
by the influence of Pompey, b.c. 60. Five 
years afterwards he accompanied Pompey 
as one of his lieutenants into Spain, where, 
in conjunction with Petreus, he gained 
some partial successes over Caesar near 
Ilerda : but was afterwards forced to submit 
without an action, and exposed himself 
to the charge of deserting the cause 
of Pompey. He subsequently took part 
with him in the battle of Pharsalia ; and 
was ultimately murdered by the soldiers 
of Sittius after the battle of Thapsus. — 
III. Potitus, a plebeian, who said before 
Caligula that he would willingly die, if 
the emperor should recover from a dis- 
temper he laboured under. Caligula re- 
covered, and Afranius was compelled to 
fulfil his oath— IV. See Burrhus. 

Africa, one of the main divisions of 
the ancient world, known to history for 
upwards of 3,000 years. Modern obser- 
vation and discoveries make it to be a vast 
peninsula. 5,000 miles in length, and al- 
most 4,600 in breadth ; presenting in an 
area of nearly 13,430,000 square miles 
few long or easily navigated rivers. The 
Greeks would seem to have been ac- 
quainted, from a very early period, with 
the Mediterranean coast of this country. 
To the inhabitants the name of Libyans 
was given, a corruption, probably, of some 
native term ; while the country occupied 
by them was denominated Libya. The 
name of Africa seems to have been ori- 



ginally applied by the Romans to the 
country around Carthage ; the district of 
Africa Proper, on the Mediterranean coast, 
corresponding to the modern kingdom of 
Tunis, with part of that of Tropoli. The 
! natives of Africa are divided by Herodotus 
| into two races, the Africans, or, to adopt 
: the Greek phraseology, Libyans, and the 
-Ethiopians ; one possessing the northern, 
and the other the southern part. Nothing 
. can be more vague or indeterminate than 
I the ideas entertained by the ancients re- 
garding the size, form, and boundaries of 
| this quarter of the globe. Previously to 
i the era of Herodotus, the African con- 
: tinent was believed to be of small di- 
mensions, and washed on the south by 
the great river Oceanus, which was sup- 
! posed to encircle the earth. Egypt also 
; was regarded either as a separate country, 
or as belonging to Asia ; and it was not 
; till the time of Ptolemy that the present 
| boundaries of the three great continents, 
I Europe, Asia, and Africa, were finally 
\ adopted. Our limits will not allow of our 
| entering here into any disquisition respect- 
j ing the supposed attempts of the ancients 
I to circumnavigate Africa, and to explore 
\ its coasts ; but the reader will find this sub- 
i ject popularly, and at the same time very 
explicitly, treated in 2\furray's Encyclo- 
paedia of Geography. 

The northern coast of Africa was much 
more peopled in ancient than in mo- 
dern times. Carthage, Cyrene, and the 
cities of Egypt, were not only populous, 
rich, and industrious, but deserved to-be 
placed in the foremost rank of the most 
civilised cities of the time. After the 
subjugation of Africa by the Romans, the 
whole country was divided into nine grand 
provinces ; viz. Egypt ; Libya, a term used, 
as already stated, by the Greeks to desig- 
nate the entire country, but confined by 
the Romans to the line along the coast, 
from the greater Syrtes to Egypt, and 
stretching inland to the deserts ; Marma- 
rica, extending to the west of Libya, and 
occupied by the Marmarida? and Nasa- 
mones ; Cyrenaica and Pentapolis, with 
their chief city Cyrene ; the two Syrtes ; 
Africa Propria, comprising the cities of 
Carthage and Utica ; Numidia, in which 
was Constantina ; and Mauritania, embrac- 
ing Atlas, and all the north-west of Africa. 
The ancients were well acquainted with 
the Canary Islands, which they designated 
Fortunatae Insula?. In speaking of the ex- 
pedition of the Consul Suetonius Paulinus, 
. Pliny mentions the river Niger, whence 
: it might be inferred that the ancients had 
penetrated as far as the coast of Guinea; 
I c 4 



32 



AFR 



AGA 



but it is more probable that, in this passage, 
the appellation Niger refers to some river 
in Mauritania, for there is no evidence that 
either the Greeks, Romans, or Carthagi- 
nians had pushed their discoveries south- 
wards as far as the Niger. 

Africanus, I., Sextus Julius, a native 
of Palestine, lived under Heliogabalus, 
and fixed his residence at Emmaiis. This 
city having been ruined, he was deputed to 
wait on the emperor, and obtain an order 
for rebuilding it, in which mission he suc- 
ceeded, and the new city took the name 
of Nicopolis. About a. d. 231 he visited 
Alexandria, to hear the public discourses 
of Heraclas. He had been brought up in 
Paganism, but subsequently embraced the 
Christian faith, attained the priesthood, and 
died at an advanced age. He was the 
author of various works ; but that on which 
his reputation mainly rests is a Chrono- 
graph?/, commencing with the creation, 
which he fixes at 5499 b. c, down to a. n. 
221. This calculation forms the basis of 
an era used in the Eastern church, and 
styled the historical era. — II. The sur- 
name of the Scipios, from their victories in 
Africa over the Carthaginians. See Scipio. 

Africum mare, that part of the Me- 
diterranean which is on the coast of Africa. 

Agamedes and Trophoniiis, two archi- 
tects and brothers, who built the temple 
of Apollo at Delphi, when rased for the 
fourth time. Having demanded a recom- 
pence, the oracle informed them that they 
would receive it in seven days, the inter- 
mediate time to be spent in festivity ; and 
on the seventh night they were found dead 
in their beds. But according to Pausanias, 
Agamedes and Trophonius were sons of 
Erginus, king of Orchomenus, or rather 
that the latter was the son of Apollo, and 
the former of the king. On attaining to 
manhood, they became skilful in building 
temples for the gods, and palaces for kings. 
They constructed a treasury for Hyrieus, 
in the wall of which they placed a stone in 
such a manner that they could take it out 
whenever they pleased, and in consequence 
of this they carried away from time to time 
portions of the treasure. Agamedes was 
at last caught in a trap placed to secure 
the robber, on which his brother cut off his 
head to prevent discovery. Trophonius 
was swallowed up in an opening of the 
earth in the grove of Lebedea. See Tro- 
phonius. 

Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and Ar- 
gos, brother to Menelaus, and son of 
Plisthenes, the son of Atreus. On the 
murder of Atreus,, his brother Thyestes 
seized the kingdom of Argos, and removed 



Agamemnon and Menelaus, who fled to 
Polyphides, king of Sicyoni and hence to 
OZ'neus, king of iEtolia, where they were 
educated. Agamemnon married Clytem- 
nestra, and Menelaus Helen, daughters of 
Tyndarus, king of Sparta, who assisted 
them to recover their father's kingdom. 
Agamemnon established himself at My- 
cenae, whilst Menelaus succeeded to his 
father-in-law at Sparta. When Helen was 
stolen by Paris, Agamemnon was elected 
commander-in-chief of the Grecian forces 
going against Troy. Their fleet being de- 
tained at Aulis, he sacrificed his daughter 
Iphigenia to appease Diana. His dispute 
with Achilles before the walls of Troy re- 
specting the captive Chryseis, and the con- 
sequent loss to the Greeks of the services 
of Achilles, form one of the chief subjects 
of the Iliad. After the ruin of Troy, 
Cassandra, daughter of Priam, fell to his 
share, and foretold him that his wife would 
put him to death ; but he was deaf to her 
admonitions, and was subsequently, upon 
his arrival at Argos, assassinated by Cly- 
temnestra and her paramour iEgisthus as 
he came from the bath. His death was 
revenged by his son Orestes, sometimes 
called Agamemnonius. 

Aganippe, a celebrated fountain of 
Boeotia, near the summit of Mt. Helicon. 
It flows into the Permessus, and is sacred 
to the Muses, thence called Aganippides. 
Ovid has, "fontes Ayanipidos Hippocrenes" 
where the epithet Aganipis is equivalent 
merely to " Musis sacra." 

Agapenor, son of Ancseus, and grandson 
of Lycurgus. He led the Arcadian forces 
in the expedition against Troy, and after 
its fall founded Paphos in Cyprus. 

Agarista, a daughter of Hippocrates, 
married Xantippus. She dreamt that she 
had brought forth a lion, and a few days 
afterwards became mother of Pericles. 

Agassje, a city of Thessaly, given up to 
plunder by P. iEmilius for having re- 
volted to Perseus after its surrender. 
Ruins of it are found near the modern 
Cqjani. 

Agasus, a harbour of Apulia, near the 
Promontorium Garganum ; supposed to 
answer to Porto Greco. 

Agatharchides or Ag athercus, a native 
of Cnidus in Asia Minor, and a writer of 
geography in the time of Ptolemy VI., 
king of Egypt. His works embody much 
curious and original information. See 
Hudson s Minor Greek Geography, vol. i. 

Agatharchus, an Athenian artist, said to 
have invented scene -painting. He was con- 
temporary with /Eschylus. — 1 1. A Samiart 
painter, contemporary with Zeuxis. He 

1 



AGA 



AGE 



33 



prided himself upon his rapidity of execu- 
tion, and received from Zeuxis the famous 
retort, that if the former executed his works 
in a short time, he (Zeuxis) painted "for a 
long time," i. e. for posterity. 

Agathemerus, a Greek geographer, who 
lived during the third century of our era. 
His chief work is an " Abridgment of 
Geography ; " but his remains are contained 
in Hudson's Minor Greek Geography. 

Agathias, a poet and historian, born at 
Myrina, in iEolis, about a, d. 536. He 
studied at Alexandria, and afterwards went 
to Constantinople, where he wrote his 
chief historical work, in four books, which 
is said to be of great importance for the 
history of Persia. He is supposed to have 
been a Christian. 

Agatho, an Athenian tragic writer, the 
contemporary and friend of Euripides. 

Agathocles, L, the son of Carcinus, 
who, expelled from Rhegium, resided at 
Therma? in Sicily. He was sent to Sy- 
racuse to learn the trade of a potter, and 
was drawn from obscurity by Damas, a 
noble Syracusan, who placed him at the 
head of an army sent against Agrigentum. 
By a marriage with the widow of Damas, 
he became one of the wealthiest men of 
Syracuse. After the death of Sosistratus, 
he usurped the sovereignty, and conquered 
the greater part of Sicily, b. c. 317. He 
maintained his power twenty-eight years. 
To strengthen his authority, he endeavoured 
to drive the Carthaginians from Sicily. 
Defeated by them, and besieged in Syra- 
cuse, he boldly resolved to pass over into 
Africa, where he fought for four years, till 
307, generally with success. He after- 
wards passed into Italy, where he van- 
I quished the Bruttii, and sacked Crotona. 
The grand object of his ambition was to 
render Sicily a great naval power ; and he 
had advanced far and successfully in the 
prosecution of this attempt, when he died, 
according to one account, in consequence 
of a miserable and wasting illness, but, ac- 
cording to a more probable story, in con- 
sequence of poison administered by Msenon, 
one of his associates, in concert with his 
own grandson, b. c. 289, in the seventy- 
second year of his age, and in the 29th 
. of his reign. — II. A son of Lysima- 
machus, taken prisoner by the Geta;. On 
being ransomed he married Lysandra, 
daughter of Ptol. Lagus. He was mur- 
dered at the instigation of his stepmother 
Arsinoe, daughter of Lysander, whom his 
father had married in his old age. 

Agathyrna, or Agathvrnum, a city of 
Sicily, on the northern coast. The Roman 
consul Laevinus carried away from the 



place a motley rabble, 4,000 in number, 
and brought them to Rhegium, whose in- 
habitants wanted a band trained to rob- 
beries for the purpose of ravaging Bruttium. 
The modern St. Agatha stands near its site. 

Agathyrsi, a nation respecting whom 
ancient writers are greatly at variance. 
Herodotus places them near Maris, Morosch, 
in what is now Transylvania ; but the 
name is supposed to be only appellative, 
and applied to different tribes. 

Agave, daughter of Cadmus and Her- 
mione, wife of Echion, and mother of 
Pentheus, who was torn to pieces by the 
Bacchanals. See Pentheus. 

Agdestis, a genius or deity, mentioned 
in the legends of Phrygia, and connected 
with the mythus of Cybele and Atys. He 
was an androgynous deity, and appears to 
be the same with the Adagbus of the an- 
cient writers. 

Ageladas, an eminent statuary of Argos, 
born b. c. 540. He was the instructor of 
Phidias, Polycletus, and Myron. 

Agelaus, I., a king of Corinth, son of 
Ixion. — II. A. son of Hercules and Om- 
phale, from whom Croesus was descended. 

Agendjcum, Agendincum, or Agedicum, 
a city of Gaul, metropolis of Sedonia, of 
Lugdunensis Quarta. Its later name was 
Senones, now Sens. 

Agenor, the name of several individuals 
in antiquity, of whom the chief was king 
of Phoenicia, son of Neptune and Libya, 
brother of Belus, and father of Cadmus, 
Phoenix, Cilix, and Europa, by Telephassa 
or Argiope, daughter of Nil us. 

Agenorides, a patronymic applied to 
the descendants of Agenor, king of Phoe- 
nicia. 

Agesander, a distinguished sculptor of 
Rhodes, whose age is now generally re- 
ferred to the first century of our era. He 
is considered as one of the three artists who 
executed the famous group of Laocoon 
and his sons, now in the Vatican at Rome. 
See Laocoon. 

Acesilaus, I., king of Sparta, of the 
family of Agidae, son of Doryssus, and father 
of Archelaus. During his reign Lycurgus 
instituted his famous laws. — II. A son of 
Archidamus, of the family of the Proclidae, 
made king in preference to his nephew 
Leotychidi.s. He made war against Ar- 
taxerxes, king of Persia, with success ; but 
in the midst of his conquests in Asia the 
gold of Artaxerxes occasioned a diversion 
and he was recalled home to oppose the 
Athenians and Boeotians, who desolated his 
country. Agesilaus was beginning to re- 
pair his country's losses, when the battle 
of Mantinea humbled for ever the Spartan 
c 5 



S4 



AGE 



AGO 



pride. He died in his eighty-fourth year, 
after a reign of 41 years, b. c. 363. — III. 
A brother of Themistocles, who, having 
entered the Persian camp, stabbed a fa- 
vourite instead of Xerxes, whom he had 
intended to assassinate. Arraigned before 
Xerxes, he thrust his hand into the fire, 
and informed the monarch that all his 
countrymen were prepared to do the same. 

Agesifolis, I., king of Lacedasmon, and 
son of Pausanias, succeeded to the throne 
while still a minor, b. c. 394. He sig- 
nalised himself by a victory over the Ar- 
gives, by ravaging their territory, and by 
the destruction of Torone in Macedonia. 
He reigned fourteen years, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Cleombrotus, b. c. 
380. — II. One of the royal line of the 
Agidas, raised to the throne of Lacedaamon 
while young, and placed under Cleomenes 
and Lycurgus, who afterwards dispossessed 
him of his kingdom, b. c. 1 95. He was 
subsequently murdered by pirates when 
on a voyage to Rome, b. c. 183. 

Agid^e, or EuitYSTHENiDiE, descendants 
of Agis, son of Eurysthenes, who shared 
the throne of Sparta with the Proclida?. 

Agis, a name common to several 
Spartan kings, and other individuals. The 
Spartan monarchs were the following : — 
Agis I. succeeded his father Eurysthenes, 
b. c. 1060. He was the founder of the 
family of the Agidae. — II. Succeeded his 
father Archidamus, and did much mis- 
chief to the Athenians in the Pelopon- 
nesian war. He died b. c. 397, and was 
succeeded by Agesilaus the Great. — III. 
Son of Archidamus III., succeeded to the 
throne b.c. 338. He was a contemporary 
of Alexander the Great, and .is chiefly 
known from his connection with the at- 
tempt which the Spartans and their allies 
made to overthrow the Macedonian su- 
premacy in Greece during Alexander's ab- 
sence in Asia. After a reign of nine years, 
he was killed in battle by Antipater, one of 
Alexander's generals, b. c. 330. In this 
battle fell 5,360 Lacedaemonians. — IV. 
The last king of the line of the Proclidae, 
and, according to one account, a lineal 
descendant of Agesilaus, succeeded his 
father Eudamidas II. He was not 
remarkable for any brilliant military 
achievement, but his reign was chiefly 
remarkable for his unsuccessful attempt to 
restore the laws of Lycurgus at Sparta. 
The perfidy of friends, who pretended 
to second his views, brought him into diffi- 
culties ; and he was at last dragged from 
a temple, in which he had taken refuge, 
to a prison, where he was strangled by 
orders of the ephori. His grandmother 



and mother shared the same fate ; and his 
widow was married against her will to 
Cleomenes, son of Leonidas. 

Agisimba, the most southern district of 
Africa with which the Romans were 
acquainted. It corresponds to Ashen in 
Nigritia. 

Aglaia, one of the Graces; called some- 
times Pasiphae. 

Aglaonice, a Thessalian lady, so skilled 
in astronomy that she boasted of her power 
to draw the moon from heaven. 

Aglaofhon, I., a painter of the isle of 
Thasus, who flourished in the 70th 
Olymp. , about b. c. 500. He was the father 
and master of Polygnotus and Aristophon. 
— II. A son of Aristophon, and grandson 
of the preceding, also distinguished as a 
painter. 

Aglauros. See Agraulos. 

Aglaus, a native of Psophis, and the 
poorest man of Arcadia, but pronounced 
by the oracle more happy than Gyges, 
king of Lydia. 

Agnojuce, an Athenian virgin, who dis- 
guised her sex to learn medicine. She 
was taught by Hierophilus the art of mid- 
wifery, and when employed always dis- 
covered her sex to her patients. This 
brought her into so much practice, that the 
males of her profession accused her before 
the Areopagus of corruption. She con- 
fessed her sex to the judges, and a law was 
immediately made to empower all free-born 
women to learn midwifery. 

Agnonides, a rhetorician of Athens, who 
accused Phocion of betraying the Pira?us 
to Nicanor, and procured his condem- 
nation. When the people recollected the 
services of Phocion, they raised him 
statues, and put to death his accuser. 

Agonalia and Agonia, a festival at 
Rome in honour of Janus, celebrated on 
the 9th of January. 

Agones Capitolini, games instituted 
by Domitian, a. u. c. 839, and celebrated 
every fifth year on the Capitoline Hill. 
Prizes were proposed for agility and 
strength, as well as literary compositions. 

Agoracritus, a celebrated statuary of 
Paros, who lived in the fifth century b. c. 
He was a pupil of Phidias, and executed 
many works of great repute, but more 
especially the statues of Jupiter and Cybele, 
at Athens, and one of Venus, which he 
sold to the people of Rhamnus, and called 
it Nemesis, in revenge for the slight the 
Athenians had shown in preferring the 
statue of his rival, Alcamenes. 

Agoranomi, public functionaries in 
most of the Grecian cities, whose duties 
bore a great resemblance to those of the 



AGR 



AGR 



35 



Roman aediles. At Athens their number 
was ten ; five for the city, and five for the 
Pirasus. They had the care of all saleable 
commodities in the market, except corn ; 
were employed in maintaining order, and 
seeing that no one took any unreasonable 
advantage in buying or selling. 

Agrari^e leges, laws enacted in Rome 
for the division of public lands. Niebuhr 
shows that these laws, so long considered 
in the light of unjust attacks on private 
property, had for their object only the 
distribution of lands the property of the 
state, and that the troubles to which they 
gave rise were occasioned by the oppo- 
sition of persons settled on these lands 
without having acquired any title to them. 
The most celebrated movers of these laws 
were Cassius, Licinius, and the two Grac- 
chi, whose reputation has suffered with 
posterity from being intrusted to the 
hands of writers that favoured the party 
whose unjust encroachments were sought 
to be moderated by these laws. 

Agraulia, a festival at Athens, in 
honour of Agraulos or Aglauros, daughter 
of Cecrops, and priestess of Minerva. It 
is supposed to be connected with the 
solemn oath which all adult Athenians 
were obliged to take in the temple of 
Agraulos, " that they would fight for their 
country, and always obey its laws." 

Agraulos, or Aglauros, L, daughter of 
Actasus, king of Attica, and the wife of 
Cecrops. — II. Daughter of Cecrops, and 
priestess of Minerva, changed by Mercury 
into a black stone for endeavouring to 
prevent his entrance into the apartment of 
her sister Herse. 

Agrianes, a river of Thrace (Ergene), 
running into the Hebrus. It was the 
name also of a tribe dwelling on its banks ; 
and of a people of Illyria, probably a 
branch of the former. 

Agricola, Cneius Julius, a Roman 
commander, born a. d. 38, at Forum Julii, 
now Frejus, in the reign of Caligula, by 
whom his father, Julius Grsecinus, was 
put to death for refusing to plead against 
Marcus Silanus. He owed his excellent 
education to his mother, Julia Procilla, 
who was murdered on her estate in 
Liguria by a descent of freebooters from 
the piratical fleet of Otho. The first mili- 
tary service of Agricola was under Suet. 
Paulinus in Britain. On his return to 
Rome he married a lady of rank, and was 
made quasstor in Asia, where be main- 
tained the strictest integrity. He was 
chosen tribune of the people, and praetor, 
under Nero; and under Galba, in the com- 
motion of whose accession he lost his 



mother, as above mentioned, he was ap- 
pointed commissioner to examine the state 
of the treasures belonging to the temples 
which Nero had avariciously confiscated. 
By Vespasian he was made a patrician and 
governor of Aquitania, which post he held 
for three years. The dignity of consul 
followed, and in the same year he married 
his daughter to the historian Tacitus. He 
was soon after made governor of Britain, 
and carried his conquests into a remote 
district of Scotland, where the famous en- 
gagement took place between the Romans 
and the Caledonians, under the able, though 
unsuccessful, leadership of Galgacus. Do- 
mitian, envying his virtues, recalled him, 
and ordered him to enter Rome in the 
night, that no triumph might be granted 
to him. Agricola obeyed, and without 
betraying any resentment retired into pri- 
vate life. He died a. d. 93, in his fifty- 
fourth year, leaving a widow, and one 
daughter, wife of Tacitus, not without sus- 
picion of having been poisoned by the 
tyrant. 

Agrigentum, now Girgenti, a celebrated 
city of Sicily, about three miles from 
the southern coast, in what is now called 
the valley of Mazara. The Greek form 
of the name was Acragas, or Agragas, 
from a small stream in the neighbourhood ; 
but the primitive name of the city was 
Camicus. Agrigentum was not only one 
of the largest and most celebrated cities of 
Sicily, but of the world; and inks admirable 
situation for commerce, its strength, and 
the beauty and grandeur of its buildings, it 
surpassed all the other cities of antiquity. 
This great city was founded, anno 580 b.c, 
by a colony from Gela, another Sicilian 
city, which had itself been founded by a 
colony of Cretans and Rhodians. Most pro- 
bably its government w as at first republican ; 
but it -early became subject to tyrants, or 
princes, of whom Phalaris is one of the 
most ancient, and also the most celebrated. 
After his death the republican form of 
government appears to have been restored, 
and maintained for a considerable period, 
till Theron, an able and politic citizen, 
attained to the supreme direction of 
affairs. On his death, however, the Agri~ 
gentines once more asserted their inde- 
pendence, and established a republican 
government. During the invasion of Sicily 
by the Athenians, Agrigentum remained 
neuter ; nor does history again mention 
it till B.C. 408, when, if we take Dio- 
dorus's account, it seems to have been most 
flourishing, the population being 380,000. 
At this time it was attacked, and blockaded 
by 120,000 Carthaginians, headed by Ha- 
c 6 



36 



AGR 



AGR 



milcar, who desired to separate Agrigen- 
tura from the cause of Syracuse. After 
eight months' siege, the inhabitants were 
forced by hunger to evacuate the place 
during the night, and made for Gela, which 
they reached in safety. Hamilcar and his 
troops made Agrigentum their winter 
quarters, and in the following spring every 
thing valuable was either taken to Carthage 
or sold. Timoleon, according to Plutarch, 
(rather a doubtful authority in these 
matters,) rebuilt the city b. c. 340, and, 
about 30 years after, the Agrigentines at- 
tempted to regain their ancient power in 
Sicily, but were defeated by the Syracu- 
sans. Its history during the Punic wars 
is very imperfectly ascertained. In the 
first it was the ally of Carthage ; and 
during the struggle which made Sicily the 
seat of war it was alternately in the hands 
of the Romans and Carthaginians. Its 
later history must be learnt by a perusal 
of Cicero's orations against Verres, parti- 
cularly the fourth of these eloquent invec- 
tives. Little more is known of the history 
of Agrigentum. Its ruins, many of which 
exist to the present day, are interesting at 
once to the historical student for the re- 
miniscences they suggest, and to the an- 
tiquary and the artist for their instructive 
lessons on ancient architecture. 

Agrionia, an annual festival celebrated 
at Orchomenus in honour of Bacchus, ge- 
nerally in the night. The object of this 
festival is unknown ; but it was solem- 
nised only by women and the priests of 
Bacchus. 

Agbippa, I., M. Vipsanius, a celebrated 
Roman commander, born b. c. 63. His 
civil and military talents, combined with 
his virtue and integrity, raised him to the 
highest offices under Augustus, with whom 
his whole destiny was intimately united. 
The skill and promptness of his manoeu- 
vres insured the success of the battles of 
Philippi, Mylae, and Actium ; the last of 
which procured for Augustus the empire 
of the world. In return for these services 
Agrippa shared with Maecenas the full con- 
fidence of Augustus, who gave him in mar- 
riage his own niece, the sister of the young 
Marcellus. He was even supposed to 
have been marked out by Augustus for his 
successor ; for when the latter was dan- 
gerously ill (b. c. 23), he committed his 
ring to Agrippa. This offended Marcel- 
lus, and Agrippa was removed to Syria. 
On the death of Marcellus he was recalled 
to Rome, where he was married to Julia, 
daughter of the emperor, and widow of Mar- 
• cellus. After this he performed important 
services in Germany, Spain, and the coun- 



tries of the east. On his return he was 
attacked with a fever, which soon termi- 
nated in his death, a. u. c. 742 (b. c. 12), in 
his fifty-first year. His death was the 
signal for universal mourning, so much 
had he endeared himself to all by his ex- 
cellent qualities, and his body was placed 
in the tomb which Augustus had prepared 
for himself. Agrippa was thrice consul ; 
and on his entering upon his third con- 
sulate, he erected the Pantheon, which is 
still regarded as the most beautiful speci- 
men of Roman architecture. His family 
by Julia were Caius and Lucius Caesar, 
Julia, Agrippina, and Agrippa Posthumus, 
born, as his name imports, after the death 
of his father; and it has been observed 
that all these children came to a premature 
end. — II. Caius Caesar, and Lucius Caesar, 
sons of Agrippa and Julia, were adopted, 
together with their brother, Posthumus, by 
the emperor Augustus. While still boys 
the Roman people, by an excess of flattery, 
bestowed upon them the title of Consuls 
Elect, and the name Principes Juventutis. 
They appear to have been of a headstrong 
and petulant character. Caius, having been 
sent to the Armenian war, was treache- 
rously wounded, at the instance of Addo, 
governor of Artagera, and died soon after- 
wards. Lucius died suddenly at Massilia, 
when en route for Spain ; and it is alleged 
that the empress Livia was privy to the 
deed. — III. Posthumus, brother of the 
two preceding, and so named because 
born after his father's death, was adopted, 
like his brothers, by Augustus, but was 
sent into exile by the intrigues of Livia 
and Tiberius. After a lapse of seven years, 
he was on the eve of being recalled, but 
Livia and Tiberius caused him to be as- 
sassinated at the age of twenty-six. — IV. 
Herodes. See Herodes. — V. Menenius. 
See Menenius. 

Agrippina, I., (the Elder,) daughter of 
Marcus V. Agrippa and Julia, married Ger- 
manicus, to whom she bore nine children, 
among whom were Caligula, afterwards 
emperor, and Agrippina, mother of Nero. 
On the death of Augustus she was with 
her husband on the banks of the Rhine, 
when she displayed such courage and 
energy as excited towards her the hatred 
of Livia and Tiberius. She afterwards 
accompanied Germanicus into Syria ; and 
on his being poisoned by Piso, as is sup- 
posed, she carried his ashes to Italy, and 
demanded justice against the murderer. 
Tiberius, jealous of the popular favour 
which continually attended her, treated 
her with great harshness, and at last 
banished her to the island of Pandataria, 



AGR 



ALA 



37 



off Campania, where she lingered for four 
years, and at last died of starvation, A. d. 
S3. — II. (The Younger) daughter of Ger- 
manicus and Agrippina, married Domitius 
JSiiobarbus, hy whom she had Nero. 
After her husband's death she married her 
uncle, the emperor Claudius, whom she 
destroyed, to make way for her son Nero. 
After innumerahle cruelties and crimes, 
she was assassinated by order of her son, 
and as she expired she exclaimed, " Strike 
the belly which could give birth to such a 
monster." 

Agrippina Colonia, a town of the Ubii, 
on the Rhine, where Agrippina, daughter 
of Vipsanius Agrippa, was born. W hen 
she afterwards attained to power, she esta- 
blished there a military colony, and changed 
the name of the town into Colonia Agrip- 
pina. It is the modern Cologne. 

Agrius, son of Parthaon, drove his 
brother CEneus from the throne ; but was 
afterwards expelled by Diomedes, grand- 
son of CEneus, on which he killed himself. 

Agrotera, an annual festival celebrated 
at Athens in honour of Artemis or Diana, 
surnamed Agrotera, from ay pa, the chuce. 
It was instituted by Callimachus the 
Polemarch, who vowed to sacrifice to the 
goddess as many goats as there might be 
enemies killed in a battle which he was 
going to fight against the Persians, who 
had invaded Attica. In conformity with this 
vow, 500 goats were annually sacrificed. 

Agyieis, an appellation given to Apollo, 
from the custom of burning perfumes 
upon the cippi erected in his honour in the 
public streets of Athens. 

Agylla. See Cjere. 

Agyll^ecs, a wrestler of Cleona?, 
scarcely inferior to Hercules in strength. 

Agyridm, a city of Sicily, remarkable 
for the worship of a hero whom a later 
age confounded with the Grecian Hercules. 
It was the birthplace of Diod. Siculus. 

Ahenobarbus. See iExoBARBUs. 

Ajax, L, son of Telamon, was, next to 
Achilles, the bravest of all the Greeks in 
the Trojan war. To Ajax fell the lot of 
opposing Hector, when that hero had 
challenged the bravest of the Greeks to 
single combat. The glory of the anta- 
gonists was equal in the engagement ; and 
at parting they exchanged arms, the bal- 
dric of Ajax serving as the instrument by 
which Hector was, after his fall, attached 
to the car of Achilles. After the death of 
Achilles, Ajax and Ulysses disputed their 
claim to the arms of the hero. When they 
were given to the latter, Ajax became so 
enraged that, in a fit of delirium, he slaugh- 
tered a flock of sheep, supposing them to be 



the sons of Atreus, who had given the prefer- 
ence to Ulysses, and afterwards stabbed him- 
self with his sword, which had been among 
the arms exchanged with Hector, and thus, 
by a singular fatality, the present mutually 
conferred contributed to their mutual de- 
struction. His blood, which ran to the 
ground, was changed into the flower hya- 
cinth, on the petal of which maybe traced 
lines resembling the letters Ai, At, (Alas, 
Alas^), the first and second letters of the 
Greek form of Ajax. His body was 
buried at Sigaeum, some say on Mt. Rhce- 
teum, and his tomb was visited by Alex- 
ander. Sophocles, who has made the 
death of Ajax the subject of one of his 
noblest tragedies, and Horace, state that 
he remained without sepulture. — II. The 
son of O'ileus, king of Locris, surnamed 
Locrian, who went with forty ships to the 
Trojan war, as one of Helen's suitors. 
The night on which Troy was taken he 
offered violence to Cassandra, who had 
fled into Minerva's temple ; and for this 
offence the goddess destroyed his ship in a 
storm. Ajax swam to a rock, and said 
that he was safe in spite of all the gods. 
Such impiety offended Neptune, who 
struck the rock with his trident, and Ajax 
was precipitated into the sea with part of 
the rock, and was drowned. Virgil 
(JEneid, I.) relates his death differently. 

Aidoneus, I., a surname of Pluto, signi- 
fying i?ivisible. — II. A king of the Molossi, 
who imprisoned Theseus, when, along with 
Pirithous, he attempted to carry off his 
wife Proserpine. 

Aimylus, son of Ascanius, was the pro- 
genitor of the noble family of the iEmylii. 

Aius Locimus, a deity to whom the 
Romans erected an altar, in consequence of 
a supernatural warning having been given 
to one Ceditius that Rome would soon be 
attacked by the Gauls. 

Alabanda, a city of Caria, near the 
Maeander ; said to have obtained its appel- 
lation from the hero Alabandus, its founder, 
who was deified after death, and worship- 
■ ped within its walls. 

Alma, games annually celebrated in 
! honour of Athena, surnamed Alea, at 
Tegea, in Arcadia. 

Alagonia, a town of Messenia, with 
temples of Bacchus and Minerva. 

Alalcomen^e, I., a city of Boeotia, cele- 
brated for a temple of Minerva, the ruins 
of which have been discovered by Sir W, 
Gell near the modern village of Sulinara. 
— II. A town on the small island Asteris, 
off the coast of Acarnania. 

Alalia. See Aleria. 

A LAM, a Scythian race, occupying the 



38 



ALA 



ALB 



regions between the Rha and Tanais. 
Towards the north, their power extended 
into Siberia, and their southern inroads 
were pushed as far as the confines of Persia 
and India. They were conquered eventu- 
ally by the Huns, with whom the greatest 
part of the Alani proceeded to invade the 
Gothic empire, though some took refuge 
in the mountains of Caucasus, and others 
joined the northern tribes of Germany, and 
shared in the plunder of the Roman pro- 
vinces of Spain and Gaul. 

AlarIcus, L, the celebrated leader of 
the Visigoths, who plundered Rome in the 
reign of Honorius. He was greatly re- 
spected for his military valour, and during 
his reign he kept the Roman empire in 
continual alarms. He died after a reign 

of thirteen years, a. d. 410 II. Son of 

Euric, succeeded his father as king of the 
Visigoths, a. i). 484. He was defeated 
and slain by Clovis, who would have anni- 
hilated the power of the Visigoths, had not 
Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, put a 
limit to his successes near Aries. 

Alaud^e, the soldiers of one of Caesar's 
legions in Gaul, so called from the large 
crests, resembling the tuft of feathers on 
the head of the lark (alauda), with which 
their helmets were adorned. 

Alazon, a river of Albania, rising in 
Mt. Caucasus, and flowing into the Cyrus; 
now Alozon or Alason. 

Alba, I., Silvius, one of the pretended 
kings of Alba, succeeded his father Lati- 
nus, and reigned thirty-six years. — II. 
Longa, one of the most ancient cities of 
Latium, the origin of which is lost in con- 
jecture. The most fabulous traditions 
attribute its foundation to Ascanius, son 
of iEneas, about 400 years before that of 
Rome itself, and give a succession of its 
kings from Ascanius down to Numitor, 
grandfather of Romulus. It was destroyed 
by Tullus Hostilius, b. c. 665.— III. Doci- 
lia,a city of Liguria (Albizzola). — IV. Fu- 
,centia or Fucensis, a city of the Marsi, near 
the northern shore of the lake Fucinus, 
whence its name. It became a colony of 
Rome a. u. c. 450, and was used as a for- 
tress for illustrious prisoners. — V. Pom- 
peia, a city of Liguria, on the river Tana- 
rus (Alba); probably owed its surname to 
Pomp. Strabo, who colonised several towns 
in Italy. — VI. Graeca, a city of Dacia 
Ripensis, at the confluence of the Danube 
and the Saave. It is now Belgrade. 

Albania, a country of Asia, between the 
Caspian sea and Iberia. The inhabitants 
approached nearer a barbarous than a 
civilised race ; but the soil, though culti- 
vated with great carelessness, afforded 



more than sufficed for their wants. They 
brought into the field against Pompey an 
army of 60,000 infantry, and 22,000 horse. 
The origin of the people is involved in 
great obscurity. They are said by Man- 
nert to have been the progenitors of the 
European Alani. Ancient Albania is at 
present included in the Turkish govern- 
ment of Rumelia. 

Albania Portje. See Fylje, I. 

Albanus, I., Mons, a mountain of La- 
tium, twelve miles from Rome (Monte 
Cavo), dedicated to Jove, under the title of 
Latialis. On the Alban Mount the Feriae 
Latinae, or holy days kept by all the cities 
of the Latin name, were celebrated. Here 
also the Roman generals who were refused 
the honour of the great triumph in the 
city performed the lesser triumph, or ova- 
tion. — II. Lacus, a lake at the foot of the 
Alban Mount, seven miles in circumfe- 
rence, and nearly 1000 feet above the level 
of the sea. It occupies the crater of an ex- 
tinct volcano. Sudden overflowings of the 
lake having threatened the plain below, a 
tunnel or conduit, called by the Italians an 
emissario, was constructed by the Romans, 
a. u. c. 358. This striking work, which 
remains to the present day unimpaired, is 
carried through the rock for the space of 
a mile and a half; and the water which it 
discharges flows into the Tiber about five 
miles below Rome. The tunnel is six feet in 
height and four in breadth, and, notwith- 
standing its vast size, was completed in a 
year. 

Albinovanus, I., Celsus, a young Ro- 
man, and acquaintance of Horace, who ad- 
dresses to him one of his Epistles. He was 
of a literary turn, but addicted to plagia- 
rism. — II. Pedo, a Roman poet, and friend 
of Ovid, who has inscribed to him one of 
his Epistles from Pontus. Some of his 
heroic poetry has reached our time ; but 
the best critics assign a different origin to 
the elegiac verses which bear his name. 

AlbInus, I., Decimus Claudius, a Ro- 
man general, born at Adrumetum in 
Africa ; surnamed Albinus from the white- 
ness of his skin. He was made first 
governor of Gaul, and afterwards of 
Britain, by Commodus. After the murder 
of Pertinax, he was elected emperor by 
the soldiers in Britain. But Severus had 
also been invested with the imperial dig- 
nity ; and these two rivals, with about 
150,000 men each, came into Gaul to 
decide the fate of the empire. Severus 
was conqueror, and he ordered the head of 
Albinus to be cut off, and his body to be 
thrown into the Rhone, a. d. 198. — II. A 
Platonic philosopher of Smyrna in the 



ALB 



ALC 



59 



reign of Antoninus Pius, and preceptor of j 
Galen. His Introduction to the Dialogues 
of Plato is inserted in the second volume ; 
of Fabricius's Bibliotheca Grceca. — III. A I 
name common to a great number of indi- 
viduals belonging to the Gens Posthumia, 
of whom little is known. 

Albion, L, a giant, son of Neptune, 
■who, with his brother Bergion, endeavoured 
to prevent Hercules from passing the 
Rhone. The latter prayed to Jove for 
aid, who destroyed the two brothers by a 
shower of stones. — II. The earlier name 
of the island of Great Britain, called by 
the Romans Britannia Major, from which 
they distinguished Britannia Minor, the 
modern Bretagne. The term is said to be 
derived from the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin 
forms of the word signifying white, in 
reference to the chalky cliffs on its coasts : 
or, perhaps, from an old Celtic word signi- 
fying high, in allusion to its abrupt shores. 

Albis, a river of Germany (the Elbe). 
This was the easternmost stream known 
to the Romans. 

Albula, the more ancient name of the 
Tiber. See Tiberis. 

Albula aquje, some cold mephitic 
springs, sixteen miles from Rome, which 
issued from a small lake, and flowed into 
the river Anio. 

Albunea, the largest of the springs 
which formed the Albula? Aqua?. In the 
vicinity of the fountain was a thick grove, in 
which were a temple and oracle of Faunus. 
The grove and fountain were sacred to 
the nymph Albunea, worshipped at Tibur, 
whose temple still remains on the summit 
of the cliff, overhanging the cascade. 

Alburxds, a ridge of mountains in 
Lucania, on the shores of the Sinus Pa?sta- 
nus, near which was a harbour of the same 
name, Alburnus Portus. 
J^Albutius, I., a wealthy Roman, who 
beat his servants before they were guilty 
of any offence, lest he should have no time 
to punish them when they offended. — II. 
A Roman of the Epicurean school, who 
made himself ridiculous by his affectation 
of Greek manners. About a. u. c. 648 he ; 
was sent as praetor to Sardinia. For some 
small services he believed himself entitled 
to a triumph ; but the senate rejected his 
application. He was accused by Mucius 
Scasvola of extortion, and went into exile j 
at Athens. — III. C. Silus, a rhetorician in 1 
the age of Augustus ; a native of Novaria 
in Cisalpine Gaul, where he exercised the 
functions of aedile. Being grossly insulted 
in his native place, he came to Rome, and 
attained great distinction as a pleader. 
He afterwards starved himself to death. 



Alc^us, one of the most celebrated 
lyric poets of Greece, was born at Mity- 
lene, in Lesbos, and wrote b. c. 600, being 
at once the countryman, contemporarv, and 
admirer of Sappho. He aspired to be 
the poet of liberty, and directed his com- 
positions against the attempts of Pittac-us 
to tyrannise over his native city ; but only 
a few fragments of these remain. His 
name gave its origin to one of the most 
beautiful of lyric metres, the Alcaic, after- 
wards improved and perfected by Horace. 
— There were several other persons of this 
name, but too obscure to be mentioned 
here. 

Alcamenes, L, ninth king of Sparta, 
and one of the Agida?. succeeded his father 

b. c. 749. and reigned thirty-seven years 

II. A statuary of Athens, who flourished 
about b. c. 448. He was the pupil of Phi- 
dias, the contemporary and rival of Agora- 
critus, and executed some works of art, 
which almost rivalled those of his master. 

Alcakder, a Lacedaemonian youth, 
who accidentally put out one of the eves 
of Lycurgus ; but afterwards became one 
of the great lawgiver's warmest friends and 
admirers. 

Alcathocs, a son of Pelops, who, being 
suspected of the murder of his brother, 
Chrysippus, came to Megara, and obtained 
in marriage the king's daughter for hav- 
ing destroyed a wild beast that infested 
the country. In course of time he suc- 
ceeded to the throne, and after his death 
festivals called Alcathoia were instituted 
to his memory. 

Alce, a town of the Celtiberi, in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, called also Alcaratium. 
It answers to Alcaraz, in New Castile. 

Alceste, or Alcestis, the only daughter 
of Pelias who, when Medea had prevailed 
on his other daughters to cut their father 
in pieces in expectation of seeing him re- 
stored to youth, concurred not in the fatal 
deed. Being pursued by her brother 
Acastus, Alcestis fled to her cousin, Ad- 
metus, at Pheras, who married her, and re- 
fused to give her up. Acastus, however, 
marched against him, took him prisoner, and 
threatened to put him to death, when Al- 
cestis heroically surrendered herself into her 
brother's hands, and was put to death in her 
husband's stead. She was afterwards res- 
cued from Hades by Hercules, Admetus 
being inconsolable for her loss. For another 
version of the story, on which is founded 
one of the most beautiful tragedies of Eu- 
ripides, see Admetus. 

Alcetas, I., a king of Epirus, descended 
from Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, and an 
ancestor of Pyrrhus, the enemy of the 



40 



ALC 



ALC 



Romans. Being expelled the throne by 
his subjects, he recovered it by the aid of 
Dionysius the Elder, of Syracuse. There 
were two other sovereigns of Epirus with 
this name. One of them was son of Arym- 
bas, and the immediate predecessor of 
Pyrrhus, who invaded Italy. He was put 
to death by his subjects, along with his 
two sons, for his outrageous conduct, b. c. 
280. — II. A general of Alexander the 
Great, and brother of Perdiccas, whose 
ambitious views he seconded after the 
death of Alexander. He was associated 
with Eumenes in the command of Asia 
Minor ; but on the death of his brother 
retired to Pisidia, where, to avoid falling 
into the hands of Antigonus, he slew him- 
self. 

Alcibiades, an Athenian general and 
statesman, son of Clinias, nephew of Peri- 
cles, and lineally descended from Ajax, 
was born b. c. 450. Conspicuous for 
beauty, and for an insinuating and 
graceful demeanour, he was still more 
conspicuous for his extravagance and dis- 
soluteness ; and though for some time a 
disciple of Socrates, the lessons and ex- 
ample of the master checked but feebly 
the vicious propensities of the pupil. Soon 
after he attained his majority, he served at 
the siege of Potidaea, b. c. 432, in company 
with Socrates, who saved his life, and pro- 
cured for him the crown and suit of ar- 
mour awarded to the most distinguished 
soldier. Eight years afterwards, at the 
.battle of Deli um, he, in his turn, saved the 
life of the philosopher. His first public 
measure was to embroil Athens with 
Sparta, in revenge for her not accepting 
his leadership ; and on the breaking out 
of hostilities between Sparta and the 
Athenians and their allies, b. c. 41 9, he 
took an active part in the engagements 
and complicated negotiations of which the 
Peloponnesus became the scene. Mean- 
while, at his suggestion, a magnificent 
armament was fitted out to rescue the 
Ionian colonies in Sicily from the influence 
of Syracuse, and he himself was associated 
with Nicias and Lamachus in the com- 
mand ; but before he had any opportunity 
of distinguishing himself in this expedition, 
he was recalled to stand his trial for the 
sacrilege that had been perpetrated on the 
Hermse, the guardian statues of Athens, 
and which rumour had ascribed to him 
and his companions, in a drunken frolic, a 
few days prior to his departure from Athens. 
Holding trial equivalent to condemnation, 
he pretended to obey the summons of recall ; 
but disappeared at Thurium in Italy, and 
fled first to Argos, and then to Sparta, 



where his fascinating manners and graceful 
bearing, conjoined with his statesmanlike 
counsels, soon converted the hostility of 
the Spartans into personal friendship and 
esteem. The result is well known. The 
Athenians having laid siege to Syracuse, 
with every probability of success, a Lace- 
daemonian force, at the instigation of Alci- 
biades, was sent to aid the besieged, and 
the Athenian fleet was totally destroyed. 
The loss of the Sicilian armament, while 
it infused new spirits into Lacedaemon, 
added materially to the influence of Alci- 
biades, who now urged the islands in 
Ionia to revolt from the Athenians, and 
procured the ratification of a treaty be- 
tween Sparta and Tissaphernes, satrap of 
Ionia, by no means honourable to the 
former. In effecting this measure, he was 
doubtless influenced by his usual sagacity ; 
for intrigues were soon hatched against 
him in Sparta, which forced him to take 
refuge with Tissaphernes, on whose hospi- 
tality he had now a claim. During his 
sojourn at the Ionian court, at which all 
his talents to please and to counsel were 
exerted to the utmost, the revolution 
which placed the sovereign power in the 
council of four hundred, took place at 
Athens ; and Alcibiades, whose demoerati- 
cal views were deemed likely to be useful 
to the state, was recalled. Under his able 
generalship, the political prospects of the 
Athenians became as brilliant as they had 
been gloomy during his absence ; and the 
first four years after his recall were sig- 
nalized by several great victories by 
land and sea, both in Europe and Asia. 
On his return to Athens he was received 
with enthusiasm ; the records of his mis- 
deeds were destroyed, and he was appointed 
commander-in-chief both by sea and land. 
But his popularity was of short duration. 
The Athenians could associate the name 
of Alcibiades only with victory ; and 
Lysander, the Spartan commander, hav- 
ing defeated the Athenian fleet, and slain 
Antiochus, to whom Alcibiades had left it 
in charge, he was again exposed to the re- 
sentment of the people, and fled to Pharna- 
bazus, who allowed him for a time a safe 
asylum in Phrygia, but finally, at the in- 
stigation of Lysander, caused him to be 
slain by a party armed with missiles, in 
the forty-sixth year of his age, b. c. 404. 

Alcidamas, a disciple of Gorgias the 
Leontine, and contemporary of Isocrates. 
He was a native of Elaea, a city of iEolis, 
in Asia Minor, and composed a treatise on 
rhetoric, a panegyric on death, and a few 
other works, of which only the titles are 
preserved. Two orations are extant, which 



ALC 



ALC 



43 



go by the name of Alcidamas ; but doubts 
are entertained of their authenticity. 

Alcides, L, a name of Hercules, from 
his strength, <xAkt] ; or from his grandfather, 
Alcaeus. — II. A surname of Minerva in 
Macedonia. 

Alcinous, I. A son of Nausifhous, king 
of Phaeacia, praised for his love of agricul- 
ture. He kindly entertained Ulysses, 
who had been shipwrecked on his coast. 
His gardens are beautifully described by 
Homer, and have afforded a favourite 
theme for poets in all succeeding ages. 
See Phjeacia. — II. A Platonic philoso- 
pher, whose age is uncertain ; but usually 
referred to that of the early Roman empe- 
rors. His " Epitome or Manual of the Doc- 
trines of Plato" has been often published. 

Alciphron, the most distinguished of 
the Greek epistolary writers. Nothing is 
known of his life, and even his era is un- 
certain. Some critics place him between 
the years 170 and 350 of the present era; 
others transfer him to the fifth century. 
His letters are remarkable for clearness, 
purity, and simplicity, and are important 
as giving us a representation of Athenian 
manners, drawn from dramatic poets whose 
writings are now lost. 

Alcithoe, a Theban woman, who, hav- 
ing ridiculed the orgies of Bacchus, was 
metamorphosed into a bat, the spindle 
and yarn with which she worked being 
changed into a vine and ivy. 

Alcm^eon, I., a son of Amphiaraus and 
Eriphyle, and a native of Argos. "When 
his father went to the Theban war, where 
he knew he should perish, he directed 
Alemaeon to kill Eryphile (who had 
betrayed him), as soon as his death should 
be announced. The son obeyed the father's 
injunctions, but became mad ; and having 
fled to Psophis, was purified by king Phe- 
geus, and married his daughter Arsinoe or 
Alphesibaea. But the land having ceased 
to bear fruit, by the advice of the oracle 
he repaired to Achelous, who finally re- 
moved the blood stain, and gave him his 
daughter Callirrhoe in marriage. The 
latter having requested in a present Ery- 
phile's famous collar and robe which he 
had presented to Arsinoe, Alemaeon en- 
deavoured to obtain them for her under 
the pretext that he wished to consecrate 
them at Delphi ; but the deception being 
discovered, he was slain by Arsinoe's two 
brothers, Nemenus and Axion, who had 
lain in wait for him. — II. The founder 
of an illustrious family at Athens, called 
Alcmaeonidae. He was the son of Sillus, 
and great-grandson of Nestor, and was 
driven from Messenia, with the rest of Nes- 



I tor's family, by the Heraclidas. — IIT. A 
son of Megacles, whom Croesus invited to 
Sardis, in consequence of the kindness he 
had shown to the persons he had sent to 
consult the oracle at Delphi. Here he 
received the monarch's permission to carry 
from the royal treasury as much gold 
as he could at one time, and availed him- 
self of the offer so profusely as to have 
founded one of the wealthiest families of 
antiquity. — IV. A native of Crotona, 
and disciple of Pythagoras. He is said 
to have been the first that dissected ani- 
mals for the purpose of studying com- 
parative anatomy, and to have paid par- 
ticular attention to the structure of the eye. 

Alcmaeonida, a noble family of Athens, 
descended from Alemaeon, great-grandson 
of Nestor. When driven from Athens by 
the tyranny of the Pisistratidae, they endea- 
voured, though unsuccessfully, to return by 
force of arms, but afterwards succeeded by 
more pacific policy. The temple of Delphi 
having remained in ruins a considerable 
time after a conflagration, they " under- 
took to rebuild it for three hundred talents ; 
and having finished it in a most splendid 
manner, they gained such popularity that 
the Pythia prevailed on the Lacedaemonians 
to deliver their country from the tyranny 
of the Pisistratidae. 

Alcman, an ancient poet, born 670 b. c. 
at Sardis in Lydia ; or, more probably, at 
Sparta, of a Lydian slave, for he lived in 
Sparta, and is called a Lacedaemonian by 
Suidas. He was the parent of amatory, 
poetry among the Greeks, and his compo- 
sitions, of which six books are extant, 
were highly prized by the ancients. . He 
died of the morbus pedicularis. 

Alcmena, daughter of Electryon, king 
of Mycenae, and Anaxo or Lysidice. She 
was engaged in marriage to her cousin 
Amphitryon, son of Alcaeus, when an un- 
expected event caused the nuptials to be 
deferred. Electryon had undertaken an 
expedition against the Teleboans, or sub- 
jects of Taphius, to avenge the death of 
his sons, who had been cut off by the 
sons of Taphius. Returning victorious, 
he was met by Amphitryon, and killed by 
an accidental blow; upon which Sthene- 
lus, brother of Alcmena, availing himself 
of the public odium against Amphitryon, 
drove him from Argolis, and seized on 
the vacant throne, which, at his death, 
devolved upon his son Eurystheus. Am- 
phitryon fled to Thebes, where he was pu- 
rified by Creon ; but when he expected 
that Alcmena would have given him her 
hand, she declined, on the ground that she 
was not satisfied with the punishment in- 



42 



ALC 



ALE 



fiicted on the Teleboans, and intended to 
give her hand to him who should make 
war on them. On this Amphitryon made 
an alliance with Creon and other princes, 
and ravaged the isles of the Teleboans. 
During this expedition, Jupiter, having 
assumed the form of Amphitryon, deceived 
Alcmena, who gave birth to Hercules. After 
Amphitryon's death, she married Rhada- 
manthus, and retired to Ocalea in Boeotia. 

Alcyone. See Halcyone. 

Alcyoneus, a giant, brother of Por- 
phyrion, killed by Hercules. 

Alcyonium mare, a name given to an 
arm of the Sinus Corinthiacus, or gulf of 
Lepanto. 

Alea, a town on the eastern confines of 
Arcadia, famous for the temples of the 
Ephesian Diana, Minerva Alea, and Bac- 
chus, whose festival, called Skyria, was 
celebrated here every third year. 

Alecto, one of the Furies. See Eume- 
nides. 

Alectryon, a youth whom Mars, during 
his amour with Venus, stationed at the 
door to watch the approach of the sun. 
He fell asleep, and Apollo discovered the 
guilty pair. Mars was so incensed that 
he changed Alectryon into a cock ; who, 
still mindful of his neglect, at early dawn 
announces the approach of the sun. 

Alectus, a military prefect and usurper 
in Britain, in the reign of Diocletian. He 
was slain by Asclepiodotus, a. d. 296. 

Aleius Campus, a tract in Cilicia Cam- 
pestris, where Bellerophon wandered and 
perished after he had been thrown from the 
horse Pegasus. 

Alemanni, or Alamanni, a people of 
Germany, situated between the Neckar and 
the Upper Rhine, who united to resist the 
Roman power. They first appeared in a 
hostile attitude on the banks of the Maine, 
where they were defeated by Caracalla, 
who was thence called Alemannicus. They 
afterwards ravaged the Roman territory, 
but were repeatedly defeated and driven 
back to their native forests. They were 
at length overthrown by Clovis, king of 
the Salian Franks, when they ceased to 
exist as a nation, being dispersed over 
Gaul, Switzerland, and Northern Italy. 

Aleria, a city on the eastern coast of 
Corsica. It was founded by the Pho- 
c«eansj under the name of Alalia ; and after 
twenty years was much enlarged by the 
inhabitants of Phocasa, who fled from the 
sway of Cyrus. See Phoc^ea. Its rapid 
advance in maritime power, subsequently 
to its increase of population, excited the 
jealousy of the Etrurians and Carthaginians, 
who gained possession of it, and forced the 



inhabitants to emigrate. In the second 
Punic war, it fell, with the whole island, 
under the Roman sway. Its ruins are to 
be found not far from the mouth of the 
river Tarignano. 

Alesa, or Halesa, a very ancient city 
of Sicily, built by Archonides, b. c. 403. 
It stood near the modern Caronia, on the 
Alassus ; Fiume di Caronia. It was ex- 
empted by the Romans from taxes. 

Alesia, or Alexia, an ancient city of the 
Mandubii, in Gallia Celtica. It was de 
stroyed by Caesar after a famous siege, but 
rebuilt, and became a place of consequence 
under the Roman emperors. It was laid 
in ruins in the ninth century by the Nor- 
mans. Its site is probably occupied by 
the modern village of Alise, at the foot of 
Mt. Auxois. 

Alesium, a mountain near Mantinea, on 
which were a grove dedicated to Ceres, and 
the temple of the equestrian Neptune. It 
derived its name from the wanderings of 
Rhea. 

Aleuadje, a family of Larissa in Thes- 
saly, descended from Aleuas, king of that 
country. At the Persian invasion of 
Greece they compelled the Thessalians to 
take part with Xerxes. 

Aleuas, king of Thessaly, and founder 
of the family Aleuada?. He is styled by 
Ovid Larissceus, from his having resided 
at Larissa. 

Alexamenus, an iEtolian, who killed 
Nabis, tyrant of Lacedaamon, and was soon 
after murdered by the Lacedaemonians. 

Alexander, a name of very common 
occurrence in antiquity, designating kings 
and private persons. We shall here clas- 
sify the monarchs by countries, and then 
notice private or less conspicuous persons. 
1 . Kings of Macedonia. 

Alexander I., son of Amyntas 1., and 
tenth king of Macedonia, ascended the 
throne 497 b. c. When still a youth, he 
killed the Persian ambassadors for their 
immodest behaviour to the women of his 
father's court ; and with him the glory of 
Macedon may he said to have commenced. 
He died after a reign of forty-three years, 
having greatly enlarged his territories by 
conquest. 

Alexander II., son of Amyntas II., 
and sixteenth king of Macedonia. He 
overran great part of Thessaly ; but was 
treacherously slain by order of Ptolemy 
Alorites, whom he had appointed governor 
of Macedonia in his absence, after a reign 
of two years, b. c. 367. 

Alexander III., surnamed the Great, 
son of Philip and Olympias, born at Pella, 
b. c. 356, the same day on which the 



ALE 



ALE 



43 



temple of Diana at Ephesus was destroyed. 
Philip confided his education first to Le- 
onatus and to Lysimachus, and afterwards to 
Aristotle. While very young he gave se- 
veral proofs of skill and manly courage ; one 
of which, the breaking in of his fiery courser 
Bucephalus, which had mastered every other 
rider, convinced his father of his future un- 
conquerable spirit. His first essay in arms 
was made at the battle of Cheronaea, b. c. 
338, when Philip crushed the united forces 
of Thebes and Athens with their allies, 
and established the Macedonian supremacy 
in Greece. After the battle Philip, em- 
bracing Alexander, said, " Go my son, seek 
another empire, for that which I leave you 
is • unworthy of you." Alexander subse- 
quently sided with his mother in the dis- 
putes which led to her divorce from Philip, 
and was consequently obliged to flee to 
Epirus ; and, singularly enough, the very 
day on which a reconciliation took place, 
Philip was assassinated in the midst of his 
preparations for his grand expedition to 
Asia, and Alexander succeeded to the 
throne in his twentieth year. His youth 
at first excited several of the Grecian 
states to endeavour to set aside the Mace- 
donian ascendency ; but by a sudden march 
into Thessaly he overawed the most active ; 
and when, on a report of his death, the 
various states were excited into great com- 
motion, he punished the revolt of Thebes 
with a severity which prevented any imi- 
tation of its example ; razing it to the 
ground, with the exception of the house 
of the poet Pindar, and stripping the 
the inhabitants of all their possessions, 
and selling them into slavery. He then 
proceeded to Corinth, where his office 
of superior commander was recognised; 
left Antipater his viceroy in Macedon ; 
and in the twenty-second year of his 
age, passed the Hellespont to overturn 
the Persian empire, with an army not 
exceeding 4,500 horse, and 30,000 foot. 
On approaching the Granicus, he learned 
that several Persian satraps, with 20,000 
foot and as many horse, awaited him on 
the other side ; but without delay he 
led his army through the river, and gained 
a complete victory, which resulted in 
the freedom and restoration of all the 
Greek cities in Asia Minor. At Gor- 
dium, where he assembled his army, he 
is said to have cut the famous knot on 
which the fate of Asia depended. Shortly 
after this, he again defeated the king of 
Persia near the Issus, obtained possession 
of immense treasures, and took many pri- 
soners captive, among whom were the 
mother, wife, and daughter of Darius. 



This victory was followed by the conquest 
of Syria. Being refused admission into 
Tyre, he laid siege to it, and took it in 
seven months. He continued his victorious 
march through Palestine, where all the 
towns surrendered, except Gaza, which 
shared the fate of Tyre. Egypt, wearied of 
the Persian yoke, next received him as a de- 
liverer. Here he founded Alexandria, at the 
mouth of the Nile. Thence he advanced into 
Libya, to visit the temple of Jupiter Ammon, 
whose son he was anxious to be considered, 
After his return, he set out in quest of 
Darius. Having crossed the Tigris and 
Euphrates, he came up with him near the 
city Arbela, at the head of an immense 
army, and after a bloody engagement 
gained a complete victory. Intoxicated 
with prosperity, he now gave himself up 
to intemperance and debauchery. As- 
suming the manners and dress of the 
Persians, he ordered himself to be wor- 
shipped as a god ; and, either in anger 
or drunkenness, put to death or killed 
several of his best friends, — Parmenio, 
Callisthenes, and Clitus. Still, however, 
he pursued his conquests. Having crossed 
the river Jaxartes, he defeated an army of 
the Scythians. He then turned his arms 
against India, and in a great battle defeated 
Porus, an illustrious prince of that country, 
on the banks of the Hydaspes. Here he 
lost his famous horse Bucephalus, and 
built a city which he called by his name. 
Having advanced as far as the Hyphasus, 
conquering a great many nations in his 
progress, and performing incredible ex- 
ploits, he resolved to lead his army as far 
as the Ganges, and beyond it ; but his sol- 
diers refused to follow him, and he was 
forced reluctantly to return. He accord- 
ingly erected twelve altars, of an extraordi- 
nary size, to mark the limits of his progress, 
remnants of which are said to be still in 
existence. He then divided his army into 
two parts. The one, under Nearchus, 
coasted it along from the Indus to the 
mouth of the Euphrates, and from thence 
sailed up to Babylon ; the other, under 
Alexander himself, proceeded by land, 
and encountered the greatest hardships, 
the greater part of his army being cut to 
pieces by the Malli, and himself severely 
wounded. At Ecbatana, on his route to 
Babylon, he lost his favourite Hephcestion, 
for whose death he manifested the most 
poignant grief. On his approach to Ba- 
bylon he was met by embassies from nearly 
every part of the known world, who had 
come to pay homage to the new lord of 
Asia. The priests of the temple of Belus 
; endeavoured to persuade the king that he 



44 



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ALE 



could not safely enter the city, but he de- 
spised their warnings. Here he proposed to 
fix the seat of his empire, and to live in a 
style of even more than eastern splendour ; 
but in the midst of his preparations for 
6ome magnificent enterprises he suddenly 
became sick, and died after a few days' 
illness, b. c. 323. The immediate cause of 
his death has been variously related: some 
attribute it to dissipation, others to poison ; 
but the most probable hypothesis is, that 
he died of fever, contracted while super- 
intending the works in the marshes round 
Babylon, aggravated by a recent debauch. 
So perished Alexander the Great, in the 
thirty-second year of his age, after a reign of 
twelve years and eight months. His im- 
mense empire became the scene of con- 
tinual wars, for he had designated no heir ; 
and when asked by his friends to whom he 
left the empire, he answered, " To the 
worthiest." After many disturbances, 
however, the generals acknowledged Ari- 
daeus, a man of weak mind, son of Philip 
and the dancer Philinna, and Alexander, 
posthumous son of Alexander and Roxana, 
as kings ; divided the provinces among 
themselves, under the name of satrapies ; 
and appointed Perdiccas, to whom Alex- 
ander had given his ring, prime minister 
of the two kings. His body was embalmed 
according to the Persian usage, and was 
said to be finally deposited at Alexandria, 
in Egypt, though all the circumstances 
connected with its transport are very 
contradictory and uncertain. A sarco- 
phagus in the British Museum, which 
was brought from Alexandria, has been 
called, upon insufficient grounds, the 
sarcophagus of Alexander. After many 
dissensions, the generals of Alexander laid 
the foundations of several empires in the 
three quarters of the globe. Ptolemy 
seized Egypt, where he firmly established 
himself, and where his successors were 
called Ptolemies, in honour of the founder 
of their empire, which subsisted till the 
time of Augustus. Seleucus and his pos- 
terity reigned in Babylon and Syria ; while 
Antigonus established himself in Asia 
Minor, and Antipater in Macedonia ; but 
neither of the latter transmitted their do- 
minions to their descendants. 

Alexander IV., posthumous son of 
Alexander the Great and his wife Roxana. 
While yet an infant, he was proclaimed 
king, conjointly with Philip Aridaeus, an 
illegitimate son of Philip of Macedon ; but 
was put to death in his thirteenth year, I 
together with his mother, by Cassander, 
who thereupon assumed the sovereign 
power. 



Alexander V., third son of Cassander, 
ascended the throne of Macedonia, together 
with his brother Antipater, b. c. 298, after 
the death of their eldest brother Philip 
Antipater having put to death their mother 
Thessalonica, Alexander requested the aid 
of Demetrius, son of Antigonus, to avenge 
his parent ; but a reconciliation having 
taken place between the brothers, Deme- 
trius slew Alexander, and seized upon the 
royal authority. 

2. Kings of Epirus. 
Alexander I., surnamed Molossus, 

brother of Olympias, wife of Philip of Ma- 
cedon, and successor of Alybas. Having 
banished Timolaus to the Peloponnesus, 
he came into Italy to aid the Tarentines 
against the Romans, and used to say that 
while he was fighting against men, his 
nephew, Alexander the Great, was warring 
against women (in allusion to the effe- 
minate nations of the East). For the 
manner of his death, see Acheron. — II. 
He first assumed the title of King of Kpirus. 

Alexander II., son of the celebrated 
Pyrrhus ; to avenge whose death he seized 
upon Macedonia, of which Antigonus, 
against whom he was fighting, was king. 
He was expelled not only from Ma- 
cedonia, but from his own dominions, by 
Demetrius, son of Antigonus ; but, by the 
aid of the Acarnanians, among whom he 
had taken refuge, he regained the throne 
of Epirus. 

3. Kings of Syria. 
Alexander I., surnamed Bala or Ba- 

las, a man of low origin, but of great talents 
and audacity, who feigned himself a son of 
Antiochus Epiphanes, and as such claimed 
the right of succeeding him. The Roman 
senate acknowledged his pretensions to the 
throne; and Ariarethes,kingof Cappadocia, 
Ptolemy, and Attalus, king of Pergamus, 
sent troops to him, and defeated in his first 
battle Demetrius, the lawful heir to the 
throne. He received reinforcements from 
his allies, and in a second bloody engagement 
gained a decisive victory, mounted the 
throne, and married Cleopatra, a daughter 
of Ptolemaeus Philometor. His govern- 
ment being established, he left the cares of 
it to his favourite Ammonius, in order to 
devote himself to a luxurious life ; but 
Demetrius resumed his pretensions to the 
throne, and compelled him to flee into 
Arabia, where he was murdered, contrary 
to the law of hospitality. 

Alexander II., surnamed Zabini or 
Zebenna, a usurper of the throne of Syria. 
He feigned himself to be the son of Alex- 
ander Bela ; and being aided by Ptolemy 
Physcon, he defeated Demetrius Nicator, 



ALE 



ALE 



45 



and drove him from his kingdom. A 
few years afterwards, however, he was de- 
feated by Antiochus Grypus, son of De- 
metrius (aided by the same Ptolemy), and 
put to death. 

4. Kings of Judcca. 
Alexander I., Jann^eus, third son of 

Johannes Hyrcanus, succeeded his brother 
Aristobulus as king of the Jews, b. c. 106. 
Driven from his kingdom by his subjects, 
who detested him, he took up arms, and 
waged a cruel warfare against them for six 
years. Llaving at last re-entered Jeru- 
salem, he crucified 800 of his subjects ; and 
when safely re-established on the throne, 
he made various conquests in Syria, Ara- 
bia, and Idumea, and finally died at Jeru- 
salem of intemperance, after a reign of 
twenty-seven years. 

Alexander II., son of Aristobulus TL, 
was made prisoner along with his father by 
Pompey ; but effected his escape on the 
way to Rome, raised an army, and made 
some conquests. He was defeated near 
Jerusalem by Marc Antony, who had been 
sent by Gabienus to the aid of Hyrcanus, 
son of Alexander Jannams, and afterwards 
obtained terms of peace at Alexandria ; 
but having taken up arms in behalf of 
Caesar, who had released his father, he fell 
into the hands of Metellus Scipio, and wa9 
beheaded at Antioch. 

Alexander III., son of Herod the 
Great, put to death by his father, along with 
his brother Aristobulus, on false charges 
preferred against them by Pheroras, their 
uncle, and Salome, their aunt. 

5. Kings of Egypt. 
Alexander, I., II., III. See Ptolemy, 

IX., X., XL 

6. Individuals. 
Alexander, L, a son of Jason, a tyrant 
of Pheraa in Thessaly, who seized upon the 
sovereign power, b. c. 368. He was driven 
from his dominions by the Thebans under 
Pelopidas ; but after various reverses and 
successes, established himself in Pherae, 
where he was at last assassinated by 
his wife Hebe. — II. Lyncestes, accused 
of being one of the conspirators against 
the life of Philip of Macedon, but par- 
doned on account of his being among 
the first to acknowledge Alexander after 
his father's death. He was afterwards put 
to death for engaging in a treacherous 
correspondence with Darius. — III. A 
physician of Phrygia, who was put to death 
during the persecution of the Christians 
under Marcus Aurelius, a. d. 177. His 
memory is celebrated by the Roman Ca- 
tholic church, together with those of the 
other martyrs of Leon and Vienne, on 



the 2d of June. He must not be con- 
founded with Alexander of Paphlagonia, 
a celebrated impostor, whose history is 
given by Lucian in his Pseudoma/itis. — • 
IV. A native of JEtolia, who wrote lyric, 
tragic, and epigrammatic poetry. He 
was one of the tragic Pleiades. See 
Pleiades. — V. A phys ; cian of Tralles, 
in the sixth century, whose treatises on 
medicine, some of which are still extant, 
are quoted, even in the present, day, by 
the most illustrious physicians. — VI. Se- 
verus, a Roman emperor. See Sevekus. 
— VII. A native of Cotyeeum in Phrygia, 
or, according to Suidas, of Miletus, who 
flourished in the second century. He took 
the name of Cornelius, from having been a 
slave of Corn. Lentulus, who gave him his 
freedom ; and was surnamed Polyhistor, 
from the multiplicity of his knowledge. — 
VIII. A native of JEgae in Achaia, dis- 
ciple of Xenocrates and Sosigenes, and one of 
the instructors of Nero, born a. d. 37. Some 
critics regard him as the author of the 
commentary upon Aristotle, which is com- 
monly ascribed to Alexander of Aphro- 
disia. — IX. A native of Aphrodisia, in 
Caria, who flourished in the third century, 
and is regarded as the restorer of the 
true doctrine of Aristotle. He was sur- 
named Exegetes, (" interpreter," " ex- 
pounder,") and became the head of a 
class of Aristotelian commentators, styled 
" Alexandrians." 

Alexandria, the name of eighteen cities 
founded by Alexander during his conquests 
in Asia. The most deserving of mention 
are — I. The capital of Egypt under the 
Ptolemies, and one of the most celebrated 
cities of antiquity, founded b. c. 332, was 
situated about twelve miles west of the Ca- 
nopic mouth of the Nile, between the lake 
Mareotis and the beautiful harbour formed 
by the isle of Pharos. See Pharos. It 
was the intention of its founder that it should 
become the seat of his gigantic empire ; 
and though he did not live to realise his 
views, they were fully carried into effect 
by his successors. Forming as it did the 
connecting link between the European, 
African, and Asiatic continents, Alexandria 
soon became the entrepot of the princi- 
pal trade of antiquity, and under the en- 
lightened sway of the Ptolemies even su- 
perseded Athens as a literary metropolis. 
See Alexandrina Schola. Under the 
Roman sway, and still later as part of the 
Eastern empire, Alexandria continued to 
maintain its high reputation for wealth 
and learning, down to the period of the 
Arabian conquest under Omar, a. d. 640. 
From this time she progressively declined 



46 



ALE 



ALF 



till 1497, when her importance was en- I 
tirely annihilated by the discovery of the 
passage to India by the Cape of Good J 
Hope. At the period of her greatest j 
splendour Alexandria occupied an area | 
of fifteen miles, and contained 300,000 free 
inhabitants, besides as many slaves. It was j 
regularly and munificently built, being 
adorned with the most sumptuous theatres, 
palaces, baths, and temples. In the Bru- 
chion, the most beautiful part of the city, 
was situated the Museum, containing the 
splendid library of 400,000 volumes ; the 
rest, amounting to 300,000, were placed 
in the Serapion, or temple of Serapis. Of j 
these the larger portion was burnt during 
the siege of the city by Julius Ccesar, b. c. 
48 ; and either the whole or the principal 
part subsequently collected was destroyed 
a. d. 389, when the Serapion, the greatest 
ornament of Alexandria, was demolished 
by the fanaticism of the Christians. The j 
story which attributes the destruction of 
this library to the commands of Omar 
rests upon very insufficient authority. Of ; 
the monuments of Alexandria that have 
outlived the injuries and the ravages of 
time, the principal are its celebrated 
cisterns, which remain in good preserv- \ 
ation, the south-western amphitheatre, the 
Catacombs, Pompey's Pillar, and Cleo- 
patra's Needle. — II. A city of Sogdiana, 
on the Iaxartes, founded by Alexander 
on the farthest limits of his Scythian 
expedition ; hence called Alexandreschata, j 
i. e. Alexandria Ultima. — There were 
several other cities called after Alexander, 
though not founded by him. Among 
these may be mentioned — III. Troas, I 
a city on the western coast of Mysia, 1 
above the coast of Lectum. It owed its 
origin to Antigonus, who gave it the name 
of Antigonia Troas. After the fall of 1 
Antigonus, the appellation was changed 
to Alexandria Troas by Lysimachus, in • 
honour of Alexander. It became one of ! 
the most flourishing Asiatic colonies of ' 
the Romans. In the Acts of the Apos- 
tles it is styled simply Troas ; and it was 
from this port that St. Paul and St. Luke 
set sail for Macedonia. Constantine in- 
tended to make it the capital of his em- j 
pire, but at last selected Byzantium. In 
allusion to this circumstance, however, the 
ruins of Alexandria Troas are called by 
the Turks Eski (old) Stamboul. — IV. Ad 
Issum, a city of Syria, on the coast of the 
Sinus Issicus. The name of the founder is 
unknown. The modern Scanderoon, or Alex- 
andretta, occupies the site of the ancient 
city. 

Alexandri Arm, according to some the 



limits of Alexander's victories near the 
Tanais. See Hyphasis. 

Alexandri Insula, an island in the Sinus 
Persicus, on the Persian coast. 

Alexandrine Aque, baths in Rome, 
built by Alexander Severus. 

Alexandria Schola, an academy for 
literature and learning of all kinds, in- 
stituted at Alexandria by Ptolemy, son of 
Lagus, and supported by his- successors. 
The grammarians and mathematicians of 
this school were particularly celebrated. 
In the former class occur the well-known 
names of Aristarchus, Harpocration, and 
Aristophanes ; and among the latter were 
numbered the astronomer Ptolemy, and the 
geometer Euclid. The grammarians of 
Alexandria exercised a universal literary 
jurisdiction, publishing canons of those 
who were to be considered standard authors, 
and revised editions of ancient writers. 
But the philosophy of this school was also 
a prominent feature. The influx of doc- 
trines from the eastern and western schools 
produced a striking conflict of systems ; 
which ended in an attempt of the philoso- 
phers Ammonius, Plotinus, and Porphyry, 
to establish an eclectic or universal system, 
by blending together the doctrines of the 
principal existing systems, and particularly 
those of Pythagoras and Plato. Their 
philosophy had a great influence upon the 
doctrines of Christianity, giving rise to most 
of the Gnostic systems. 

Alexicacus, an epithet, signifying 
" averter of evil," applied to various deities 
and heroes, but particularly to Apollo, Ju- 
piter, and Hercules, &c. 

Alexinus, a philosopher of the Megaric 
school, horn at Elis, and remarkable chiefly 
for his captious spirit ; hence he was termed 
'EXey^ivhs, or the fault-finder. He placed 
himself in hostility towards all his contem- 
poraries distinguished for talent, such as 
Aristotle and Zeno ; attempted to found a 
school at Olympia. but failed; and died in 
consequence of an injury received in the 
foot while bathing in the Alpheus. 

Alexion, a physician, intimate with 
Cicero. 

Alexis, I., a comic poet of Thurium, 
uncle and instructor of Menander. He lived 
in the time of A lexander the Great,and wrote 
245 pieces for the stage, none of which, ex- 
cept a few extracts given by Athenseus and 
Stobasus, have been preserved. — II. An 
artist mentioned by Pliny as one of the 
pupils of Polycletus, but without any state- 
ment of his country or his works. 

Alfenus, or Publius Alfenus Varus, 
a barber of Cremona, who, having left his 
business, came to Rome, where he at- 



ALF 



ALO 



47 



tended the lectures of Servius Sulpicius, 
and made so great proficiency in his studies 
as eventually to become the greatest lawyer 
of his day. His name often occurs in the 
Pandects. He was advanced to some of 
the highest offices in the state, and was at 
last elected consul, a.u. c. 755. 

Alfici, a people of Gaul, of warlike 
character, occupying the mountains above 
Massilia ( Marseilles). 

Algioum, a town of Latium, on the Via 
Latina, twelve miles from Rome. 

Algidus, a chain of mountains in Latium, 
near the Tusculan hills, sacred to Diana 
and Fortune. The neighbourhood is re- 
markable for numberless conflicts between 
the Roman armies and their unwearied an- 
tagonists the iEqui and Volsci. The woods 
of the bleak Algidus are a favourite theme 
with Horace. 

Aliacmon. See Haliacmon. 
Alienus Cjecina. See Cjecjua. 
Alif^e, Alifa, or Alipha, Alife, a town 
of Samnium, north-west of the Vulturnus, 
often mentioned by Livy. It was captured 
first by Petilius, a. u. c. 429, and again by 
Rutilius. It was celebrated for the manu- 
facture of drinking cups. 

Alimentus, C, a Roman historian who 
flourished during the second Punic war, 
of which he wrote an account in Greek. 
He also wrote a treatise, De Re Militari, on 
which Vegetius admits his own more elabo- 
rate commentaries to have been founded. 

Alinda, a city of Caria, of considerable 
note and strength. Moglah, the capital of 
modern Caria, occupies its site. 

Alirrothius, a son of Neptune, who, 
when his father was defeated by Minerva in 
his dispute about giving a name to Athens, 
endeavoured to cut down the olive which 
had sprung from the ground and given the 
victory to Minerva ; but, missing his aim 
in the attempt, he cut his own legs so 
severely that he instantly expired. 

Allia, a river in Italy, flowing into the 
Tiber. On its banks the Romans were 
defeated by the Gauls under Brennus, July 
1 7th, b. c. 387. 40,000 Romans were killed 
or put to flight. Hence " Alliensis dies " 
was marked as a most unlucky day. The 
proper name is Alia. 

Allobroges, a people of Gallia, in that 
part of the country now called Dauphine, 
Piedmont, and Savoy. Their chief city was 
Vienna, now Vienne, on the left bank of 
the Rhone. They were finally reduced 
beneath the Roman power by Fab. Maxi- 
mus, hence honoured with the surname of 
Allobrogicus. At a later period the ambas- 
sadors of this nation were tampered with 
by Catiline, but remained firm in their al- 



legiance. The term Allobroges means, 
literally, "the Highlanders." 

Allucius, a prince of the Celtiberi, in 
Spain, whose affianced bride having fallen 
into the hands of the Romans, was restored 
to him uninjured by Scipio Africanus, an 
act of self-control rendered still more illus- 
trious by reason of the surpassing beauty 
of the maiden. 

Almo, I., a small river near Rome, now 
Dachia. At its junction with the Tiber 
the priests of Cybele, every year, washed 
the statue of the goddess. See Lara. — 
II. Eldest of the sons of Tyrrhus. He 
was the first Rutulian killed by the Tro- 
jans ; and from the skirmish which hap- 
pened before and after his death arose the 
enmities which ended in the fall of Turnus. 

Aloa, festivals at Athens in honour of 
Bacchus and Ceres. The oblations were 
the fruits of the earth. Ceres has been 
called from this Aloas or Alois. 

Aloe us, a giant, son of Titan and Terra, 
or, according to others, of Neptune and 
Canace. He married Iphimedia, daughter 
of his brother Triops ; but Iphimedia hav- 
ing a stronger attachment for Neptune than 
for her husband, became by the former mo- 
ther of Otus and Ephialtes, whom Aloeus, 
however, educated as his own ; and hence 
they were called Aloides. They grew up 
nine inches every month ; and when only 
nine years old made war upon heaven with 
the intention of dethroning Jupiter, but 
were killed by Apollo and Diana. See 
Otus and Ephialtes. 

Aloides, or Aloid^e, sons of Aloeus. 
See Aloeus. 

Alope, I., daughter of Cercyon, king of 
Eleusis, and mother of Hippothoon by 
Neptune. Having been put to death by 
order of her father, her baby was at first 
suckled by a mare (hence his name), and 
afterwards brought up by shepherds. When 
he reached manhood he was placed on the 
throne of his grandfather by Theseus, who 
had slain the latter. — II. A town of the 
Locri Ozolee, probably the Olpae of Thu- 
cydides. — III. A city of the Locri 
Opuntii, celebrated for some advantages 
gained by the Athenians over the Locrians 
during the Peloponnesian war. 

Alopece, I., an island in the Palus Mae- 
otis, near the mouth of the Tanais. — II. 
A borough of Attica, north of Hymettus, 
near the Cynosarges, and consequently close 
to Athens. It was the borough of Socrates 
and Aristides. 

Alopeconnesus, one of the chief towns 
of the Thracian Chersonese, on the northern 
coast, famous for its truffles. It was 
taken by Philip of Macedon, towards the 



48 



ALP 



AM A 



commencement of his war with the Ro- 
mans. 

Alpenus, a town south of Thermopylae, 
whence Leonidas and his little band drew 
their supplies ; also called Alpeni. 

Alpes, a chain of mountains separating 
Italia from Gallia, Helvetia, and Ger- 
mania. Their name is derived from their 
height, alp being the old Celtic appellation 
for a lofty mountain. They extend from 
the Sinus Flanaticus, or Gulf of Carnero, 
at the top of the Gulf of Venice, to Vada 
Sabatia, or Savona, on the Gulf of Genoa, 
a distance of 600 miles. They are dis- 
tinguished, according to their situation, 
by the names of Maritima?, Cottia?, Graia?, 
Pennina?, Rha>tica?siveTridentina?, Norica?, 
and Carnica? sive Julia?. Till the reign of 
Augustus the Alps were not well known. 
That emperor finally subdued the savage 
clans which inhabited the Alpine valleys ; 
cleared the passes of the banditti which in- 
fested them ; improved the old roads, and 
constructed new ones ; and succeeded in 
establishing a free communication through 
these mountains. The chain was then di- 
vided into separate portions, which have 
preserved their boundaries and denomi- 
nations nearly to the present day. Among 
the Pennine Alps is Mont Blanc, 14,676' 
feet in height. The principal passes in 
the present day are three : the Great St. 
Bernard, Mont Simplon, and Mont St. Go- 
thard. The route which Hannibal took 
in crossing the Alps has not been ascer- 
tained. 

Alphesibcea. See Arsinoe. 

Alpheus, a celebrated river of antiquity, 
flowing through Arcadia and Elis into the 
Sicilian sea. See Arethusa. It is now 
the Reuphia. 

Alpinus, Cornelius, a wretched poet, 
ridiculed by Horace. Many unavailing 
efforts have been made by the learned to 
ascertain something respecting him. 

Alpis, a river falling into the Danube, 
supposed to be the same with the Aenus or 
Inn. 

Althaea, daughter of Thestius and Eu- 
rythemis, and wife of QEneus, king of Caly- 
don, by whom she had many children. 
Among these was Meleager, whose life she 
saved in childhood, but destroyed when he 
grew up. She afterwards killed herself 
from grief. See Meleager. 

Althemenes, son of Catreus, king of 
Crete. An oracle having predicted that 
he or his brothers were to be their father's 
murderer, he fled to Rhodes to avoid be- 
coming a parricide. After the death of 
all his other sons, Catreus went in seai-ch 
pf his son Althcmenes, who attacked and 



killed him unwittingly. On being apprised 
of the fact, he entreated the gods to re- 
move him ; and the earth immediately 
opened and swallowed him up. 

Altinum, a flourishing city near Aqui- 
leia. It was famous for its baths and 
wool. 

Altis, the sacred grove of Olympia, in 
the centre of which stood the temple of 
Jupiter ; it also contained those of Juno 
and Lucina, the theatre, and prytanaeum. 
See Olympia. 

Aluntium, Alontio, a town of Sicily, on 
the northern coast, not far from Calacta. 

Alyattes, father of Croesus, and succes- 
sor of Sadyattes, as.king of Lydia. He drove 
the Cimmerians from Asia, made war 
against Cyaxares, king of the Medes, and 
died after a reign of fifty-seven years, after 
having brought to a close a war against 
the Milesians. An eclipse of the sun, which 
had been predicted by Thales, terminated 
a battle between this monarch and Cy- 
axares. 

Alypius, I., a philosopher of Alexan- 
dria, contemporary with Jamblichus. He 
was skilful in dialectics, but left no 
works behind him ; all his lectures having 
been delivered orally. — II. A musical 
writer of Alexandria, whose " Introduction 
to Music " is the only work extant through 
which the moderns have become acquainted 
with the notes of the Greek music. He 
lived in the latter half of the fourth cen- 
tury of the Christian era III. A poet, 

general, and architect of Antioch. He 
lived in the time of Julian the x4.postate, at 
whose request he attempted to rebuild the 
temple of Jerusalem. He is also said to 
have written a work on geography. 

Alyzia, a town of Acarnania, about 
fifteen stadia from the sea, and 1 20 from 
Leucas. It is mentioned as an ancient 
city by Scylax and Thucydides. Near it 
was fought an action between the Athe- 
nian admiral Timotheus and the Spartans, 
not long before the battle of Leuctra. It 
was famous for a sculptured group, the 
work of Leucippus, representing the la- 
bours of Hercules, which was afterwards 
removed to Rome. 

Amagetobriga. See Magetobria. 

Amalth^ea, I., daughter of Melissus, 
king of Crete. She was fabled to have 
brought up Jupiter with goat's milk ; 
hence some authors have called her a goat, 
and alleged that Jupiter, to reward her 
kindness, placed her in heaven as a constel- 
lation. He also gave one of her horns to 
the Nymphs, who had taken care of his 
infant years, called the " horn of plenty," 
Cornucopice, with the power to give them 



AMA 



AMB 



49 



whatever they desired. — II. A Sibyl of 
Cumee, called also Hierophile and Demo- 
phile. See Sibylla. 

Amaltheum, a gymnasium which At- 
ticus had opened in his country-house in 
Epirus. It was replete with all that could 
amuse and instruct, and contained besides 
the statues of all the illustrious men by 
whom the Roman state had been advanced 
to its full maturity of fame, just as Jupiter 
had been nurtured by Amalthea. Hence 
its name. 

Amana, or Am anus, a continuation of 
the chain of Mt. Taurus, at the eastern 
extremity of the Mediterranean, Its val- 
leys and recesses were inhabited by fierce 
tribes, who lived on the plunder of their 
neighbours, and appropriately enough called 
themselves Free Cilicians. 

Amanus, also called Omanus, and Anan- 
datus, a deity worshipped in Pontus and 
Cappadocia. He is identical with the 
Sun. 

Amaracus, a son of Cinyras, king of 
Cyprus, who, having broken a vase of per- 
fumes, pined away, either overpowered by 
the fragrance, or struck with grief at the 
loss. The gods changed him into the 
amaracus, " sweet-marjoram." 

Amardi, a nation of Asia, spread over 
different countries, and divided into nu- 
merous colonies. The Persians styled all 
mountain fugitives Amardi. 

Amaryllis, the name of a shepherdess 
common in the pastoral and elegiac poetry 
of the Romans. 

Amarynthus, a town of Euboea, cele- 
brated for the worship and temple of Diana 
Amarynthia. 

Amasenus, La Toppia, a small river of 
Latium, crossing the Pontine marshes, and 
falling into the Tuscan sea. 

Amasia, a city of Pontus, on the river 
Iris, famous for being the birthplace of 
Strabo and Mithridates. Under the Ro- 
man sway it became the capital of Pontus 
Galaticus, and bore upon its coins the title 
of Metropolis. Its modern name has been 
slightly altered to Amasyah. 

Amasis or Amosis, I., the eighth king of 
the twenty-sixth dynasty of Egyptian 
kings, who reigned from e. c. 569 to b.c. 
525. Being sent by Apries (the Pharaoh 
Hophra of Scripture) to quell a mutiny in 
the Egyptian army, he was proclaimed king 
by the rebels, and, returning at the head 
of this army, he defeated and supplanted 
his master. Under his reign Egypt en- 
joyed uninterrupted prosperity. He es- 
tablished an intercourse with foreigners on 
the most liberal footing, and contributed 
in a variety of ways to improve and 
CI. Diet. 



decorate his native country. He married 
a Greek lady of Cyrene. In his reign 
Solon is said to have visited Egypt. He 
was succeeded by his son Psammenitus, 
who was conquered by Cambyses the Per- 
sian. See Psammenitus. — II. A king of 
Egypt, of one of the earlier dynasties, 
who rendered himself so odious to his 
subjects that, on the invasion of Egypt by 
Actisanes, king of ^Ethiopia, the great 
majority went over to the latter. There 
is no certainty respecting the period at 
which he lived. 

Amastris, I., a niece of Darius Codo- 
mannus, and wife of Dionysius, tyrant of 
Heraclea, in Pontus, who left her guardian 
of his children. She was subsequently 
married to Lysimachus, and murdered by 
her own sons. — II. Amastra, a city on the 
coast of Paphlagonia, founded by Amas- 
tris above mentioned. 

Amata, wife of king Latinus, and 
mother of Lavinia. Before the arrival of 
iEneas in Italy she zealously favoured the 
interest of Turnus : and. hung herself in 
despair, on finding she could not prevent 
her daughter's marriage with iEneas. 

Amathus, (gen. untis,} an ancient city 
on the southern side of the island of 
Cyprus, particularly dedicated to Venus 
and Adonis. It was the see of a bishop 
under the Byzantine emperors. Its ruins 
are to be seen near the village of Lim- 
?nesol. 

Amazones, or Amazonides, a nation 
of female warriors, so called from the 
practice that prevailed among them of 
cutting off the right breast to enable them 
to use the bow with greater ease. The 
men among them were kept in an inferior 
condition, attending to the employments 
usually entrusted to women in other na- 
tions, while they themselves managed the 
affairs of state. Diodorus speaks of Afri- 
can Amazons, but they are usually con- 
sidered as of Scythian origin ; and they 
are famed to have extended their conquests 
far and near, and to have founded many 
cities in Asia Minor. Their chief seat 
was Themyscyra, on the river Thermodon, 
near the southern coast of the Euxine sea. 
The stories respecting them are so nume- 
rous and discrepant, that it would be im- 
possible within our limits to attempt to 
recount or reconcile them- The three 
most celebrated of their queens were Pen- 
thesilea, Hyppolita, and Thalestris. 

Amazonius, a surname of Apollo at 
Pyrrhicus, in Laconia, from the protection 
he afforded the inhabitants when attacked 
by the Amazons. 

Amearrj, a people of Gallia Celtica, 

D 



50 



AMB 



AME 



situated along either bank of the Arar, or 
Saone. 

Ambarvalia, rites celebrated in ho- 
nour of Ceres, previously to the harvest, 
so called because the victim was carried 
round the fields (arva ambiebat). See 
Arvales. 

Ambianum, a town of Belgium, anciently 
Samarobriva, now Amiens. 

Ambiatinus Vicus, a village of Ger- 
many, supposed to be Capelle, on the 
Rhine, where Caligula was born. 

Ambigatus, a king of the Celtas, in the 
time of Tarq. Priscus. Seeing the great 
population of his country, he sent his two 
nephews, Sigovesus and Bellovesus, with 
two colonies, in quest of new settlements ; 
the former towards the Hercynian woods, 
and the other towards Italy : — a story 
which evidently owes its origin to the 
simultaneous emigrations of two hordes of 
Gallic warriors. 

Ambiorix, a king of one half of the 
Eburones in Gaul, Cativolcus being king 
of the other half. He was an inveterate 
foe to the Romans, but. was at length de- 
feated by Caesar, after inflicting numerous 
losses upon the Roman general. 

Ambracia, Arta, a celebrated city of 
Epirus, the capital of the country, and the 
residence of Pyrrhus and his descendants. 
Founded b. c. 650 by a colony of Corin- 
thians, its advantageous position, close to 
the Ambracian gulf, soon raised it into ce- 
lebrity ; and towards the commencement 
of the Peloponnesian war it was a powerful 
and independent city. It subsequently 
fell into the possession of Philip of Ma- 
cedon, still later of Pyrrhus, and, last of 
all, of the Romans, who denuded it of all 
the splendour with which Pyrrhus had 
adorned it, and completed its desolation 
by transferring its inhabitants to Nico- 
polis. 

Ambracius Sinus, a gulf of the Ionian 
sea, between Epirus and Acarnania, now 
the Gulf of Arta. 

Ambrones, a Gallic horde who invaded 
the Roman territories with the Teutones 
and Cimbri, and were defeated with great 
slaughter by Marius. 

Ambrosia, I., the celestial food on which 
the gods subsisted, and to which, along 
with nectar, they owed their immortality. 
It was also used by the gods for anointing 
their body and hair, whence Homer speaks 
of the "ambrosial locks" of Jupiter. — II. 
Festivals celebrated in Greece in honour 
of Dionysus, and deriving their name from 
the luxuries of the table. 

Ambrosius, one of the most distinguished 
fathers of the church, was born at Are- 



late, the capital of Gallia Narbonensis, 
a. i). 340. His father dying while he was 
still a child, he was brought to Rome by 
his mother, who had embraced Christi- 
anity, and early initiated in the most 
orthodox doctrines of the church. He de- 
voted himself to the study of law, pleaded 
in the courts, and was appointed proconsul 
of Liguria. After the expiration of his 
term of office he returned to Milan, where 
a circumstance occurred which produced 
a complete change in his career. A dis- 
pute having arisen between the orthodox 
party and the Arians for the vacant see of 
Milan, a.d. 374, he addressed the people in 
the cathedral in order to appease the com- 
motion ; but he was greeted with the unani- 
mous cry, " We will have Ambrose for our 
bishop." Ambrose, who was thirty-four 
years old, had not yet been baptized, and 
in his desire to escape the elevation, for 
which he deemed himself unfit, he pub- 
licly committed some acts of gross in- 
justice and immorality. But the people 
cried, " The offence be upon our heads ; " 
and drawing him from a concealment which 
he had sought, conducted him in triumph 
to Milan, where he was consecrated on the 
eighth day after his baptism. He imme- 
diately made over the whole of his pro* 
perty to the church or the poor ; and spi- 
ritual ambition took entire possession of 
his soul. In the cause of orthodoxy he 
resisted Justina, the Arian mother of Va- 
lentinian II. (see Justina); and to enhance 
the authority of the church, he humbled 
even the great Theodosius. (See Theo- 
dosius. ) He died soon after the emperor 
Theodosius, a. d. 397, in his fifty-eighth 
year, leaving behind him numerous writ- 
ings, of which his treatise " De Officiis" is 
the most celebrated. 

Ambryssus, a city of Phocis, said to 
have been founded by a hero of that name, 
situated north-west of Anticyra, and west 
of Lebeda?a. It was destroyed by the 
Amphictyons, but rebuilt and fortified by 
the Thebans before the battle of Che- 
rona?a. Its ruins are situated near the 
village Dystomo. 

Ambubai^:, Syrian women of immoral 
lives, who attended festivals and assemblies 
as minstrels. 

Amburbium, a sacrifice performed at 
Rome for the purification of the city, in 
the same way that the Ambarvalia were 
intended to purify the country, when any 
danger was apprehended. 

Ameria, a city of Umbria, in the vicinity 
of the Tiber. It was founded 1045 years 
before the Christian era, and subsequently 
attained to the dignity of a Roman colony. 



AME 



AMP 



51 



The celebrated Roscius was born here. 
Its modern name is Amelia. 

Amestratus, Mistretta, a town of Sicily, ' 
near the Halesus, taken by the Romans after j 
a third siege. 

Amestius, wife of Xerxes, king of 
Persia, infamous for her cruelty. 

Amida, a celebrated city in the lower 
empire, situated in the district of Sophene, j 
between Mesopotamia and Armenia, near 
the source of the Tigris. It was taken 
and destroyed by Sapor, but rebuilt, by 
Constans, a. d. 849, who gave it the name 
of Constantia. It is now Diarbekr. 

Amilcar. See Hamilcar. 

Amisia, Ems, a river of Germany, fall- 
ing into the German ocean. 

Amis us, Samsoun, a city of Pontus, on 
the coast of the Euxine, founded by a co- 
lony of Milesians. Pharnaces constituted 
it the capital of his kingdom. 

Amiternom, a city in the territory of 
the Sabines, the birthplace of Sallust the 
historian. Having fallen into the hands 
of the Samnites, it was afterwards re- 
covered by Sp. Carvilius, a. u. c. 459 : and 
became successively a pratfectura and a 
colony of the Romans. 

Ammianus. See Marcellinus. 

Ammochastus, a promontory of Cyprus, 
whence is derived the modern name Fa- 
magosta, or more properly Amgosta, now 
the chief town in the island. 

Ammon or Hammon, the name of an 
Egyptian deity, whom the Greeks consi- 
dered as synonymous with their Jupiter. 
On the Egyptian monuments he is repre- 
sented with a ram's head and a human 
body, the origin of which story has been 
variously given. The temple of the god 
was in the deserts of Libya, and had a 
famous oracle, which was consulted by 
Hercules, Perseus, Alexander, and others. 

Ammonii, a people of Africa, occupying 
what is now the oasis of Siwah. 

Ammonius, the preceptor of Plutarch. 
He lived in the reign of Nero, and taught 
philosophy and mathematics at Delphi. 
— There were several other distinguished 
persons of this name, but their era hardly 
brings them within the scope of this work. 

Amnisus, a port of Gnossus in Crete, 
with a small river of the same name. 

Amonophis. See Memnon. 

Amor, son of Venus, god of Love. See 
Cufido. 

Amorgos, Amorgo, one of the Cyclades, 
where Simonides was born. It gave its 
name to a peculiar linen dress manufac- 
tured in the island. 

Ampelus, I., Sacro, a town and promon- 
tory of Crete, on the eastern coast. — II. A 



promontory of Macedonia, forming the 
lower termination of the Sinus Singiticus. 
Livy calls it the Toronean promontory. 

Ampelusia, called also Cote and Soloe, 
a promontory of Africa on the coast of 
Mauritania ; now Cape Spartel. The an- 
cient name Ampelusia refers to its abound- 
ing in vines. 

Amphares, one of the Spartan ephori 
who put Agis to death, and afterwards 
treated his female relatives with revolting 
barbarity. 

Amphiaraides, a patronymic of Alc- 
maeon, as son of Amphiaraus. 

Amphiaraus, son of Oicleus, or, ac- 
cording to others, of Apollo, by Hyperm- 
nestra, one of the most celebrated sooth- 
sayers of antiquity. He was at the chase 
of the Calydonian boar, and accompanied 
the Argonauts in their expedition ; on his 
return from which, he expelled Adrastus 
from the throne of Argos, his native city. 
But a reconciliation soon afterwards took 
place, Adrastus was restored to the throne, 
and gave Amphiaraus his sister Eriphyle 
in marriage, by whom he had two sons, 
Alcmason and Amphilochus. When Adras- 
tus declared war against Thebes, Amphi- 
araus, knowing, by the spirit of prophecy, 
that he should lose his life if he engaged 
in the war, hid himself to avoid it ; but 
Eriphyle, prevailed on by the present of 
the famous necklace of Harmonia from 
Polynices, discovered the place of his con- 
cealment, and forced him to take part in 
the expedition, but not until he charged 
his son Alcmaeon to slay his mother Eri- 
phyle, as soon as he should be informed 
of his death. The Theban war was fatal 
to the Argives ; and Amphiaraus was swal- 
lowed up in his chariot by the earth, which, 
it was said, was split asunder by a thun- 
derbolt from Jupiter, who thus saved his 
favourite prophet from the dishonour of 
being killed by his enemies. On the news 
of his death being brought to Alcmaaon, 
he immediately executed his father's com- 
mand, by murdering Eriphyle. Amphi- 
araus received divine honours after death, 
and had a celebrated temple and oracle at 
Oropos in Attica. 

Amphic raxes, an Athenian orator, who, 
banished from his country, took up his re- 
sidence at Seleucia, on the Tigris, under 
the protection of Cleopatra, daughter of 
Mithridates, and afterwards starved him- 
self to death, because suspected by her of 
treason. 

Amphictyon, son of Deucalion and 
Pyrrha, reigned at Athens after Cranaus, 
and first attempted to give the interpreta- 
tion of dreams, and draw omens. The es- 
d 2 



52 



AMP 



AMP 



tablishment of the Amphictyonic council 
is sometimes ascribed to him. 

Amphictyones, a congress of the depu- 
ties of twelve northern Greek tribes, viz., 
Thessalians, Boeotians, Dorians, Ionians, 
Perrhasbians, Magnetes, Locrians, QEniani- 
-ans, Achaeans of Phthia, Malians, Phocians, 
and Dolopians or Delphians. In the Do- 
rians and Ionians were included the Lace- 
daemonians and Athenians, who each sent 
one deputy. Each of these tribes had two 
representatives in the council, called the 
Hicromnemon and Pulagoras. The con- 
gress met twice every year ; in the spring 
at Delphi, and in the autumn at Thermo- 
pylae. Its functions do not seem to have 
been of a political nature further than to 
see that no member of the union was des- 
troyed ; but were chiefly directed to reli- 
gious matters, and more especially the 
protection of the temple of the Delphian 
Apollo. Their decisions were held sacred, 
and arms were taken up to enforce them. 

Amphidromia, a festival observed by 
private families at Athens, the fifth day 
after the birth of every child, in which it 
was customary to run round the fire with 
the child in their arms (a/xcpi and 5po/j.os). 

Amphigenia, a town of Messenia, near 
the Hypsoeis. Homer says it was subject 
to Nestor. 

Amphilochus, son of Amphiaraus and 
Eriphyle. After the Trojan war he left 
Argos, his native country, and built Argos 
Amphilochium in Acarnania. 

Amphilytus, a soothsayer of Acarnania, 
who, in a fit of inspiration, advised Pisis- 
tratus to seize the sovereign power at 
Athens. 

Amphinomus and Anapus, two bro- 
thers, who, when Catana and the neigh- 
bouring cities were in flames by an eruption 
from Mt. Etna, saved their parents on 
their shoulders. The fire spared them, 
while it consumed others at their side ; 
and Pluto, to reward their filial affection, 
placed them, after death, in the island of 
Leuce, where they received divine honours. 

Amphion, son of Jupiter by Antiope, 
and king of Thebes, was, together with his 
brother, Zethus, abandoned at his birth on 
Mount Cithaeron, where they were found 
and brought up by shepherds. When Am- 
phion grew up, he was instructed by Mer- 
cury in the use of the lyre, and became so 
great a proficient in music, that he is said to 
have moved even the stones by the power 
of his harmony, and thus to have built the 
walls of Thebes. He married Niobe, the 
daughter of Tantalus, whose melancholy 
fate, with that of her children, need not be 
recapitulated here. Amphion is said to 



have killed himself through grief at their 
loss. 

Amphipoles, magistrates appointed at 
Syracuse by Timoleon, after the expulsion 
of Dionysius the younger. The office 
existed for 300 years. 

Amphipolis, one of the largest cities of 
Thrace, near the mouth of the Strymon. 
It was founded by the Athenians in the 
vicinity of what was termed Nine Ways, so 
called from the number of roads which met 
herefrom different parts of Thrace andMa- 
cedon. The occupation of the Nine Ways 
seems to have excited the jealousy of the 
Thracians,which led to frequent rencounters 
between them and the Athenian colonists, 
in one of which the latter sustained a severe 
defeat. It was ultimately taken by Philip 
of Macedonia. The spot on which the 
ruins of Amphipolis are still to be traced 
bears the name of Jenikevi. 

Amphis, a Greek comic poet of Athens, 
contemporary with Plato. Besides come- 
dies, he wrote other pieces, now lost. 

AMPHisBiENA, a two-headed serpent in 
the deserts of Libya, whose bite was ve- 
nomous and deadly. The body is of equal 
thickness from head to foot, which oc- 
casioned the notion of the snake's having 
two heads. 

Amfhissa, Salona, the chief city of the 
Locri Ozola?, situated at the head of the 
Crissaean gulf, and sixty stadia from Del- 
phi. It was destroyed by order of the Am- - 
phictyons, for having restored the walls 
of Crissa, and cultivated the ground, held 
to be sacred, and for molesting travellers 
through their territory. At a later period 
it was somewhat restored when under the 
dominion of the iEtolians. Amphissa, 
daughter of Macareus, beloved by Apollo, 
gave her name to this city. 

Amphitheatrum, an edifice of an el- 
liptical form, used for exhibiting combats 
of gladiators, wild beasts, and other spec- 
tacles ; the spectators being so ranged as 
to see equally well from every side {afx(pi, 
and Qiarpov'). The first durable amphi- 
theatre of stone was built by Statilius 
Taurus, at the desire of Augustus. The 
largest was begun by Vespasian, and com- 
pleted by Titus, now called Colisaeum. 
It covered five acres of ground, contained 
87,000 spectators, and was five years in 
building. Its magnificent ruins still 
remain. The place where the gladiators 
fought was called Arena, because it was 
covered with sand. There are remains of 
amphitheatres at various places, in dif- 
ferent degrees of perfection ; but more 
especially at Nismes, Aries, Bordeaux, 
Verona, and Pola, in Istria. 



AMP 



AMY 



53 



Amphitrite, daughter of Oceanus and I 
Tethys, married Neptune, though she had j 
vowed perpetual celibacy, and became the 
mother of Triton, one of the sea-deities. 
She is generally represented seated in a 
chariot of shells drawn by dolphins and sea- 
horses, and surrounded by sea-nympns. 

Amphitryon, a Theban prince, son of 
Alcseus and Hipponome, and husband of 
Alcmena. "While he was engaged in a 
distant expedition, Jupiter, who had been 
attracted by the charms of Alcmena, as- 
sumed his form, and, under this disguise, 
became the father of Hercules, who is 
thence sometimes called the son of Am. 
phitryoniades. See Alcmena. 

Amphrysus, a river of Thessaly, flowing 
into the Sinus Pagasams, above Phthiotic 
Thebes. Near this stream Apollo, when 
banished from heaven, fed the flocks of 1 
king Admetus; hence he is called Amphrijs- 
sius, and his priestess Amphryssia. 

Ampsagas, a river of Africa, forming 
the boundary between Mauritania Caesari- 
ensis and Numidia, and falling into the sea 
to the east of Igilgilis, or Jigel. The modern 
name is Wad- 11- Kibir, " Great River." 

Amsanctus or Amsancti Vallis et 
Lacus, a celebrated valley and lake of 
Italy, in Samnium. The waters of the 
lake were remarkable for their sulphu- 
reous properties and exhalations. On. its 
banks was a temple consecrated to the 
goddess Mephitis. It is now called Mufiti. 

Amulius, son of Procas, king of Alba, 
and youngest brother of Numitor. The 
crown belonged to Numitor by right of 
birth ; but Amulius dispossessed him of 
it, put to death his son Lausus, and com- 
pelled his daughter Rhea Sylvia to become 
a Vestal virgin. Notwithstanding these 
precautions Rhea became pregnant by the 
god Mars, and brought forth twins, Ro- 
mulus and Remus. Amulius, thereupon, 
ordered the mother to be buried alive for 
violating the laws of Vesta, which enjoined 
perpetual chastity, and the two children to 
be thrown into the river. They were pro- 
videntially saved by some shepherds, or, as 
others say, by a she- wolf ; and when they 
had attained to manhood, they put to 
death the usurper Amulius, and restored 
the crown to their grandfather. 

Amyci Portus, a harbour on the Thra- 
cian Bosphorus, north of Nicopolis. Here 
Amycus, king of the Bebryces, was slain in 
combat with Pollux. 

Amycl^;, I., a city of Italy, in Latium, 
said to have been of Greek origin, being 
colonised from Amyclae in Laconia. Of 
the destruction of this city strange tales 
were related. According to some, it was 



infested and rendered desolate by serpents. 
.Another tradition represented the fall of 
Amyclas as the result of the silence en- 
joined by law on its inhabitants, to put a 
stop to the false rumours of hostile attacks 
so frequently circulated ; for the enemy at 
last appearing, the town, being in a de- 
fenceless state, was destroyed. — IT. One of 
the most ancient cities of Laconia, founded 
long before the arrival of the Dorians and 
Heraelida?, who reduced it to the condi- 
tion of a small town. But even in the- 
time of Pausanias it was conspicuous for 
the number of its temples and other 
edifices, many of which were richly 
adorned with sculptures and other works 
of art. Its most celebrated structure was 
the temple of the Amyclaean Apollo. It 
was said to have been built by Amyclas, 
son of Lacedaamon and Sparta. 

Amyclas, the master of a ship in which 
Caesar embarked in disguise, for the pur- 
pose of sailing to Brundusium, and bring- 
ing thence into Greece the remainder of 
his forces. A violent storm having arisen, 
Amyclas wished to put back, but Casar, 
unveiling his head, discovered himself, and, 
bidding the pilot pursue his voyage, 
exclaimed, " Csesarem vehis, Cassarisque 
fortunam ! " 

Amycus, son of Neptune by Melia, 
king of the Bebryces. He was famous 
for his skill in the management of the 
cestus, and challenged all strangers to a 
trial of strength. The Argonauts, in their 
expedition, having stopped on his coast, he 
challenged Pollux to the combat, and was 
overcome and slain. See Amyci Portus. 

Amymone, I., one of the Danaides, 
and mother of Nauplius by Neptune, 
who rescued her from the attempted vio- 
lence of a Satyr, whom she had acciden- 
tally hit with an arrow. — II. A fountain 
of Peloponnesus, flowing through Argolis 
into the lake of Lerna. It was the most 
celebrated of the streams which contributed 
to form the Lernaean lake. It derived its 
name from Amymone, one of the Danaides. 

Amyntas, I., succeeded his father 
Alcetas, as king of Macedonia, b. c. 547. 
His son Alexander having killed the am- 
bassadors of Megabyzus for their insolent 
behaviour to the ladies of his father's court, 
Bubares, a Persian general, was sent with an 
army to revenge their death, but instead of 
making war, he married the king's daughter, 
and defended his possessions. — II. Son of 
Menelaus, and king of Macedonia, after his 
murder of Pausanias. Expelled by the Il- 
ly rians, and restored by the Thessalians and 
Spartans, he made war against the Illvrians 
and Olynthians, with the assistance of the 
d 3 



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ANA 



Lacedaemonians. His wife Eurydice con- 
spired against his life, but her snares were 
discovered by one of his daughters by a 
former wife. He reigned twenty-four 
years. Soon after his death, his son 
Philip murdered his brothers, and ascended 
the throne. — III. Grandson of Amyntas, 
above mentioned. When his father and 
uncle were cut off by Philip, he was the 
lawful heir to the throne ; but, being then 
an infant, his pretensions were easily set 
aside in favour of Philip. When he grew 
up, he served in the armies both of Philip 
and Alexander, but was put to death for 
conspiring against the latter. — Various 
other persons of this name are mentioned 
by the ancient writers. 

Amyntor, king of Ormenium, a city 
of the Dolopians, who put out the eyes of 
his son Phoenix, on a false charge of having 
corrupted one of his concubines. He was 
killed by Hercules on attempting to op- 
pose the passage of that hero through his 
territories. 

Amyricus Campus, a plain of Thessaly, 
in Magnesia, near Amyrus, celebrated for 
its wines. 

Amyrt^eus, an Egyptian leader during 
the revolution under Inarus, whom he 
succeeded. 

Amythaon, I., son of Cretheus, king of 
Iolchos. He married Idomene, by whom 
he had Bias and Melampus, and after 
his father's death, withdrew to Messenia, 
and re-established the Olympic games. 
Melampus is called Amythaonius, from his 
father Amythaon. 

Amytis, I., a daughter of Astyages, whom 
Cyrus married. — II. A daughter of Xerxes, 
who married Megabyzus, and disgraced 
herself by her licentious conduct. 

Anaces, or Anactes, a name given to 
Castor and Pollux, whose festivals were 
called Anaceia. The Athenians applied the 
term to all those deities who were believed 
to watch over the interests, public and 
private, of the city of Athens; but in a 
special sense, the appellation was given to 
the Dioscuri, or the Sons of Jupiter, as 
Castor and Pollux were called, on account 
of the peculiar advantages which Attica 
had derived from them. 

Anacharsis, a Scythian philosopher, 
who flourished nearly six centuries before 
the Christian era. He was son of a 
Scythian prince, who married a native of 
Greece. He resided some years at Athens, 
and was the first stranger admitted to the 
honours of citizenship. He then travelled 
into other countries, and finally returned 
to Scythia, to communicate to his country- 
men the information he had received, and 



introduce among them the laws and religion 
of Greece. The attempt was unsuccessful ; 
for the Scythians were indisposed to receive 
his instructions ; and Anacharsis was killed 
by an arrow from the king his brother's own 
hand, who detected him performing certain 
rites in a wood, before an image of Cybele. 
Great respect was paid to him after death. 
Many excellent apophthegms attributed to 
Anacharsis have reached our time ; but the 
epistles which bear his name (published at 
Paris, 1552) are unequivocally spu- 
rious. 

Anacium, a temple at the foot of the 
Acropolis at Athens, sacred to Castor and 
Pollux. It was a building of great antiquity, 
and contained paintings of Polygnotus and 
Micon. 

Anacreox, a celebrated Greek poet, of 
whose life little is known. It is, however, 
generally admitted that he was born at 
I Teos, in Ionia, in the sixth century before 
J the Christian era, and flourished in the 
sixtieth Olympiad. From Abdera, whither 
his parents had fled from the dominion of 
Croesus, Anacreon betook himself to the 
court of Poly crates, king of Samos, who 
received him with great distinction. He 
afterwards visited Hipparchus, son of Pi- 
sistratus, tyrant of Athens, who sent a fifty- 
oared ship to convey the poet to his court. 
Nothing is known of his personal character, 
and it would be invidious to draw any in- 
ferences on the subject from the tenor of 
his poetry. He lived to the age of eighty- 
five years. Numerous editions and trans- 
lations of his poems have appeared. 

Anactoria and Anactorium, a town on 
the northern coast of Acarnania, on a low 
neck of land opposite Nicopolis, of which 
it was the emporium. The present site is 
called Punta. Thucydides reports that 
Anactorium had been colonised jointly by 
the Corcyreans and Corinthians, who were 
subsequently ejected by the Acarnanians, 
in conjunction with the Athenians. It ceased 
to exist as a town, when Augustus trans- 
ferred its inhabitants to Nicopolis. 

Anadyomene, a celebrated picture of 
Venus, painted by Apelles, representing 
the goddess rising out of the sea, and wring- 
ing her hair. It originally adorned the 
temple of iEsculapius at Cos ; but was 
transferred to Rome by Augustus, who 
remitted to the inhabitants one hundred 
talents in return for it. The lower part 
of the figure having been injured, no Ro- 
man painter could be found to supply it. 

Anagnia, Anagni, the principal town 
of the Hernici, about thirty-six miles to 
the east of Rome. It was colonised by 
Drusus. The Latin Wav was joined near 



ANA 



ANA 



55 



this city by the Via Praenestina, thence 
called Compitum Anagninum. 

Anaitis, a goddess of Armenia, identical 
with the Venus of the western nations, and 
the goddess of Nature among the Persians. 
Her temple stood in the district of Acili- 
sene, in the angle between the northern 
and southern branches of the Tigris and 
Euphrates. It had a large tract of land 
set apart for its use, and a number of male 
and female servants to cultivate it. It was 
famed for its riches, and it was from this 
temple that Antony, in his Parthian expe- 
dition, carried off a statue of the goddess 
of solid gold. The commercial relations 
that subsisted between the Armenians and 
other countries caused the worship of 
Anaitis to be widely diffused, and hence 
we hear of its having been introduced into 
Persia, Media, Bactria, &c. 

Anapiie, Amphio, one of the Sporades, 
north-east of Thera. It was said to 
have been made to rise by thunder from 
the bottom of the sea, in order to receive 
the Argonauts during a storm, on their 
return from Colchis. But Apollonius 
Rhodius gives a different account. 

Anapus, Alfeo, a small stream of Sicily, 
near Syracuse, the deity of which is fabled 
to have fallen in love with the Nymph 
Cyane, who was changed into a foun- 
tain. It was also the name of a river of 
Epirus, near Stratos. 

Anas, a river of Spain, now the Gua- 
diana. 

Anaurus, a small river of Thessaly, near 
the foot of Pelion, in which Jason lost his 
sandal. 

Anaxagoras, I., succeeded his grand- 
father Megapenthes on the throne of Argos. 
He shared the sovereign power with Bias 
and Melampus, who had cured the women 
of Argos of madness. — II. A celebrated 
philosopher of the Ionian school, born at 
Clazomenas, b. c. 500, of an illustrious and 
wealthy family. He left the administration 
of his affairs to his relations, in order that 
he might pursue his studies undisturbed ; 
and at the age of twenty retired to Athens, 
where he taught philosophy with great 
success, and numbered among his pupils 
and friends Archelaus, Euripides, Pericles, 
and Socrates. Anaxagoras took no part 
in public affairs ; but when the ascendancy 
of Pericles was on the wane, he was ac- 
cused of impiety towards the gods, thrown 
into prison, and eventually forced to flee to 
Lampsacus, where he died shortly after his 
arrival, b. c. 428. It must be remarked, 
however, that the whole circumstances of 
his accusation and his death are stated so 
variously by different writers, that it is 



difficult to ascertain the truth. The in- 
habitants of Lampsacus honoured his me- 
mory with an annual festival. 

Anaxander, of the family of the Agida?, 
son of Eurycrates, and king of Sparta. The 
second Messenian war, in which Aristo- 
menes signalised himself, began in his 
reign. 

Anaxandrides, I., son of Leon, and 
father of Cleomenes I., and Leonidas, was 
king of Sparta. By order of the Ephori, he 
divorced his wife, on account of her barren- 
ness, and was the first Lacedaemonian who 
had two wives. — II. A comic writer, born 
at Camirus in Rhodes, and the author of 
sixty-five comedies. He was endowed by 
nature with a handsome person, and though 
studiously elegant, and effeminate in dress 
and manners, was of so passionate a cha- 
racter, that he used to tear his unsuccessful 
dramas to pieces, or send them as waste 
paper to the perfumers' shops. Having 
lampooned the magistracy of Athens, he was 
tried and condemned to death by starvation. 

Anaxarchus, a philosopher of Abdera, 
of the school of Democritus, who flourished 
about the 110th Olymp. He is chiefly re- 
markable for having lived with Alexander, 
and enjoyed his confidence. See Nico- 

CREON. 

Anaxarete, a maiden of Salamis, who so 
arrogantly despised the addresses of Iphis, 
a youth of ignoble birth, that he hanged 
himself at her door. She witnessed this 
sad spectacle without emotion or pity, and 
was changed into a stone. 

Anaxilas or Anaxilaus, a Messenian 
tyrant of Rhegium. He was so popular du 
ring his reign, that when he died, b. c. 476, 
he left his infant sons to the care of Mycithus, 
one of his servants, and the citizens chose 
rather to obey a slave, than revolt from 
their benevolent sovereign's children. 

Anaximander, the pupil and succes- 
sor of Thales in his Ionic school, was 
born b. c. 610., and died b. e. 547, aged 
63. From his having been the first to 
teach philosophy in a public school, he is 
often regarded as the founder of the Ionic 
sect. He was the first who constructed 
maps and gnomons ; and to him also science 
is indebted for the discovery of the obliquity 
of the ecliptic. His astronomical views 
were original, if not profound. He be- 
lieved the sun, moon, and stars to be enor- 
mous wheels encompassing and revolving 
round the earth, each with a round orifice 
in its circumference, out of which fire is- 
sued, and that the stoppage of this orifice 
is the cause of eclipses. At Sparta he is 
said to have predicted an earthquake which 
threw down the greater part of the city. 
d 4 



56 



ANA 



ANC 



Anaximenes, I., a native of Miletus, born 
about the fifty-sixth Olymp., b. c. 556, and 
the pupil, companion, and successor of 
Anaximander. His opinions were nearly 
identical with those ascribed to Anaxagoras 
and Anaximander. In addition he taught 
that the first principle of all things is air, 
which he held to be infinite and immense. 
— II. A native of Lampsacus, and son of 
Aristocles. He was celebrated for his skill 
in rhetoric, and was disciple of Zoilus, one of 
the preceptors of Alexander the Great, and 
of Diogenes the Cynic. He accompanied 
his illustrious pupil through most of his 
campaigns, and afterwards wrote the history 
of his reign, and that of his father Philip. 
During the Persian war, his native city 
having espoused the cause of Darius, Alex- 
ander determined to punish the inhabitants 
by laying it in ruins. Anaximenes was 
deputed by his countrymen as mediator ; 
but the conqueror guessing his intention, 
when he saw him enter the royal tent as 
a suppliant, cut short his anticipated peti- 
tion, by declaring his determination to re- 
fuse his request whatever might be its 
nature. The philosopher immediately 
availing himself, of this hasty expression, 
implored that Lampsacus might be utterly 
destroyed, and a pardon refused to its in- 
habitants. The stratagem was successful ; 
Alexander was unwilling to break his pro- 
mise ; and the presence of mind exhibited 
by its advocate saved the city. 

Anazarbus, a city of Cilicia Campestris, 
situated on the river Pyramus. It assumed 
the name of Caesarea, in acknowledgment 
of the privileges conferred on it by Augus- 
tus ; and was afterwards called successively 
Justinopolis and Justinianopolis, in honour 
of the emperors Justin and Justinian. 

AnCjEus, one of the Argonauts, was the 
son of Neptune, by Astypalaea, and brother 
of Euphemus and Erginus, chiefs in the 
same expedition. On the death of Te- 
phys, pilot of the Argo, Anca;us was ap- 
pointed to succeed him. On his return 
he reigned in Ionia, where he married Sa- 
mia, daughter of the Masander, by whom 
he had four sons, Perilas, Enudus, Samus, 
Alithersus, and one daughter called Par- 
thenope. Being told by one of his servants 
that he never would taste of the produce 
of his vines, with the cup in his hand, he 
called the prophet to convince him of his 
falsehood, when the servant uttered this 
well-known proverb, 

IIoAAai /xera|u 7re'Aet kvMkos Kai xei'Aeos 
&Kpov, 

Multa cadunt inter calicem supremaque 
labra ; 

and at that moment Ancaeus was told that 



a wild boar had entered his vineyard, on 
which he threw down the cup, ran to drive 
away the wild beast, and perished in the 
attempt. This Anca?us must not be con- 
founded with another Argonaut of the 
same name, who perished in the great 
hunt of the Calydonian boar. 

AncalItes, a people of Britain, near the 
Atrebatii. They are supposed to have 
occupied parts of Oxfordshire, Bucking- 
hamshire, and Berkshire. 

Anchemolus, son of Rhcetus, king of 
the Marrubii in Italy, who, on being ex- 
pelled for criminal conduct towards his 
step-mother, Casperia, fled to Turnus, and 
was killed by Pallas, son of Evander, in 
the wars of iEneas against the Latins. 

Anchesmus, a mountain of Attica, 
where Jupiter Anchesmius had a statue ; 
now Agios Georgios, or Mt. St. George. 

Anchiale, a city of Cilicia, a short dis- 
tance from the coast ; supposed to have been 
built by Sardanapalus, king of Assyria. 

Anchialus, a god of the Jews, as some 
suppose. The term occurs in Martial's 
Epigrams. 

^"Anchises, son of Capys by Themis, 
daughter of Ilus. Venus was so struck 
with his beauty, that she came to him on 
Mount Ida in the form of a nymph, and 
urged him to a union with her ; but for 
imprudently boasting of the favours of the 
goddess, he was struck blind by Jupiter, 
and maimed and enfeebled by a stroke of 
thunder. The offspring of this union was 
the celebrated iEneas. When Troy was 
in flames he was saved by his son, who 
bore him on his shoulders out of the 
burning city. He accompanied iEneas in 
his voyage towards Italy, but died in 
Sicily in his eightieth year, and was buried 
on Mt. Eryx by IEneas and Acestes, king 
of the country, who instituted an annual 
festival to his memory. Pausanias says 
that Anchises was buried on a mountain 
in Arcadia, thence called Anchisia. 

Anchisiades, a patronymic of iEneas as 
son of Anchises. 

Ancsurus, a son of Midas, king of 
Phrygia, who sacrificed himself for the good 
of his country, when the earth had opened, 
and swallowed up many buildings. The 
oracle said that the gulf would never close, 
if Midas did not throw into it his most 
precious possession. Though the king had 
parted with many things of value, the gulf 
continued open, till Anchurus, thinking 
the declaration of the oracle applicable 
to himself, took a tender leave of his 
wife and family, and leaped into the 
earth, which closed immediately over his 

j head. 



ANC 



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57 



Ancile and Ancyle, a sacred shield, ] 
which fell from heaven in the reign of 
Numa, when the Roman people laboured 
under a pestilence, and was accompanied 
by an oracle which declared that while it 
remained in Rome, the city could not be 
taken. Its figure was that of an oval com- 
pressed in the centre, so as to be widest near 
the two extremities. Numa had it pre- 
served in the temple of Mars, to whose 
priests, the Salii, the care of it was com- 
mitted, and at the same time caused eleven 
other shields to . be made to exactly the 
same pattern, in order to prevent the ge- 
nuine one from being distinguished and 
stolen. Every year in the month of March, 
these ancilia were carried round the city 
with dancing and music for several days, 
during which period no business connected 
with war could be carried on within the 
city. 

Ancona, a city of Italy, on the coast of 
Picenum, supposed to be of Greek origin, 
and to express the angular form of the 
promontory on which the city is placed. 
This bold headland was called Cumerium 
Promontorium. Ancona was founded by 
a colony of Syracusans, of the Doric race, 
in the time of Dionysius. The Romans 
established themselves in it B. c. 268 ; and 
it continued to be regarded as a naval station 
of great importance even in Trajan's time, 
if we may judge from the works erected 
there by that emperor which are still extant. 
This city has retained its ancient name. 

Ancus Marti us, grandson of Numa, by 
his daughter Pompilia, and fourth king of 
Rome. The commencement of his reign 
was marked, like those of his predecessors, 
by a pacific policy ; but the neighbouring 
nations, mistaking his conduct for fear, 
provoked him to hostilities by repeated 
aggressions on his territory. He first 
turned his arms against the Latins, several 
thousands of whom he removed to the 
Aventine Mount ; he then extended his 
conquests into Etruria, and pushed the 
limits of his kingdom to the sea-coasts, 
where he built Ostia, long the harbour of 
Rome. By way of protecting his subjects, 
he fortified the Janiculum, and connected 
it with the city by means of the Sacred 
Bridge, called the Pons Sublicius. He 
annexed several other defences to the city ; 
and to him is ascribed the oldest remaining 
monument at Rome, the prison formed 
out of a quarry on the Capitoline Hill. 
Under her three first kings the patrician 
part of Rome's constitution had received 
its full development ; but to Ancus Mar- 
tius belongs the praise of having originated 
the plebs, or common people, to which, at 



a later period, and more especially under 
the commonwealth, all her greatness and 
glory may be attributed. Ancus Martius 
died b. c. 616, leaving Tarquinius Priscus 
his successor. 

Ancyra, I., acityof Galatia, west of the 
Halys. Its situation being well adapted 
for inland trade, it became a kind of em- 
porium for the commodities of the east. 
The modern name is Angora, which is 
celebrated for being the place whence the 
well-known shawls and hosiery made of 
goats' hair were originally brought. Near 
Ancyra, Bajazet was conquered and made 
prisoner by Timur. — II. A town of Phry- 
gia, on the confines of Mysia. 

Andabat m, certain gladiators who fought 
blindfolded ; whence the proverb, " Anda- 
batarum more pugnare," to denote rash and. 
inconsiderate measures. 

Andania, an ancient city of Messenia, 
situated about eight stadia from Carnasium. 
Its ruins are to be found between Sakona 
and Krano. 

Andecavi, or Andes, a people of Gaul, 
east of the Namnetes, and north of the 
Liger, Loire. Their capital was Julio- 
magus, now Angers, and their territory 
corresponded to the modern department 
de la Mayenne. 

Andes, a village near Mantua, where 
Virgil was born. 

Andocides, an Athenian orator, son of 
Leogoras, born in the first year of the 
seventy-eighth Olymp. b. c. 468. Being 
of a noble family, which claimed descent 
from Mercury, through Ulysses, he took 
part in public affairs at a very early 
age. He commanded the Athenian fleet 
during the war of the Corcyreans and 
Corinthians ; and was afterwards employed 
as ambassador in many foreign missions. 
During the Peloponnesian war he was 
accused, along with Alcibiades, of being 
concerned in the mutilation of the -Hermas 
or statues, and escaped punishment only 
by denouncing his real or pretended ac- 
complices ; among whom was his own 
father. He was subsequently repeatedly 
banished from Athens for impiety, and ul- 
timately died in exile. Four of his dis- 
courses have come down to our times. 

Andriscus, a worthless person, who, 
from his likeness to king Philip, son of 
Perseus, last king of Macedon, passed 
himself off for that prince, and was thence 
called Pseudo-Philippus. He incited the 
Macedonians to revolt against Rome, and 
was conquered by Metellus, b. c. 148. 

Androclea, daughter of Antipoenus of 
Thebes, who, with her sister Alcida, sacri- 
ficed herself, when the oracle had promised 
i d 5 



58 



AND 



AND 



the victory to her countrymen, engaged 
in a war against Orchomenos, if any one 
of noble birth would devote himself for 
the glory of his nation. Antipoenus re- 
fused, but his daughter cheerfully under- 
took it, and received great honours after 
death. 

Androclus, a slave known and protected 
in the Roman circus by a lion, from whose 
foot he had extracted a thorn. 

Androcydes, a painter of Cyzicus, con- 
temporary with Pelopidas and Zeuxis, the 
latter of whom he attempted to rival. Two 
celebrated pictures of his are mentioned by 
the ancients. 

Andbogeus, son of Minos, king of 
Crete, and Pasiphae. He was famous for 
his skill in wrestling ; and became such a 
favourite of the Athenians, that king 
JEgeus, jealous of his popularity, caused 
him to be assassinated, or, as others say, 
sent him against the wild bull of Marathon, 
by which he was killed. Minos declared 
war against Athens to revenge the death 
of his son, and peace was at last re-esta- 
blished on condition that iEgeus sent yearly 
seven boys and seven girls from Athens to 
Crete, to be devoured by the Minotaur. 
See Minotaurus. The Athenians, by 
order of Minos, instituted festivals in 
honour of his son, and called them Andro- 
geia. 

Andromache, daughter of Ee'tion, king 
of Thebes in Mysia, wife of Hector, son 
of Priam king of Troy, and mother of 
Astyanax. She was equally remarkable 
for her domestic virtues, and for attach- 
ment to her husband. Her parting with 
Hector, on going to battle, in which he pe- 
rished, has always been deemed the most 
tender and pathetic of all the passages in 
the Iliad. After the taking of Troy, she 
had the misfortune to see her son Astyanax, 
whom she had saved from the flames, 
thrown headlong from the walls of the city 
by the man whose father had killed her 
husband. In the division of the prisoners 
by the Greeks, she fell to the share of Neo- 
ptolemus, who treated her as his wife, and 
carried her to Epirus, where she became 
the mother of three sons, Molossus, Piclus, 
and Pergamus. After being divorced by 
him, she married Helenus, son of Priam, 
who, like herself, was a captive of Pyrrhus, 
reigned with him over part of the country, 
and gave birth to Cestrinus. 

Andromachus, I., an opulent Sicilian, 
father of the historian Timaeus. Dionysius 
having destroyed Naxos, Andromachus 
collected the inhabitants into a new city, 
of which he became prefect, and assisted 
Timoleon in recovering the liberty of 



the Syraeusans II. A general of Alex- 
ander, to whom Parmenio gave the govern- 
ment of Syria. He was burnt alive by the 
Samaritans. — III. A traitor, who dis- 
covered to the Parthians all the measures 
of Crassus ; and, being chosen guide, led 
the Roman army into a situation whence 
there was no escape. — IV. A physician of 
Crete, medical adviser of the emperor 
Nero, and inventor of the famous antidote 
against poison, or panacea, called the The- 
riaca Andromachi. It consisted of sixty- 
one ingredients, the chief of which were 
squills, opium, pepper, and dried vipers, 
and was in great request among the Ro- 
mans. 

Andromeda, daughter of Cepheus, king 
of ^Ethiopia, by Cassiope. She was pro- 
mised in marriage to Phineus, her uncle, 
when Neptune inundated the kingdom, and 
sent a sea-monster ' to ravage the country, 
because Cassiope had boasted herself fairer 
than Juno and the Nereids. The oracle 
of Jupiter Amnion having said that nothing 
could stop the resentment of Neptune, if 
Andromeda were not exposed to the sea- 
monster, she was tied naked to a rock, and 
expected every moment to be destroyed, 
when Perseus, who was returning through 
the air from the conquest of the Gorgons, saw 
her, and, captivated with her beauty, pro- 
mised to deliver her and destroy the monster, 
if he received her in marriage as a reward. 
Cepheus consented, and Perseus changed 
the sea-monster into a rock, untied Andro- 
meda, and married her. The marriage was 
opposed by Phineus, who, after a bloody 
battle, was changed into a stone by Per- 
seus. After her death, Andromeda was 
changed into a constellation. 

Andronicus, I., a Peripatetic philoso- 
pher, a native of Rhodes, who flourished 
about b. c. 80. He arranged and edited 
the writings of Aristotle, which had been 
brought to Rome with the library of 
Apellicon ; but none of his works have 
reached our time. — II. An astronomer of 
Athens, who built, b. c.159, a marble oc- 
tagonal tower in honour of the eight prin- 
cipal winds, on the top of which was placed 
a Triton with a stick in his hand, pointing 
always to the side whence the wind blew. 
Within the structure was a clepsydra, or 
water-clock. This tower still remains, 
though in a dilapidated state. 

Andros, an island in the iEgean sea, 
one of the Cyclades : it bore also several 
other appellations. The Andrians joined 
the armament of Xerxes ; but were after- 
wards reduced, and rendered tributary to 
the Athenians. In the Macedonian war 
the island was taken possession of by At 



ANG 



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59 



talus and the Romans. It still retains its 
ancient name. 

Angei, a people of Germany, at the base 
of the Chersonesus Cimbrica, in the country 
corresponding now to the north-eastern 
part of the Duchy of Holstein. From them 
the English have derived their name. See 
Saxones. 

Anicetus, a freedman who directed the 
education of Nero, and became the instru- 
ment of his crimes. 

Anicia, a family at Rome, which, in the 
flourishing times of the republic, produced 
many illustrious citizens. 

Anicius Gallus, conquered the Illy- 
rians, and obtained a triumph, a. u. c. 585. 
He was made consul with Corn. Cethegus, 
a. u. c. 594. 

Anigrus, a river of Elis, in the district 
of Triphylia, the waters of which were 
rendered unwholesome in consequence of 
the Centaurs having washed in it the 
wounds inflicted by Hercules' envenomed 
shafts. The Anigrus received the water 
of a fountain said to possess the property 
of curing cutaneous disorders. This source 
issued from a cavern sacred to the Nymphs, 
called Anigriades. 

Anio, a river of Italy, the earlier name 
of which was Anien. It rose in the 
Apennines, and joined the Tiber three 
miles north of Rome ; now Teverone. In 
its course it passed by the town of Tibur, 
where it formed some beautiful cascades, ! 
the admiration both of ancient and modern 
times. 

Anius, son of Apollo and Rhea. He 
was king of Delos, and married Dorippe, 
by whom he had three daughters, Oeno, 
Spermo, and Elaia, to whom Bacchus had 
given the power of changing whatever j 
they pleased into wine, corn, and oil. 
When Agamemnon went to the Trojan 
war, he wished to carry them with him to 
supply his army with provisions ; but they 
complained to Bacchus, who changed them 
into doves. 

Anna, the sister of Dido, after whose 
death she fled from Carthage, which Iarbas 
had besieged, and came to Italy, where 
iEneas gave her an honourable reception. 
Lavinia, wife of JEneas, through jealousy, 
meditated her ruin. Anna, warned of her 
danger by Dido in a dream, took flight, 
and threw herself into the Numicius, 
where she was transformed into a Naiad. 
In her honour the Romans instituted an 
annual festival, called Anna Perenna, at 
which they invoked her aid to obtain a 
long and happy life. But the origin of 
this festival is involved in great obscu- 
rity. 



Annales, a chronological history of all 
the important events of every year in a 
state, without entering into their causes. 
The Annals of Tacitus may be considered 
in this light. The Pontifex Maximus, 
the official historian of the Republic, an- 
nually committed to writing, on wooden 
tablets, the leading events of each year, 
called Annales Maximi, as being periodi- 
cally compiled, and kept by the Pontifex 
Max. ; or Publici, as recording public trans- 
actions. 

Annalis lex, settled the age at which a 
citizen could exercise the offices of the 
state. This law was first made by L. Vil- 
lius, or L. Julius, a tribune of the com- 
mons, a. u. c. 573, whence his family got 
the surname of Annalis. 

Anquitia, or Angitia, Silva cTAlbi, a 
wood in the country of the Marsi, between 
the lake Fucinus and Alba. The name is 
derived, according to Solinus, from a sister 
of Circe, who lived in the vicinity. 

Anser, a Roman poet, intimate with 
the triumvir Antony, and one of the de- 
tractors of Virgil. 

Ansibarii, a people of Germany, dwell- 
ing along the Ems, who made an irruption, 
during the reign of Nero, into the Roman 
territories. 

Ant^eopolis, a city of Egypt, on the 
eastern bank of the Nile, which derived 
its name from Antaeus, whom Osiris left 
as governor of his Libyan and ^Ethiopian 
possessions, and whom Hercules destroyed. 

Ant^us, I., a giant of Libya, son df 
Terra and Neptune ; so strong in wrestl- 
ing as to boast that he would erect a 
temple to his father with the skulls of his 
antagonists. Hercules attacked him ; and 
as he received new strength from his mo- 
ther as often as he touched the ground, 
the hero lifted him up in the air, and 
squeezed him to death in his arms. — II. 
A governor of Libya and iEthiopia under 
Osiris. Both these accounts are clearly 
traceable to one and the same person. 
The legend of Hercules and Antaeus is 
nothing more than the triumph of art and 
labour over the encroaching sands of the 
desert. 

Antagoras, a Rhodian poet, who lived 
at the court of Antigonus Gonatas, where 
he acquired the reputation of a gour- 
mand. 

Antalcidas of Sparta, son of Leon, 
was sent into Persia, where he made a 
peace with Artaxerxes very disadvanta- 
geous to his country, by which (u. c. 387) 
the Greek cities of Asia became tributary 
to the Persian monarch. 

Antandros, a city of Troas, founded by 

D 6 



60 



ANT 



ANT 



an iEolian colony, on the northern side of 
the gulf of Adramyttium. 

Antemnje, a city of Italy, at the con- 
fluence of the Anio and Tiber ; said to 
have been more ancient than Rome itself. 
It belonged at first to the Siculi, but 
afterwards was conquered by the abo- 
rigines, to whom, probably, it owes its 
Latin name. 

Antenor, a Trojan prince, husband of 
Theano, the sister of Hecuba, characterised 
by Homer as holding the same position 
among the Trojans which Nestor occupied 
among the Greeks. He is sometimes ac- 
cused of having betrayed his country, from 
having urged the propriety of terminating 
the war by the surrender of Helen. After 
the destruction of his country, Antenor led 
a colony of Heneti, a people of Paphlago- 
nia, into Italy, and founded Patavium, Pa- 
dua. His children were also concerned 
in the Trojan war, and displayed much 
valour against the Greeks ; their names 
were Polybus, Acamas, Agenor, Polyda- 
mas, Helicaon, Archilochus, and Lado- 
chus. 

Antenorides, a patronymic given to the 
sons of Antenor. 

Anteros, (d^Tt, %poos, against love,) was 
originally the deity who avenges slighted 
love ; but later writers regarded him as a 
son of Mars and Venus, brother of Cupid, 
and the god of mutual love and tender- 
ness. 

Anthea, one of the three towns on the 
site of which the city of Patra?, in Achaia, 
is said to have been built. The other two 
were Aroe and Messatis. They were all 
founded by the Ionians. 

Anthedon, I., a city of Boeotia, on the 
shore of the Euripus, celebrated for its 
wines and fisheries. Here also the Cabiri 
were worshipped. — II. A'town of Pales- 
tine, called also Agrippias, south-west of 
Gaza, now Daron. 

Anthel^, a small town of Thessaly, 
near the debouchement of the Asopus. It 
shared the honour with Delphi of being 
the seat of the Amphictyonic Council. 
!, Anthemus, a town of Macedonia, com- 
prised by Thucydides within Mygdonia. 

Anthemusia, a district in the north of 
Mesopotamia, subsequently incorporated 
into Osroene. The capital of this district 
was also called Anthemusia or Anthemus. 

Anthermus, a Chian sculptor, son of 
Micciades, and grandson of Malas. His 
sons, Bupalus and Athenis, made a statue 
of the poet Hipponax, the deformity of 
which caused universal laughter. The poet 
inveighed with so much bitterness against 
the statuaries, that they hung themselves. 



Anthesphoria, a festival celebrated 
by the people of Syracuse in honour of 
Proserpine, who was carried away by 
Pluto as she was gathering flowers. Fes- 
tivals of the same name were observed at 
Argos, in honour of Juno, who was called 
Antheia. 

Anthesteria, festivals in honour of 
Bacchus among the Greeks. They were 
celebrated in February, called Antheste- 
rion, whence the name is derived, and con- 
tinued three days ; during which slaves 
had permission to take part in the ge- 
neral rejoicings, but at the end of the 
solemnity were sent home with the pro- 
clamation, " Depart, ye Carian slaves ; the 
festivals are at an end." See Dionysia. 

Anthium, a town of Thrace, afterwards 
called Apollonia ; subsequently Sozopolis, 
now Sizeboli. 

Anthores, a companion of Hercules, 
who followed Evander, and settled in 
Italy. He was killed in the war of Tur- 
nus against JEneas. 

Anthropophagi, a people of Scythia, 
who fed on human flesh. They lived near 
the country of the Messagetae. Herodotus 
calls them Androphagi. 

Anthylla, a city of Egypt, on the 
Canopic mouth of the Nile, supposed by 
Larcher to have been the same with 
Gynfecopolis. In conformity with the 
Persian practice, it supplied sandals to the 
wife of the Persian viceroy for the time 
being in Egypt. 

Antia lex, enacted for the suppression 
of luxury at Rome by Antius Restio, who 
afterwards never supped abroad for fear of 
being a witness of the extravagance which 
his law meant to destroy. 

Antias, a name given to the goddess of 
fortune, from her splendid temple at Anti- 
um, where she was chiefly worshipped. 

Anticlea, daughter of Autolycus, a fa- 
mous robber, and Amphithea. Her father 
having permitted Sisyphus, son of iEolus, 
to enjoy the favours of Anticlea, she was 
pregnant of Ulysses when she married 
Laertes, king of Ithaca, who thus became 
the reputed father of Ulysses. Anticlea 
killed herself on hearing a false report of 
her son's death. 

Anticrates, a Spartan, who claimed the 
merit of stabbing Epaminondas, the The- 
ban general, at the battle of Mantinea. 
Great honours were in consequence decreed 
to him, and his posterity were exempted 
from taxation. 

Anticyra, I., a town of Thessaly, at the 
mouth of the Sperchius, said to produce the 
hellebore, so much recommended as a cure 
for insanity. — II. A town of Phocis, near 



ANT 



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61 



the Sinus Corinthiacus ; also celebrated for 
its hellebore. The ancients had a proverb, 
" Naviget Anticyram," applied to a person 
regarded as insane, and alluding to the 
hellebore produced at either Anticyra. 

Antidotus, a Greek painter, pupil of 
Euphranor. He flourished about b. c. 
364, and was the instructor of Nicias at 
Athens. 

Antigenidas, a famous musician of 
Thebes, disciple of Philoxenus. He in- 
troduced some improvements in the con- 
struction of the flute. 

Antigone, daughter of GEdipus, king 
of Thebes, by his mother Jocasta. Having 
buried by night her brother Polynices, 
against the positive orders of Creon, she 
was ordered to be buried alive ; but before 
the sentence was executed, she killed her- 
self ; and Hemon, the king's son, who was 
passionately fond of her, slew himself on 
her grave. Her story forms the subject 
of one of the best of the tragedies of 
Sophocles. 

Antigonia, a city of Syria, on the bor- 
ders of the Orontes, built by Antigonus, 
and intended as the residence of the go- 
vernors of Egypt and Syria, but destroyed 
by him when Seleucia was built. This 
name was common to several cities in 
Epirus, Macedonia, and Asia Minor. 

Antigonus, I., one of Alexander's gene- 
rals, supposed to be the illegitimate son of 
Philip, Alexander's father. In the division 
of the provinces after the king's death, he 
received Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia ; 
and made war against Perdiccas and 
Eumenes, the latter of whom, after three 
years of various fortune, he took prisoner, 
and ordered to be starved. Seleucus, 
Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, next 
arrayed themselves against Antigonus ; but 
after varied success, the confederates made 
a treaty by which they surrendered to him 
the whole of Asia. This treaty, however, was 
soon broken ; and Ptolemy made a descent 
into Lesser Asia, and on some of the 
Greek isles, but was defeated by Deme- 
trius, son of Antigonus, who took the 
island of Cyprus, made 1 6,000 prisoners, 
and sunk 200 of his ships. After this 
famous battle, twenty-six years after 
Alexander's death, Antigonus and his son 
assumed the title of kings, and their ex- 
ample was followed by all the rest of Alex- 
ander's generals. Antigonus now formed 
the design of driving Ptolemy from Egypt, 
but failed. A new confederacy was formed 
against him by Cassander, Lysimachus, 
Seleucus, and Ptolemy ; and the contending 
parties having met in the plain of Ipsus, 
in Phrygia, b. c. 301, Antigonus was de- 



feated, died of his wounds, aged eighty- 
four, and his son Demetrius fled from the 
field. — II. Gonatas, so called from his 
birthplace, Gonni in Thessaly, son of De- 
metrius, grandson to Antigonus, and king 
of Macedonia. He restored the Armenians 
to liberty, and conquered the Gauls, who 
had made an irruption into his kingdom ; 
but at last was expelled by Pyrrhus, king 
of Epirus, who seized his dominions. 
After the death of Pyrrhus, he recovered 
Macedonia, and died after a reign of thirty- 
four years, leaving his son Demetrius II. 
to succeed, b. c. 243. — III. Guardian of 
his nephew, Philip, son of Demetrius, 
married the widow of Demetrius, and 
usurped the kingdom. He was called 
Doson, from his promising much and doing 
nothing. He died b. c. 221, after a reign 
of eleven years, leaving his crown to the 
lawful possessor, Philip, who distinguished 
himself by his cruelties, and the war 

against the Romans IV. Son of Eche- 

crates, and nephew of Philip, father of 
Perseus. When Perseus conspired against 
his parents, Antigonus discovered the plot, 
for which Philip would have made him 
his successor, had not his premature death 
interrupted his design. On the accession 
of Perseus to the throne, Antigonus was 
put to death, b. c. 179. — V. Son of Aris- 
tobulus II., king of Judaea, was conducted 
to Rome along with his father, after the 
capture of Jerusalem by Pompey. During 
Caesar's dictatorship, he struggled unsuc- 
cessfully to regain his father's kingdom ; 
but at last succeeded by means of Pacorus, 
to whom he had promised 1000 talents 
for his assistance. After reigning three 
years, he was attacked by Gabinius, at the 
instigation of Mark Antony, defeated, and 
ignominiously put to death. — VI. Carys- 
tius, an historian in the age of Philadel- 
phus, who wrote the lives of some of the 
ancient philosophers, a heroic poem, and 
other works. 

Antilibanus, a ridge of mountains in 
Syria, running parallel with that of Libanus. 

Antilochus, eldest son of Nestor by 
Eurydice. During the Trojan war he 
was killed by Memnon, son of Aurora, 
according to Homer, or, as Ovid says, by 
Hector. 

Antimachus, I., a poet of Colophon, and 
pupil of Panyasis, who flourished between 
b. c. 460 and 431. — II. A Trojan, whom 
Paris bribed to oppose the restoring of 
Helen to Menalaus and Ulysses. His sons, 
Hippolochus and Pisander, were killed by 
Agamemnon. 

Antinoopolis, or Antinoe, a magnifi- 
cent town of Egypt, built in honour of 



62 



ANT 



ANT 



Antinous, on the eastern bank of the Nile, 
and on the site of an obscure village called 
Besa. It is now Ensene. 

Antinous, L, a youth of Bithynia, of 
•whom Hadrian was so extremely fond that 
at his death he erected temples, instituted 
festivals, and built the city Antinoopolis, in 
his honour, and caused a constellation to 
be named after him. He was said to have 
been drowned in the Nile ; but the more pro- 
bable story is, that an oracle at Besa having 
informed Hadrian that he was threatened 
with great danger, unless a person dear 
to him was immolated, Antinous threw 
himself into the Nile, for the safety of the 

emperor II. A native of Ithaca, son of 

Eupeithes, and one of Penelope's suitors. 
He excited his companions to destroy 
Telemachus, whose advice comforted his 
mother Penelope ; and he was the first of 
the suitors that Ulysses put to death on 
his return. 

Antiochia, I., a celebrated city of Syria 
on the left bank of the Orontes, once the 
third city in the world for beauty, magni- 
tude, and population. It was built by 
Seleucus Nicator, b. c. 301, in honour of 
his father Antiochus; and from its advan- 
tageous position it became at once the 
capital of the Macedonian kingdom of 
Syria, and continued for nearly 2^ cen- 
turies to be the residence of the monarchs 
of the Seleueeidan dynasty. About 65 
years b. c. the conquests of Pompey 
brought Antioch, with the whole of Syria, 
under the control of Rome. At this sera 
it consisted of four distinct towns, each hav- 
ing separate fortifications, the whole being 
surrounded by a common wall ; hence it 
was sometimes called Tetrapolis. Under 
the Romans, Antioch continued to ad- 
vance in importance : it was the centre of 
an extensive commerce, the residence of 
the governor of Syria, the frequent resort 
of the emperors, and the most celebrated 
town of the empire (the capital only ex- 
cepted) for the amusements of the circus 
and the theatre. It is intimately con- 
nected with the early history of Chris- 
tianity, the doctrines of which were planted 
in it by Paul and Barnabas; and in it, 
also, the term Christian had its origin as 
a distinctive appellation. (Acts, xi. 26.) 
It has suffered severely on many occasions 
from earthquakes. One of the most cele- 
brated and disastrous of these calamities 
occurred a. d. 11 5. The emperor Trajan, 
who had just concluded his victorious 
Parthian campaign, being then in the 
city, it was crowded with troops and 
strangers from all parts of the ancient 
world. The shocks are said to have con- 



tinued for a lengthened period, and to 
have been most severe ; the emperor him- 
self narrowly escaped with some bruises, 
and many thousands of individuals were 
buried in the ruins of the city. It again 
suffered severely from similar catastrophes 
in the years 340, 394, 396, 458, 526, and 
588; the last destroying, it is said (but 
such statements are almost always much 
exaggerated), above 60,000 persons. Not- 
withstanding these repeated inflictions, 
and its devastation by Chosroes the Persian 
in 548, it revived again and again, and 
continued to be the " Queen of the East," 
and a place of great importance, till 638, 
when it fell under the power of the Saracens. 
In 1098, it was taken by the crusaders, 
and continued to be the capital of a Chris- 
tian principality till 1269, when it was 
taken by the Egyptian sultan, by whom 
it was partially demolished. It was added 
to the Ottoman empire by Selim I., in 
1516 ; but its commercial importance had 
already vanished, and it has continued, 
under the barbarous sway of the Turks, to 
decline till it has reached its present 
state of comparative insignificance. — II. 
A city of Lycaonia, near the northern 
confines of Pisidia. It was founded by a 
colony from Magnesia under the auspices 
of Antiochus ; and under the Romans it 
became the capital of their province of 
Posidia. — Antiochia was also the name 
of numerous other cities of antiquity, 
founded by some of the kings named An- 
tiochus. 

Antiochus, I., surnamed Soter, son of 
Seleucus, king of Syria and Asia. He 
fell into a lingering disease ; and on its 
being discovered that love for Stratonice, 
his stepmother, was the cause of his illness, 
the father gave her to his son. He died 
b. c. 261, after a reign of nineteen years. 
He was called Soter or Saviour by the pro- 
vinces of Lower Asia, from his having 

freed them from the Gauls II. Son and 

successor of Antiochus Soter, and surnamed 
Theos (God), by the Milesians, because 
he put to death their tyrant Timarchus. 
In the third year of his reign a war having 
broke out between him and Ptol. Phila- 
delphus of Egypt, he was obliged to sue 
for peace, which was granted on condition 
of his divorcing his former wife, Laodice, 
and marrying Ptol. 's sister, Berenice. The 
male issue of this marriage were to succeed 
to the crown. Ptol. died two years after, 
when Antiochus repudiated Berenice, and 
restored Laodice, who, resolving to secure 
the succession to her son, poisoned Antio- 
chus, and suborned Artemon to represent 
himself as king. - Artemon consequently 



ANT 



ANT 



63 



pTetended to be indisposed, and, as king, 
called all the ministers, and recommended 
Seleucus, surnamed Callinicus, son of La- 
odice, as his successor. It was afterwards 
made public that the king had died, and 
Laodice placed her son on the throne, and 
despatched Berenice and her son, b. c. 246. 
Antiochus left another son by Laodice ; 
Antiochus, surnamed Hierax, or the Hawk, 
from his rapacity. This prince contended 
for several years with his brother for the 
possession of Asia Minor, but was finally 
overthrown, and fled into Egypt, where 
he was put to death by Ptolemy. — III. 
Surnamed the Great, succeeded his father, 
Seleucus Ceraunus, on the throne of 
Syria, b. c. 224. The first years of his 
life were spent in reducing some of his 
revolted provinces to subjection. He 
then turned his arms against the Romans, 
in the war generally called by his name ; 
but having disregarded the advice of 
Hannibal, who had embarked in his cause, 
he suffered a check at Thermopylae, and a 
complete defeat at Magnesia. Compelled 
to sue for peace, he obtained it on condi- 
tion of retiring beyond Mt. Taurus, and 
paying a yearly fine of 2000 talents. His 
revenues being inadequate to this heavy 
demand, he attempted to plunder the 
temple of Belus in Susiana, which so 
incensed the inhabitants that they killed 
him with his followers, b. c. 187. He 
was succeeded by his eldest son, Seleucus 
Philopater ; the two others, Antiochus 
Epiphanes and Demetrius, being kept as 
hostages by the Romans. — IV. Surnamed 
Epiphanes, (Illustrious,') second son of An- 
tiochus the Great, succeeded his brother Se- 
leucus on the throne of Syria, e. c. 175. The 
history of the Maccabees represents him as 
the implacable tyrant of the Jews. Having 
made war upon Ptolemy Philopater, he 
laid siege to Alexandria, but was obliged to 
raise it on the intervention of the Romans. 
— V. Surnamed Eupator, succeeded his 
father Epiphanes, b. c. 164. He made 
peace with the Jews ; and in the second 
year of his reign was assassinated by his 
uncle, Demetrius, who said that the crown 
was lawfully his own, and had been seized 

from his father VI. Son of Alexander 

Rala, took the surname of Theos on ac- 
count of his descent from Antiochus 
Theos. He was proclaimed king by Try- 
phon, b. c. 144, in opposition to Deme- 
trius ; but he did not long enjoy the 
crown, for, after a reign of ten years, he 
was murdered by Tryphon, who then 
usurped the throne. — VII. Surnamed Si- 
detes, the Hunter, son of Demetrius Soter, 
drove the usurper Tryphon from Syria, 



laid siege to Jerusalem, and gained three 
victories over Phraates, king of Parthia ; 
but was ultimately killed in an engage- 
ment with the latter, b. c. 130, after a 
reign of nine years. — VIII. Surnamed 
Grypus, from his aquiline nose, son of 
Demetrius Nicator and Cleopatra. He 
was raised to the throne to the prejudice 
of his brothers by Cleopatra, who hoped 
to reign in his name ; and he himself, 
on manifesting an inclination to be inde- 
pendent of his mother, would have been 
cut off, had not he discovered her ar- 
tifice, and compelled her to drink the 
poison prepared for himself. He was 
assassinated b. c. 112, after a reign of 
twenty- nine years. — IX. Surnamed Cy- 
zicenus, from Cyzicus, where he received 
his education. He succeeded his brother 
Grypus on the throne of Syria, after 
having reigned over Ccele- Syria, which 
he had previously compelled his brother 
to cede to him. Being dethroned by his 
nephew Seleucus, son of Grypus, he killed 
himself, b. c. 95. — X. (Ironically sur- 
named Pius, because he married Selena, 
wife of his father and uncle), the son of 
Antiochus Cyzicenus, expelled his cousin 
Seleucus, son of Grypus. from Syria, but 
was in his turn dethroned by Philip and 
Demetrius, the brothers of Seleucus, and 
put to death. After his death, the king- 
dom of Syria was torn to pieces by the 
factions of the royal family, or usurpers, 
who, under the name of Antiochus or his 
relations, established themselves as sove- 
reigns of Syria, or Damascus, or other 
dependent provinces. At last Antiochus, 
surnamed Asiaticus, was restored to his an- 
cestral throne by the influence of Lucullus, 
the Roman general, on the expulsion of 
Tigranes, king of Armenia, from the Syrian 
dominions. But four years afterwards he 
was deposed by Pompey ; and, b. c. 65, 
Syria became a Roman province, and the 
race of Antiochus was extinguished. 

Antiope, I., daughter of Nycteus, king 
of Thebes, or of JEsopus. Jupiter having 
paid his addresses to her in the form of a 
Satyr, she fled to Sicyon, to escape the 
resentment of her father, where she mar- 
ried Epopeus. Meanwhile her father died 
of grief ; but her uncle Lycus, in compli- 
ance with his dying injunctions, marched 
against Epopeus, slew him, and carried 
away Antiope. On her way to Thebes she 
brought forth twins, Amphion and Zethus, 
who were exposed, but educated by shep- 
herds. Dirce, wife of Lycus, treated her 
with great cruelty ; but she at length fled 
to her sons for protection, who killed 
Lycus, and having tied Dirce by the hair 



64 



ANT 



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to a wild bull, caused her to be dragged 
to death. See Dirce. — II. Daughter of 
Mars, and queen of the Amazons, was 
taken prisoner by Hercules, and given in 
marriage to Theseus : she is also called 
Hippolyte. 

Antiparos, a small island in the 
iEgean, opposite Paros ; more anciently 
Olearus, now Antiparo. It is famous for 
a remarkable grotto, of such depth that 
it was thought to communicate beneath 
the waters with some of the adjacent 
islands. 

Antipater, I., a Macedonian of noble 
birth, minister to Philip, and, during the 
absence of Alexander in Asia, governor of 
Macedonia and of all Greece. He made 
war against Sparta, and was soon after 
called into Persia, with a reinforcement, 
by Alexander. After Alexander's death, to 
whom he is suspected of giving poison, 
the European provinces were allotted to 
Antipater. He was soon involved in a 
war with the Grecian states ; and the Athe- 
nians having levied an army of 30,000 
men, and equipped 200 ships, he was 
routed in Thessaly, and besieged in the 
town of Lamia ; but having received a 
reinforcement from Craterus, the fortune 
of the war was completely changed, and 
the Athenians compelled to sue for 
peace. Among other conditions, he de- 
manded that they should deliver up the 
orators Demosthenes and Hyperides, whose 
eloquence had been the primary causes 
of the war. He then turned his arms 
against the other Grecian states, and 
having subverted their forms of govern- 
ment, died in the eightieth year of his age, 
b. c. 317, bequeathing his possessions to his 
friend Polysperchon, to the exclusion of his 
son Cassander. — II. A son of Cassander, 
king of Macedonia, and son-in-law of 
Lysimachus. See Alexander V. — III. 
Second son of Antipas, governor of Idu- 
maea, and father of Herod the Great. 
He embraced the party of Hyrcanus 
against Aristobulus, and, on the ultimate 
success of the former, was appointed 
governor of Judaea by Caasar, whom he 
had assisted in the Alexandrine war. He 
strove to restore the ancient form of the 
Jewish government, but was poisoned 

by a relation of the high priest IV. A 

native of Tyre, and successor of Diogenes 
the Babylonian in the Stoic school. He 
flourished about b. c. 80. His chief oppo- 
nent was Carneades. 

Antipatria, a town of Illyricum, on 
the borders of Macedonia, sacked by 
L. Apustius. on the breaking out of the 
war against Philip of Macedon. 



Antipatris, or Capharsaba, a town of 
Palestine, in Samaria ; rebuilt by Herod 
the Great, and called Antipatris, in honour 
of his father Antipater. 

Antiphanes, a comic poet of Rhodes, 
Smyrna, or Carystus, born b. c. 408 ; and 
so popular at Athens that, though a slave 
by birth, his remains were conveyed thence 
from Chios, where he died, and interred 
with public honours. 

Antiphates, a king of the Laestrygones. 
Ulysses, returning from Troy, came on his 
coasts ; and having sent three men to ex- 
amine the country, Antiphates devoured 
one of them, pursued the others, and sunk 
the fleet of Ulysses with stones, except the 
ship in which Ulysses was. 

Antiphilus, a painter of Egypt, who 
flourished during the time of Alexander 
the Great and Ptolemy I. of Egypt. He 
was, consequently, a contemporary of 
Apelles, whose productions he is said to 
have endeavoured to rival. 

Antiphon, I., a tragic poet, put to 
death by Dionysius the tyrant. Three of 
his productions are cited by Aristotle. — 
II. Son and disciple of the orator Sophi- 
lus, born in Attica, about b. c. 479. He 
also received instruction in the rhetorical 
art from Gorgias, and is said to have been 
the first to apply the art of rhetoric' to 
judiciary subjects, and to the public assem- 
blies. During the Peloponnesian war he 
commanded some Athenian troops, fitted 
out sixty triremes at his own expense, and 
took a leading part in the revolution which 
established the government of the four 
hundred, of which he became a member. 
Having afterwards failed in a mission for 
negotiating peace with Sparta, he was ac- 
cused of treason and condemned to death. 

Antiphtjs, son of Ganyctor of Naupae- 
tus, who, together with his brother 
Ctymenus, slew the poet Hesiod for a 
supposed connivance at an outrage perpe- 
trated on their sister. 

Antipolis, Antihes, a city of Gaul, on 
the coast of the Mediterranean, built by 
the Massilians. 

Antirrhium, a promontory of iEtolia, 
opposite Rhium, whence its name. On it 
was a temple sacred to Neptune. 

Antissa, a city of Lesbos, between the 
promontory Sigeum and Methymne ; so 
called from lying opposite Lesbos, whose 
more ancient name was Issa. 

Antisthenes, the founder of the Cynic 
school of philosophy, was born at Athens, 
424 — 421 b. c. He was originally a pupil 
of Gorgias the Rhetorician, but soon placed 
! himself under the guidance of Socrates, 
| whose more substantial and consistent 



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65 



views had greater charms for him than the 
vain eloquence of the other. The singu- 
larity of his mode of life procured him 
many followers, of whom the most distin- 
guished was Diogenes. (See Ctuici.) His 
conversation was agreeable ; and in the 
Banquet of Xenophon he is mentioned 
with approbation. After the death of 
Socrates, whose accusers he is said to 
have prosecuted, he retired to the Cyno- 
sarges, the gymnasium of Athens, whence 
his sect is said to have derived its name. 
Of his numerous works none are extant, 
the letters which go by his name being 
held to be spurious. 

Antistius Laeeo. a distinguished lawyer 
in the reign of Augustus, remarkable for 
the freedom of his opinions. He is sup- 
posed by some writers to be the person to 
whom Horace applies the epithet insanior. 

Axtitaurus, a chain of mountains, 
running from Armenia through Cappado- 
cia, and connecting itself with the chain 
of Mt. Taurus. See Partadres. 

Axtium, a city of Italy, on the coast of 
Latium, in the territory of the Volsci. 
Its foundation is ascribed to Antheas, son 
of Circe, or to Ascanius, son of JEneas : 
but be this as it may, it must have been 
of considerable note as a maritime town 
at a very early period, for it is comprised 
in the first treaty made between Rome 
and Carthage. This city played an im- 
portant part in the history of the Roman 
empire. It was here that Coriolanus 
united with the Volscians against Rome, 
and here also he met his death. At a later 
period it was captured by the Romans. 
A. r. c. 2S6 : but it subsequently revolted 
at different times, and was only finally sub- 
jugated by Camillus, who destroyed its 
ships and removed their beaks to adorn 
the forum at Rome. It was afterwards 
destroyed by Marius during the civil 
wars, but again rose to eminence, being 
selected by several of the emperors as their 
favourite residence. Here Augustus re- 
ceived from the senate the title of <; Father 
of his Country." Antium was the birth- 
place of Nero, and was famous for its 
temples of Fortune and Neptune. It is 
now Porto d'Anzo. 

Axtoxia. I. . born 89 a c, elder daughter 
of Antonius the triumvir, by Octavia, 
half sister of Augustus, and wife of Do- 
mitius Aenobarbus, who supported the in- 
terests of Antony against Augustus until 
a short period before the battle of Actium. 
She numbered among her descendants 
some of the most illustrious personages at 
Rome ; one of her daughters. Domitia 
Lepida, being the mother of Messalina, 



wife of the emperor Claudius, and her 
son Cn. Domitius being the husband of 
Agrippina. and father of Nero. — II. Sister 
of the preceding, wife of Drusus Nero, 
brother of the emperor Tiberius, and mo- 
ther of the celebrated Germanicus. Livia, 
and the emperor Claudius. She was not 
fortunate in her domestic relations. Her 
husband died very early, her son Ger- 
manicus was cut off* in the flower of his 
age, and she herself became the medium 
of discovering the crimes of her own 
daughter Livia. (See Livia.) Under 
the reign of her grandson Caligula, she 
was at first highly honoured ; but ulti- 
mately her death was supposed to have 
been hastened by his neglect, if, indeed, it 
was not brought about by direct means. 
Antonia was deservedly celebrated both 
for her beauty and her virtue. She died 
in the 75th year of her age. — III. Tunis, 
a fortress of Jerusalem, founded by Hyr- 
canus, and enlarged by Herod, who called it 
Antonia, in honour of Marc Antony. It 
was captured by Titus, and its fall was 
the prelude of the destruction of the city 
and temple. 

Axtoxixopolis, a city of Mesopotamia, 
supposed to have been founded by Severus 
or Caraealla, and named after the emperor 
Antoninus ; subsequently called Con- 
stantia. from Constantine, who enlarged it. 

Axtoxi.vus, I.. Pius, or Titus Aurelius 
Fulvius Boioxius Axtoxixus, was born 
at Lanuvium in Italy, a. d. 86. Both his 
father and his grandfather were consuls. 
He was first made proconsul of Asia, then 
governor of Italy, and consul a. d. 120. 
When Hadrian, after the death of Verus, 
determined on the adoption of Antoninus, 
he found some difficulty in persuading him 
to accept of so great a charge as the ad- 
ministration of the Roman empire. This 
reluctance overcome, his adoption was de- 
clared in a council of senators ; and in a 
few months afterwards he succeeded to the 
throne on the death of his benefactor. 
The tranquillity enjoyed by the Roman 
empire, under the sway of Antoninus, 
affords few topics for history ; and in re- 
spect of the emperor himself, his whole 
reign was one display of moderation, 
talents, and virtue. The few disturbances 
which arose in different parts of the em- 
pire were easily subdued by his lieutenants ; 
and in Britain the boundaries of the Ro- 
man province were extended by building 
a new wall, to the north of that of Hadrian, 
from the mouth of the Esk to the Tweed. 
On the whole, the reign of Antoninus was 
uncommonly pacific, and he was left at 
leisure fully to protect the Roman people, 



66 



ANT 



ANT 



and advance their welfare. He died a. i>. 
161, aged 74, having previously married 
M. Aurelius to his daughter Faustina, and 
associated him with himself in the cares 
of government. His death was deeply la- 
mented throughout the empire. — II. 
Marcus Annius Aurelius, surnamed the 
Philosopher, grandson of Verus, was born 
at Rome a.d. 121. On the death of Cei- 
onius Commodus, the emperor Hadrian 
turned his attention towards M. Aurelius; 
but as he was then too young for the as- 
sumption of the cares of the empire, Ha- 
drian adopted Antoninus Pius, on condition 
that he in his turn should adopt M. Aure- 
lius. His father dying early, the care of his 
education devolved on his paternal grand- 
father, Annius Verus. On his formal ac- 
cession to the sovereignty, M. Aurelius 
took Lucius Verus, his cousin, as his col- 
league, and gave him his daughter in mar- 
riage ; but the sudden decease of Verus 
by apoplexy restored to M. Aurelius the 
sole dominion. His whole reign was oc- 
cupied in wars with the Parthians, the 
Marcomanni, and other tribes that either 
invaded the Roman territories or revolted 
from the Roman sway ; but the justice 
and virtues of his character far transcend 
the lustre of the victories which the Ro- 
man arms achieved under his conduct ; and 
his death, which happened in the fifty- 
ninth year of his age, and nineteenth of 
his reign, occasioned universal mourning 
throughout the empire. M. Aurelius left 
one son, the brutal Commodus, and three 
daughters. 

Antonius, I., Marcus Antonius, the 
founder of the Antonian family, was born 
B.C. 142. He was made consul a. u. c. 
655, and then governor of Cilicia, in 
quality of proconsul, where he per- 
formed so many valorous exploits that a 
public triumph was decreed to him. He 
was one of the greatest orators among the 
Romans. He fell a sacrifice in the midst 
of the confusion excited by Marius and 
Cinna, b. c. 87. He left two sons, Marcus 
and Caius, both of whom discredited their 

parentage II. Marcus, surnamed Creti- 

cus, from the office he held in Crete, eldest 
son of the orator, obtained the office of 
managing the corn on the maritime coasts 
of the Mediterranean with unlimited power, 
which gave him many opportunities of 
plundering the provinces, and enriching 
himself. — III. Caius, second son of the 
orator. He bore arms under Sylla in the 
war against Mithridates, and raised such 
disturbances in Greece that for this and 
other malpractices he was expelled from 
the senate. By the aid of Crassus and 



Caesar he afterwards obtained the con- 
sulship, and was appointed to head the 
forces against Catiline; but a pretended 
attack of gout induced him to reject the 
office. On being appointed proconsul of 
Macedonia, he governed with such extor- 
tion that on his recal he was sent into 
exile. — IV. Marcus, the triumvir, son of 
M. Antonius, surnamed Creticus, and 
Julia, sister of L. Julius Caesar, the most 
illustrious of the Antonian family, was born 
81 or 86 b. c. Losing his father when very 
young, he led a very dissipated life, and 
wasted his whole patrimony before he had 
assumed the manly gown. After the exe- 
cution of his stepfather Lentulus, for his 
assumed participation in Catiline's con- 
spiracy, Mark Antony went to Greece, 
where he diligently applied himself to the 
two pursuits most important to a Roman, 
oratory and military science. Thence he 
was invited to join Gabinius, then procon- 
sul in Syria, where he greatly distinguished 
himself by his courage and address, and 
gained golden opinions among the soldiery. 
He next proceeded to Gaul, where he 
gained the notice of Caesar ; and on his 
return to Rome became a candidate for 
the quaestorship, and even aspired to a 
place in the college of augurs, then vacant 
by the death of Crassus. The senate 
being at this^time torn by the factions 
of Pompey's and Caesar's adherents, An- 
tony proposed that both should lay aside 
the command of their armies in the pro- 
vinces ; but, as this proposition met with 
no success, he privately retired from 
Rome to the camp of Caesar, and advised 
him to march his army to Rome. When 
Caesar had made himself master of Rome, 
he appointed Antony governor of Italy ; 
and in the numerous campaigns that fol- 
lowed he proved himself such an able 
auxiliary, that after the battle of Pharsalia 
Caesar made him master of the horse. 
This period of Antony's life is marked 
by great licentiousness. He divorced 
his wife Antonia, and carried his disre- 
gard of public opinion so far as to appear 
openly with an actress in a car drawn by 
lions. In the year 44 b. c. he was Caesar's 
colleague in the consulship, and only es- 
caped the fate of the latter by the inter- 
vention of Brutus. His oration over the 
body of his friend, coupled with the re- 
ceipt of Caesar's treasures from Calfurnia, 
and other artful measures, but above all 
the rising indignation of the people against 
the senate, soon gave Antony a prospect 
of rivalling even the despotic power from 
which Caesar had been hurled. But his 
ambitious views were thwarted by Octa- 



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67 



vius, who, assuming the name of Caesar, 
gained over the veterans to his cause, while 
his rank and connections procured him 
the support of the senate. Violent quar- 
rels ensued between Antony and Octavius. 
The latter, it is said, even plotted the 
assassination of his rival, who now left 
Rome, and having joined the Greek le- 
gions at Brundisium, laid siege to Mutina, 
then held by D. Brutus; but being defeated 
in a twofold attack by the consuls Hirtius 
and Pansa, and Brutus, was compelled to 
cross the Alps. Meanwhile Octavius had 
thrown off the mask, and seized the con- 
sular power ; and a reconciliation was 
soon afterwards effected between him and 
Antony, who had already gained an ac- 
cession of strength by the junction of 
Lepidus. These three leaders then came 
to an agreement to divide all the provinces 
of the empire, and the supreme authority, 
among themselves for five years, under the 
name of triumvirs ; and in the proscrip- 
tion which followed the conduct of Antony 
was marked by great cruelty, more espe- 
cially towards Lucius Caesar and Cicero. 
To his share fell the province of Gallia 
Citerior and Ulterior ; and to him was as- 
signed the conduct of the war against 
Brutus and Cassius, which resulted in the 
defeat of the latter, mainly owing to the 
ability of their opponent. After sojourning 
some time in Athens, he crossed over into 
Asia, where he lived in a state of regal splen- 
dour at Ephesus; and having summoned 
Cleopatra to meet him at Tarsus, was led 
captive by her beauty to Alexandria, where 
he forgot the interests of his country in the 
charms and blandishments of the voluptu- 
ous queen. But a Parthian invasion at 
length roused him to action; and while 
preparing to arrest it he was summoned 
by his wife Fulvia to sail for Italy to aid 
her in an attempt to overthrow Octavius. 
On his arrival, however, he found the war 
at an end; and the death of his wife Fulvia, 
which happened opportunely, soon led to 
a reconciliation with Octavius, who gave 
him his sister Octavia in marriage. A 
new division was made of the empire ; 
but on returning to the east Antony { 
once more became enslaved by the charms 
of Cleopatra, and the repudiation of Oc- 
tavia involved him in a new war with 
Octavius. The battle of Actium put an 
end to this contest, and the hopes of An- 
tony. He now retreated to Alexan- 
dria, where, soon afterwards, besieged by 
the conqueror, abandoned by all his fol- 
lowers, and betrayed, as he thought, even | 
by Cleopatra herself, he fell by his own 
hand, b. c. 30, in the fiftieth, or, as some . 



say, the fifty-sixth year of his age. The 
conqueror shed tears when he was in- 
formed that his enemy was no more. 
Antony left seven children by his three 
wives. — V. lulus, son of M. Antony and 
Fulvia, received from Augustus his sis- 
ter's daughter in marriage. After having 
filled some important offices in the state, 
he engaged in an intrigue with Julia, 
daughter of the emperor, and was put to 
death by order of the latter. According 
to Veil. Paterc. he fell by his own hand. 
— VI. Lucius, consul a. u. c. 713, the 
triumvir's brother. He was besieged in 
Pelusium by Augustus, and obliged to 
surrender with 300 men by famine. The 
conqueror spared his life. — VII. Felix, a 
freedman of Claudius, appointed governor 
of Judaea. See Felix. — VIII. Musa, a 
physician of Augustus. See Musa. — IX. 
A Roman commander, to whose general- 
ship Vespasian was in great measure in- 
debted for the imperial crown. He ex- 
celled in oratory; and a similarity of taste 
led to his forming a friendship with Mar- 
tial, like whom he wrote numerous epi- 
grams. — X. Surnamed Sanctus, or St. 
Anthony, the founder of the monastic life, 
was born at Koma, a village of Upper 
Egypt, a.d. 251. Though the offspring 
of wealthy parents, he was brought up in 
great ignorance; and on reaching manhood 
his devotional turn of mind drove him into 
solitude, where reports of his austerity, 
miracles, and temptations by the devil at- 
tracted a crowd of admirers, whose desire 
of pursuing the same mode of life gradu- 
ally led to the establishment of monasteries, 
a. d. 305. Seven years afterwards he went 
to Alexandria to console the Christians 
under their persecutions ; and once more 
retired to a secluded retreat, where his 
fame continued to attract attention. A 
little before the close of his career he re- 
turned to Alexandria, and took part in the 
Arian controversy; but soon afterwards 
retired to his cell, where he died, a. d. 356. 

Akubis, an Egyptian deity, the offspring 
of Osiris and of Nephthys, the sister and 
spouse of Typhon ; and represented with 
the head of a dog, fox, or jackal, and a hu- 
man body. He accompanied Isis in her 
search after the remains of Osiris. He 
was regarded as the conductor and guar- 
dian of departed souls ; and consequently 
his functions bear some resemblance to 
those of Hermes of the Greeks, and Mer- 
curius of the Romans. 

Anxur, the Volscian name of Terracina. 
See Terracina. 

Anyta, a poetess of Tegea, who flou- 
rished about b. c. 300. She versified the 



68 



ANY 



APE 



oracles of iEsculapius at Epidaurus ; and 
the few remains of her productions we 
possess are remarkable for their simplicity. 

Anytus, an Athenian rhetorician, who, 
with Melitus and Lycon, procured the 
condemnation of Socrates on the ground 
of impiety. But Melitus was condemned 
to death by the repenting populace; and 
Anytus, to escape a similar fate, went 
into voluntary exile. 

Aon, son of Neptune, who first collected 
into cities the scattered inhabitants of 
Euboea and Boeotia. Hence the name 
Aonians given to the early inhabitants of 
Boeotia. 

Aones, the earlier inhabitants of Boeotia, 
who, with the Hyantes, succeeded the 
Ectenes. On the arrival of Cadmus, the 
Hyantes took up arms to oppose him; but 
the Aones submitted, and were incorpor- 
ated with the Phoenicians. The Muses 
were called Aonice, from Mt. Helicon in 
Boeotia. 

Aornos, Aornus, Aornis, Renas, a 
lofty rock in India, on the Suastus, Suvat, 
taken by Alexander. The Macedonians 
named it Aornos (Jxopvos), it being so high 
that no bird could fly over it. 

Apamia, or Apamea, I., a city of 
Phrygia, built by Antiochus Soter, on the 
site of the ancient Cibotus, and called after 
his mother Apama. The word Cibotus is 
derived from KiSwrbs, " ark " or " coffer," 
because it was the mart or common trea- 
sury of those who traded from Italy and 
Greece to Asia Minor. This name was 
afterwards added to Apama. — II. An- 
other in Bithynia, originally called Myr- 
laja, destroyed by Philip, father of Perses, 
and rebuilt by Prusias, who called it after 
his wife's name Apama. — III. Another 
in Syria, Famieh, at the confluence of the 
Orontes and Marsyas, which form here a 
small lake ; founded by Seleucus Nicator, 
and called after his wife. 

Apaturia, an Athenian festival, which 
came also to be observed by the rest of the 
Ionians, except those of Colophon and 
Ephesus. Two accounts are given of its 
origin : the one (which is now exploded) 
derives it from the Greek word aTvary], 
deceit, because instituted in memory of a 
stratagem, by which Xanthus, king of 
Boeotia, was killed by Melanthus, king of 
Athens ; the other from irdrnp, father, and 
the prefix a, in the sense of together, because 
at this festival children accompanied their 
fathers to have their names entered on the 
public register. The festival took place 
in October, and lasted three days. 
Apaknis. See Abarnis. 
Apella, a name which has given 



rise to a great diversity of opinion. It is 
now generally considered as the name of 
some well-known and superstitious Jew of 
the day. 

Apelles, the most celebrated painter of 
antiquity, born at Cos, or, as others say, 
at Ephesus. The period of his birth is 
uncertain ; but, as he painted numerous 
portraits of Alexander the Great, he must 
have been at the zenith of his reputation 
b. c. 332. His chief instructors were 
Ephorus the Ephesian, and Pamphilus the 
Macedonian. His favourite subject was 
the representation of Venus. A complete 
list of his works, together with the few au- 
thentic particulars of his life, is given in 
Pliny's Natural History, 35. 10. 

Apellicox, a native of Teos, celebrated 
for his love of books, but principally for 
being instrumental in preserving from de- 
struction many of the works of Aristotle, 
from whose heirs he purchased them 1 50 
years after the philosopher's death. His 
large fortune enabled him to indulge 
his passion for books ; but he made no 
scruple of possessing himself of valuable 
manuscripts by other means. Thus, he 
purloined from the archives at Athens 
some original documents, for which he was 
obliged to flee ; but the influence of his 
wealth having procured his return, he at- 
tached himself to the faction of the Peri- 
patetic philosopher Athenion, was made 
governor of Delos, which, by his incapa- 
city, fell into the hands of the Romans, 
and died soon after at Athens. 

Apenninus, the general name for the 
great mountain system of Italy, extending 
from the Alps to the extremity of Cala- 
bria, and usually divided into four prin- 
cipal groups, called the Ligurian, Etruscan, 
Roman, and Neapolitan Apennines. The 
length of their course is estimated at 670 
miles. The word Apennine is supposed 
to be of Celtic origin, being derived from 
alp, high, and penna, a summit. 

Aper, L, Marcus, a native of Gaul, 
who came to Rome, where he distinguished 
himself by his eloquence. He is one of 
the interlocutors in the dialogue on the 
decline of oratory, which some ascribe to 
Quintilian, some to Tacitus, and others to 
Aper. He died a. d. 85. — II. Arrius, a 
praefect of the prajtorian guards under 
Carus, and afterwards under Numerianus, 
who was married to his daughter. It was 
said, but with what truth is uncertain, that 
Carus had been cut off by Aper ; and, nine 
months after his accession, Numerianus 
having been cut off by poison, suspicion 
fell upon Aper, in whom the government 
of the empire was vested, and he was as- 



APE 



API 



69 



sassinated by Diocletian, who had been 
declared emperor by the soldiery. 

Apesas, or Aphesas, a mountain of 
Argolis, near Nemea, on which Perseus 
first sacrificed to Jupiter Apesantius. It 
can be seen from Argos and Corinth. 

Aphaca, a town of Syria, where Venus 
was worshipped. Her temple was de- 
stroyed by Constantine the Great. 

Aphab, or Saphar, a capital city of 
Arabia, now Al-Fara, between Mecca and 
Medina. 

Aphareus, I., a king of Messenia, who 
married Arene, daughter of CEbalus. — II. 
A stepson of Isocrates, who produced 
thirty-five or thirty-seven tragedies, and 
was four times victor. 

Aphas, Vuvo, a river of Greece, falling 
into the bay of Ambracia. 

Aphellas, a king of Cyrene, who, with 
the aid of Agathocles, endeavoured to re- 
duce all Africa under his power. 

Aphet^, a city of Thessaly, whence the 
ship Argo is said to have taken her de- 
parture for Colchis. It corresponds to 
the modern Fetio. 

Aphidna, a borough of Attica, where 
Theseus is said to have secreted Helen. 

Aphrices, an Indian prince, who de- 
fended the rock Aornus with 20,000 foot 
against Alexander ; but was afterwards 
killed by his troops, and his head sent to 
the conqueror. 

Aphrodisia, festivals celebrated in 
Cyprus, and different parts of Greece, in 
honour of Aphrodite, or Venus ; first in- 
stituted by Cinyras, in whose family the 
priestly dignity was hereditary. 

Aphrodite, the Gr. name of Venus, 
from oHppbs, froth, because Venus is said 
to have been born from the froth of the 
ocean. Homer, however, as well as the 
Cretan system, made her the daughter of 
Dione. (See Venus and Dione.) From 
this name are derived Aphrodisia, Aphro- 
disium, and Aphroditopolis, the names 
of numerous cities and islands sacred to 
Venus, in Greece, Asia Minor, and Africa. 

Aphyte, or Aphytis, a city of Thrace, 
celebrated for its temple of Bacchus, and 
oracle of Jupiter Ammon. 

Apia, I., an ancient name of Peloponne- 
sus, which it received from king Apis ; after- 
wards called iEgialea, Pelasgia, Argia; 
at last Peloponnesus, or island of Pelops. 
— II. A name given to the earth among 
the Scythians. See Apia, I. 

Apicata, wife of Sejanus, by whom she 
had three children. She was repudiated. 

Apicius. There were three patricians 
of this name at Rome, all noted for their 
. gluttony. I. The first lived in the time 



of the dictator Sylla. — II. The second 
during the reigns of Augustus and Tibe- 
rius. — III. The third lived under Trajan, 
and was in possession of a secret for pre- 
serving oysters. It is uncertain to which 
of the three the work Be Re Culinaria, 
which has reached our times, is to be as- 
cribed. 

Apidanus, Sdlampria, one of the chief 
rivers of Thessaly, flowing into the Pe- 
neus. 

A pin a and Apinje, a city of Apulia, 
destroyed with Trica, in its neighbourhood, 
by Diomedes ; whence the proverb of 
Apina et Trica, "trifling things." 

Apiol^:, or AppioLiE, a city of Latium, 
in the territory of Setia, burnt by Tarq. 
Priscus. Its spoils furnished the sums 
necessary for the construction of the Circus 
Maximus. 

Apion, I., a surname of Ptolemy, one of 
the descendants of Ptol. Lagus. See 
Ptolem^eus XV. — II. A grammarian 
and historical writer, born at Oasis Magna 
in Egypt, during the first, century. He 
subsequently travelled into Greece, and 
finally settled at Rome, where he taught 
philology under Tiberius or Claudius. He 
was surnamed Plistonicus, and was distin- 
guished for his hostility to the Jews. A 
letter from Josephus against him is still 
extant. 

Ans, I., one of the ancient kings of 
Peloponnesus, son of Phoroneus and 
Laodice, was a native of Naupactus, and 
descended from Inachus. He received 
divine honours after death. The country 
where he reigned was called Apia. See 
Apia. — II. A sacred bull worshipped by 
the Egyptians. He was kept at Mem- 
phis, the capital of Lower Egypt, in a 
magnificent temple, to which were attached 
spacious pleasure-grounds, in which he 
might take exercise. He was believed to 
be an incarnation of Osiris, and was recog- 
nised by a number of peculiar marks, de- 
scribed by Pliny and iElian. He was 
said to live for twenty-five years, at the 
end of which period he was supposed to 
drown himself by leaping into the Nile. 
He was then interred with great pomp ; 
and the priests wandered about for some 
days, shrieking, beating their breasts, and 
exhibiting every outward form of grief, 
until a new Apis was found, when the 
discovery was celebrated by a joyful fes- 
tival, termed the Theophania (which see), 
or Manifestation of the God, which lasted 
five days. There were other sacred bulls 
besides Apis : e. g. Mnevis, worshipped at 
On, or Heliopolis ; Pacis at Hermonthis, 
and Onuphis. 



70 



API 



APO 



Apitius Galba, a celebrated buffoon 
in the time of Tiberius. 

Apollinares Ludi. See Ludi Apolli- 
kar.es. 

Apollinaris, C. Sulpltius, a gramma- 
rian of Carthage, flourished in the second 
century, under the Antonines. He was 
succeeded in his profession by his scholar, 
Helvius Pertinax, who afterwards became 
emperor. The short metrical arguments 
in the comedies of Terence are attributed 
to Apollinaris. 

Apollinis Promontorium, Ras-Zebid, 
situate on the coast of Africa, east of 
Utica, and north of Carthage. 

Apollinopolis Magna, Edfou, a city in 
the southern part of Upper Egypt, re- 
markable for its splendid temple, which is 
still in a state of great preservation. 

Apollinopolis Parva, Kous, a city of 
Egypt, north-west of Thebes. It was the 
entrepot of the trade with the interior of 
Africa and Alexandria. 

Apollo, the son of Jupiter and Latona, 
one of the principal gods of the Grecian 
and Roman mythology ; named also Phoe- 
bus, and in Homer and Hesiod, most com- 
monly Phoebus Apollon. He was the god 
of archery, prophecy, music, and all the 
fine arts ; and, at a later period, of the 
sun. He was born on the island of Delos, 
(see Delos, Latona,) whither his mother 
took refuge from the persecutions of the 
jealous Juno ; and his first exploit was the 
slaughter of the dragon Pytho, for which, 
according to one tradition, he was subject- 
ed to servitude under Admetus, king of 
Thessaly ; though another story represents 
his banishment from heaven as the conse- 
sequence of his having killed the Cyclops, 
who had fabricated the thunderbolts that 
cut off his son iEsculapius. It would be 
impossible to give an outline of the nu- 
merous adventures in which Apollo was 
engaged. He had temples and statues in 
every country ; of the former, the most 
celebrated were that of Delphi, Delos, 
Patara, Claros, Grynium, Tenedos, and 
Didymi, in all of which his oracles gave 
predictions. From these, too, he derived 
a great variety of distinctive epithets. 
The hawk, the raven, the swan, the grass- 
hopper, were his favourite animals ; and 
the bay was sacred to him. He is usually 
represented in the prime of youth and 
manly beauty, with long hair, his brows 
bound with the sacred laurel, bearing 
either the lyre or the bow. ( See Phceeus. ) 
The statue of the Apollo Belvidere shows 
at once the conception which the ancients 
had of this deity, and their pre-eminence 
in the art of sculpture. 



Apollodorus, a name common to many 
persons in antiquity, of whom the most 
distinguished were, I., a painter of 
Athens, the predecessor of Zeuxis, who 
lived about four centuries b. c. Pliny speaks 
of him with enthusiasm. — II. A comic 
poet of Athens, who flourished about 300 
b. c. He was one of the six writers se- 
lected by the ancient critics as the models 
of the New Comedy. From one of his 
dramas Terence borrowed the Hecyra and 
the Phormio. — III. A native of Athens, 
and disciple of Aristarchus, Panaetius, and 
Diogenes the Babylonian. He flourished 
about b. c. 146, and was celebrated for his 
numerous productions in prose and verse. 
Of his voluminous writings only three 
books of his Bibliotheca, a mythological 
work, have reached our times. — IV. An 
architect of great ability in the reigns* of 
Trajan and Hadrian, born at Damascus. 
The magnificent stone bridge built over the 
Danube, a. d. 104, by order of Trajan, 
(the remains of which still exist,) was ex- 
ecuted under his direction. He was also 
the architect of the Forum Trajanum at 
Rome, on which the column of Trajan 
stands, an immense library, the Odaeum, 
and various other magnificent works. 
Falling into disgrace with Hadrian, he 
lost his life through the emperor's caprice. 

Apollonia, I., a propitiatory festival 
celebrated at Sicyon, in honour of Apollo 
and Diana, of which Pausanias gives the 
following account : — These divinities, after 
the destruction of the serpent Python, 
having come to iEgialea to be purified, 
were frightened away, and fled to Crete. 
iEgialea was soon visited with an epidemic 
distemper ; and the inhabitants, by the 
advice of their prophets, sent seven boys 
and as many girls to entreat them to 
return to iEgialea. Apollo and Diana 
granted their petition, in honour of which 
a temple was raised to Yleida, goddess of 
persuasion ; and every year, on the festival 
of Apollo, a band of boys conveyed the 
statues of Apollo and Diana to the temple 
of Persuasion. — II. Etienne of Byzantium 
enumerates twenty-five cities of this name ; 
and Ortelius, in his Thesaurus Geogra- 
pkicus, adds seven more. Of these the 
principal were, I., in Illyricum, near the 
mouth of the Aoas, the ruins of which still 
retain the name of Pottina. It was 
founded by a colony of Corcyreans and 
Corinthians, and its more ancient name was 
Gylaecia, from Gylaex, the leader of the 
Corinthian band that drove the Illyrians 
from the neighbouring territory of Epi- 
daurus. It was famed for the wisdom of its 
laws ; and from its proximity to Brundu- 



APO 



APO 



71 



sium and Hydruntum in Italy, was always I 
deemed an important station by the Romans, 
Augustus spent many years of his life in 
Apollonia. — II. A town in the interior of 
Chalcidia, on the Equathian Way. Men- 
tion is made of it in the Acts of the Apostles 
(xvii. 1.), St. Paul having passed through 
it on his way from Philippi to Thessa- 
lonica. The ruins are called Pollina. — 

III. A city of Lydia, about 300 stadia 
from Pergamus, and the same distance 
from Sardis. It was named after the wife 
of Attalus : Cicero often alludes to it. — 

IV. A city of Mysia, at the northern ex- 
tremity of the lake Apolloniatis, near the 
point where the Rhyndacus issues from it. 
It is now AhullionJb. — V. A city of Cyre- 
naica, regarded as the harbour of Cyrene. 
It was the birthplace of the geographer 
Eratosthenes. Under the Lower Empire 
it took the name of Sozusa, whence it is 
now called Marza Susa, or Sosush 

Apollonias, a native of Cyzicus, who 
became wife of Attalus, king of Per- 
gamus. See Attalus. 

Apollonices, a physician of Cos at the 
court of Artaxerxes, who became ena- 
moured of Amytis, the monarch's sister, 
and was some time after put to death for 
slighting her. 

Apollonius, a name common to many 
distinguished persons of antiquity, of 
whom the most celebrated are, I., a na- 
tive of Perga in Pamphylia, born 240 
6. c, one of the most distinguished pu- 
pils of Euclid ; together with whom, 
Archimedes, and Diophantus, he is re- 
garded as the founder of the mathema- 
tical sciences. His most celebrated work 
is a Treatise on Conic Sections. — II. 
A poet of Alexandria, called Apollonius 
of Rhodes, from having taught rhetoric 
there. He was a pupil of Callimachus at 
Alexandria, whence he retired with dis- 
gust at his want of success. Of his nu- 
merous poems, the only one which remains 
is the Argonautica, giving a detailed 
account of the wanderings of the Argo- 
nauts, which has been repeatedly edited 
and translated. — III. Dyscolus (so called 
on account of his moroseness) was a gram- 
marian of Alexandria in the second century 
of our era. He was long oppressed by po- 
verty ; but at length emerged into great emi- 
nence as a writer upon grammar. Several 
of his works have been frequently published. 
— IV. A native of Tyana in Cappadocia, 
of an ancient and wealthy family, born 
about the commencement of the Christian 
era, and famous in the annals of ancient 
imposture. He attached himself to the 
tenets of the Pythagorean philosophy ; and 



iEgae, celebrated for its temple of iEscu- 
lapius, was the scene of his labours. 
After visiting Pamphylia, Cilicia, Antioch, 
Ephesus, and other cities, he resolved to 
go to Babylon, and thence to India, to 
initiate himself in the mysteries of Brah- 
manism. His whole journey was a scene 
of triumph. The wonderful cures which 
he performed, and the fulfilment of several 
of his prophecies, procured him willing 
listeners in the persons even of the greatest 
monarchs ; and, on his return through 
Greece to Rome, he was even admitted to 
the councils of the emperor Titus. On 
the accession of Domitian, he was accused 
of having fomented a movement in Egypt 
in favour of Nerva ; but was acquitted. 
He afterwards revisited Greece, gaining 
followers wherever he went; and finally 
settled in Ephesus, where he opened a 
school of philosophy, and died at the age 
of ninety-seven. Among the numerous 
miracles attributed to Apollonius, he is 
said to have announced at Ephesus the 
murder of Domitian, at the same moment 
it took place at Rome ; hence he has 
been, not without reason, accused of a 
participation in the crime. Such was 
the reverence of the heathen nations for 
Apollonius, that they assimilated his cha- 
racter and merits to those of the Founder of 
Christianity. Statues were raised to his 
memory in several cities ; numerous temples 
were dedicated to him ; and in such respect 
was he held, that Aurelian refrained from 
sacking Tyana, out of regard to his 
memory. His life was compiled by Phi- 
lostratus, two centuries after his death, by 
command of Julia, widow of the emperor 
Severus. Several distinguished sculptors 
of this name are enumerated by Pliny. 

Apomyios, a name under which Jupiter 
and Hercules were worshipped at the 
Olympic games, being supplicated to de- 
stroy the vast number of flies which at- 
tended great sacrifices. The sacrifice to the 
Apomyius Deus was always the first, that 
he might drive away the flies from the rest. 

Aponius, a governor of Mcesia, rewarded 
by a triumphal statue by Otho, for defeat- 
ing 9,000 barbarians. 

Aponus, a fountain, with a village of the 
same name, near Patavium in Italy. The 
waters were celebrated for their healing 
properties; hence their name, (from Gr. 
a, priv. and ttovos, pain,) and were sup- 
posed to have an oracular power. 

Apostrophia, a surname of Venus in 
Bceotia, distinguished under the names 
Venus Urania, Vulgaris, and Apostrophia. 
j The former was the patroness of a pure 
and chaste love ; the second of sensual de- 



72 



APO 



Aru 



sires ; the last incited men to illicit grati- 
fications, &c. Venus Apostrophia was 
invoked by the Thebans, that they might 
be saved from such unlawful desires. She 
is the same as the Roman Verticordia. 

Apotheosis, a ceremony observed by 
ancient nations, by which they raised 
their kings, heroes, and great men to the 
rank of deities. The Greeks first ad- 
mitted this custom. The Romans bor- 
rowed it from them, and not only deified 
the most prudent and humane of their 
emperors, but also the most cruel and 
profligate. 

AppiaVia, the most celebrated of the 
highways leading from ancient Rome. 
It was constructed by the censor Appius 
Claudius, a. u. c. 442 ; and, commencing at 
the gate of Capena, extended to Capua, 
and thence to Brundusium, the then limit 
of the empire. It was formed of stones 
squared and jointed, and was wide enough 
for two chariots to go abreast. 

Appiades, a name given to Venus, 
Pallas, Vesta, Concord, and Peace, from a 
temple erected to them near the Appiae 
Aqua?. 

Appianus, a native of Alexandria, who 
flourished at Rome under Trajan, Hadrian, 
and the Antonines, where he distinguished 
himself by his forensic abilities, and ac- 
quired the post of procurator of the em- 
pire, and the government of a province. 
His Roman History, in twenty-four books, 
embracing the history of the republic to 
the time of Augustus, no longer exists 
entire. 

Appii Forum, a small place on the Ap- 
pian Way, sixteen miles from Tres Tabernas, 
now Borgo Lungo. It is mentioned by 
St. Paul (Acts xxiii. 15.), and is well 
known as Horace's second resting-place in 
his journey to Brundusium. 

Appius Claudius, or Attus Clausus, I., 
a Sabine by birth, the founder of the Ap- 
pian family at Rome. He is said to have 
migrated to Rome with 5000 members 
and clients of his house, a. u. c. 260, the 
last portion of the mythical age of Roman 
history ; and this accession of strength 
made him at once be classed among the 
patricians, and enrolled in the senate. He 
was a man of stern and harsh character, and 
his zeal for the interests of the patricians 
frequently brought him into collision 
with the plebeians of Rome. — II. Sa- 
binus, son of the preceding, was elected 
consul a. u. c. 283, and rendered himself 
even more odious than his father by his 
despotic character. Being sent against 
the Volsci, he made himself so obnoxious 
to his troops that they refused to fight, 



and were consequently defeated. On 
his return to Rome he was cited to trial, 
but died before the final hearing of his' 
case. — III. Crassinus, a member of the 
patrician family of the Claudii. Though 
cruel and arrogant, like his ancestors, he 
was hardly appointed consul, b. c. 401, 
when, to gain the favour of the people, 
he supported the proposition of electing 
decemvirs with sovereign power for a year. 
(See Decemviri.) After being chosen 
decemvir, he resolved never again to give 
up his power, and conspired with his col- 
leagues for the accomplishment of this 
plan ; but the awful affair of Virginia put 
an end to their odious tyranny. (See 
Virginia.) The decemviral office was 
abolished, and the previous forms of magis- 
tracy immediately restored. Appius was 
accused, and thrown into prison, where he 
either died by his own hand, or was put to 
death secretly by the tribunes. — IV. Ca?- 
cus, a distinguished Roman of the Appian 
family. When censor, he constructed that 
part of the Appian Way which extended 
from Rome to Capua. Through his advice 
the Potitian family committed the charge 
of the rites of Hercules to public slaves, and 
the consequence was, that the family in 
question were all cut off, and Appius was 
deprived of sight ; whence his cognomen of 
Ccecus, " Blind. " He was afterwards con- 
sul, and also interrex, and was very suc- 
cessful in his operations against the 
Samnites. — V. Herdonius, seized the 
capitol with 4000 slaves and exiles, a. u. c. 
292, and was soon after overthrown. — The 
name of Appius was common in Rome to 
many public men, whose lives are not 
distinguished by any remarkable event. 

Aphies, and Aprius, one of the kings 
of Egypt, e. c. 594, called by Jeremiah 
and Ezekiel Pharaoh Hophra. He took 
Sidon, and lived in great prosperity till 
his subjects revolted to Amasis, by whom 
he was strangled. See Amasis. 

Apsus, Beratino, a river of Macedonia, 
falling into the Ionian sea, and celebrated 
for the military operations of Caesar and 
Pompey on its banks. 

Apsynthii, or Absynthii, a people of 
Thrace, bordering on the Thracian Cher- 
sonesus. They overpowered the Dolonci. 

Aptera, a Cretan city, eighty stadia 
from Cydonia. Its name is supposed to 
be derived from a musical contest carried 
on between the Syrens and Muses in its 
vicinity, in which the former were van- 
quished, and became so overcome with 
grief that their wings dropped from their 
shoulders. 

Apuleije leges, proposed by L. Apu- 



APU 



ARA 



73 



leius Saturnlnus, a. tr. c. 653, tribune of [ 
the commons, for dividing public lands | 
among veteran soldiers, settling colonies, 
punishing crimes against the state, and j 
furnishing corn to the poor. 

Apuleius, C. Lucius, a Platonic philo- j 
sopher, born at Medaura in Africa, of a 
highly respectable family, a. d. 127. He 
received his early education at Carthage, 
and thence removed successively to Athens 
and Rome, where he acquired a knowledge 
both of the Latin tongue and the Roman 
law. On his return to his native country 
he married a widow of considerable pro- j 
perty, and thereby recruited his own shat- I 
tered finances. Little, if any thing, is ! 
known of the remainder of his life. , After 
his death several statues were erected to 
his memory, and by some persons he was 
looked upon, like Apollonius of Tyana, 
as worthy of being placed in comparison 
with the Founder of Christianity for his 
miracles and prophecies. His most cele- 
brated work is the Golden Ass, which has 
been translated into all the European lan- 
guages. 

Apulia, the name of one of the divisions 
of Southern Italy, in the time of the 
Romans, lying along the coast of the 
Hadriatic. In remoter ages the whole 
of this part of Italy was known to 
the Greeks by the name of Iapygia, 
and was inhabited by the Daunii, the 
Peucetii, or Paediculi, the Messapians, 
and the Salentini, who were all said to be 
descendants of Greek colonists. The 
principal towns of Apulia were Arpi, 
Luceria, Arpinum, and Venusia, the 
birth-place of Horace. It suffered greatly 
during the second Punic war, some of 
its towns having sided with Hannibal, 
and others with Rome ; but the whole 
ultimately became subject to the Roman 
sway. Apulia was famous for the excel- 
lence of its wool. The modern name, of 
this district is Puglia. 

Aquarius, one of the signs of the 
Zodiac. Some suppose that Ganymede 
was changed into this sign. 

Aquileia, a celebrated city of Italy, in 
the territory of Yenetia, founded by some 
Transalpine Gauls, b. c. 187, but changed 
into a Latin colony within five years after 
its establishment. It was an important 
military post in the time of Cassar, and 
continued to increase in prosperity till the 
fall of the Roman empire, in the ruins of 
which it was involved. 

Aquilius I., Nepos Manius, a Roman 
consul, colleague of Marius, and intrusted 
with the war against the slaves in Sicily, 
which he successfully ended. Though 



at first honoured with an ovation, he was 
afterwards accused of extortion, but ac- 
quitted. Being sent into Bithynia against 
Mithridates, he was defeated, and put to 
death by that monarch, who is said to 
have poured melted gold down his throat 
as a punishment for his cupidity. — II. 
Gallus, a Roman lawyer, a friend of Ci- 
cero, and his colleague in the censorship. 
He is represented as a man of great acute- 
ness and readiness in debate. Three of 
his treatises are eulogised by Cicero. — 
III. Sabinus, a Roman lawyer, who lived 
in the third century of our era. He was 
twice elected to the consulship, and sur- 
named the Cato of his age. He is said to 
have been the father or brother of the Ves- 
tal virgin, Aquilea Severa, whom Helioga- 
balus compelled to become his wife. 

Aquilo, a wind blowing from the north- 
north-east. 

Aquilonia, a city of Samnium, on the 
Volscian frontier. 

Aquinum, I., a town of Cisalpine Gaul, 
identical with the modern Aquario. — 
II. Aquino, a considerable city of Latium, 
on the Latin Way. It was the birth-place 
of Juvenal, of the emperor Pescennius 
Niger, and, in modern times, of the cele- 
brated Thomas Aquinas. Ceres and Diana 
were especially worshipped here. 

Aquitania, one of the three great 
divisions of ancient Gaul, lying between 
the Garumna, Garonne, and the Pyrenees ; 
but afterwards extended by Augustus to 
the Ligeris, Loire. (See Gallia.) The 
inhabitants of Aquitania were of Iberian 
extraction. 

Ara, a constellation of seven stars, near 
the Scorpion's tail. 

Ara Lugdunensis, an altar erected to 
Augustus, at the confluence of the Arar 
and Rhone, near the city of Lugdunum, 
or Lyons, by sixty Gallic communities. It 
became famous under Caligula for the 
celebration of literary contests. By the 
writers of the middle ages, the spot was 
called Attanacum, and is now the point of 
Annai. 

Arabarches, a vulgar person among 
the Egyptians ; or, perhaps, a usual ex- 
pression for the leaders of the Arabians 
who resided in Rome. Some believe that 
Cicero alludes to Pompey under the name 
of Arabarches. 

Arabia, a large country of Asia, forming 
a peninsula between the Arabian and Per- 
sian gulfs. Its length is about 1800 
British miles, and its mean breadth 800. 
Arabia was called by the inhabitants of 
Palestine, the eastern, and by the Babylo- 
nians, the western, country ; hence the 



74 



ARA 



ARA 



Arabians were sometimes designated Ori- 
entals, and sometimes the people of the 
West. (2 Chron. ix. 14., Jer. iii. 2.) Ara- 
bia has been variously divided at different 
times, and by different authors. Strabo 
divides the whole country into Arabia 
Felix and Arabia Deserta, the former oc- 
cupying the southern, and the latter the 
northern, part of the peninsula. The 
triple division into Arabia Felix, Deserta, 
and Petra^a was introduced by Ptolemy 
and Megasthenes. Arabia Felix derived 
this appellation from its rich produce ; 
Arabia Petrasa was so called, either from 
the rocky character of its soil, or, more 
probably, from Petra, an ancient fortified 
emporium ; and Arabia Deserta received 
its name from its barren aspect. This di- 
vision, however, has never been known to 
the inhabitants of the East. From the 
earliest period of authentic history, Arabia 
has been the connecting link between the 
eastern and western world. It was the 
mart whence the Phoenicians drew the 
supplies of gold and silver, gems and 
pearls, spices and perfumes, with which 
they furnished the countries of Europe. 
The Arabians are still, as in the most re- 
mote era, nomades of patriarchal simpli- 
city. Previously to the rise of Moham- 
medanism, their religion was an adoration 
of the heavenly bodies, or Sabaism. For 
a thousand years they defended the freedom, 
faith, and manners of their fathers against 
all the attacks of the eastern conquerors. 
Neither the Babylonian and Assyrian nor 
the Egyptian and Persian kings could bring 
them under their yoke. Though consider- 
ably weakened by Alexander the Great, 
they were never wholly subdued ; and the 
divisions that ensued among his generals 
after his decease enabled them to regain 
their independence. When, three centuries 
after Alexander, the Romans planted their 
victorious standard in the very centre of 
Arabia, many of the native princes still 
maintained a virtual independence of the 
emperors, while the mountainous portion 
of the country became the scene of those 
chivalrous deeds, so celebrated by the 
Arabian poets, which ended in their com- 
plete emancipation. Arabia became an 
early seat of Christianity, though Sabaism 
was never completely eradicated. Many 
of the heretical sects, such as the Mono- 
physites and the Nestorians, flying from 
the persecutions of Rome, found refuge 
here ; even Jews became very numerous ; 
and it is thought that to the indifference 
produced by so endless a variety of sects 
and religions as Arabia exhibited, is to be 
attributed the almost miraculous speed 



with which Mohammed established his new 
religion. This singular impostor raised 
the Arabians to a historical importance 
hitherto unknown ; and with him begins 
a new epoch in the history of this people, 
on which it is not our province to enter. 

Araeicus sinus, that part of the Mare 
Erythraeum which interposes between 
Egypt and Arabia, now Red sea. The 
origin of the modern appellation must be 
traced, through the Latin and Greek lan- 
guages, to the fact of the Arabicus Sinus 
touching on the north the land of Edom, 
or Idumasa. Edom, which in the Hebrew 
tongue signifies red, was the name given 
to Esau, from the mess of red pottage for 
which he sold his birthright ; and as his 
posterity inhabited this country, nothing 
could be more natural than to give his dis- 
tinguishing epithet both to the country 
and the sea which it encompassed. 

AitACHNiEus Mons, a chain of moun- 
tains in Argolis. In the time of Inachus 
it was called Sapyselaton. 

Arachne, so skilful in working with 
the needle, that she challenged Minerva, 
goddess of the art, to a trial of skill. Mi- 
nerva, assuming the form of an old woman, 
warned her to desist from her boasting ; 
but, finding her admonitions vain, she as- 
sumed her proper form, and accepted tbfe 
challenge. The skill of Arachne was un- 
doubted ; but the subjects she chose were 
so offensive to the goddess, that she struck 
Arachne with the shuttle on the forehead ; 
an insult so overwhelming to the high- 
spirited maiden, that she hanged herself, 
and was changed by Minerva into a spider 
(apaxvy)}. The name of this insect pro- 
bably gave rise to the fable ; though the 
story itself would seem to be of oriental 
origin, the art of embroidery having come 
into Western Asia from Babylonia and the 
adjacent countries. 

Arachthus, Ar^thcs, or Arethon, a 
river of Epirus, flowing from the chain of 
Pindus into the Ambrocian gulf. 

Aracynthus, I., a chain of mountains 
in iEtolia ; now Zigos. Some writers as- 
cribe Aracynthus to Acarnania. — II. A 
mountain of Bceotia, sacred to Minerva, 
whence she is called Aracynthia. 

Aradus, I., a city in an island of the 
same name, on the coast of Phoenicia, 
formed by a band of exiles from Sidon. 
The modern name of the island is Ruad. 
^— IL An island on the coast of Arabia, 
in the Persian gulf, supposed to mark the 
original settlements of the Phoenicians 
previously to their establishing themselves 
on the Mediterranean coasts. 

Aransio, the chief city of the Cavares 



ARTE 



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75 



in Gallia Narbonensis, now Orange in the 
department of Vancluse. 

Arje. See JEgimurus. 

Arab, Saone, a river of Gaul, which 
rises near Mt. Vegesus, and falls into the 
Rhodanus at Lugdunum. 

Aratus, I., a Greek poet, born at Soli, 
Pompeiopolis, in Cilicia, about b. c. 270. 
He was a favourite of Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, and a firm friend of Antigonus 
Gonatas, and of Theocritus, who mentions 
him in his Idyls. He composed two poems, 
on astronomical subjects, which are highly 
eulogised by Ovid, {Amor. 1. 15.); and 
he is moreover remarkable as having been 
the poet quoted by St. Paul in his speech 
to the Areopagus, ( Acts, xvii. 28. ). There 
are numerous editions of Aratus : the 
latest is by Bekker with Scholia, Berlin, 
1828, 8vo. — II. A celebrated Grecian pa- 
triot, son of Clinias and Aristodama ; born 
at Sicyon, in Achaia, b. c. 273. When 
seven years of age, his father, who held the 
government of Sicyon, was assassinated by 
Abantidas, who made himself absolute. 
After some revolutions, the sovereignty 
came into the hands of Nicocles; but 
Aratus, then scarcely twenty years of age, 
drove him from Sicyon, restored his coun- 
trymen to liberty, and induced them to 
join the Achaean league. Being chosen 
praetor of the Achaaans, b. c. 244, he drove 
the Macedonians from Athens and Corinth, 
and subsequently made war against the 
Spartans, but was thrice defeated by 
their king Cleomenes. He then leagued 
himself with his former enemy Antigonus, 
by whose assistance he drove Cleomenes 
from Sparta ; and his friendship with the 
Macedonian monarch was further cemented 
with his successor, Philip, who in the early 
part of his reign treated Aratus with great 
respect. But as the ambitious projects of 
the Macedonian began to be developed, 
a less friendly feeling arose between 
them, and Aratus was ultimately cut off 
by a slow poison administered by order of 
Philip, b. c. 213. He was buried with 
distinguished honours, and an annual fes- 
tival called Arateia was instituted to his 
memory. 

Araxes, I., Arras, a river of Armenia 
Major, issuing from Mount Abus, and fall- 
ing into the Caspian sea. — II. Another in 
Persia, flowing by Persepolis, and falling 
into the Medus, now Bend-emir. Xeno- 
phon calls the Chaboras " Araxes," (see 
Chaboras,) and gives the name Phasis to 
the Armenian Araxes, Andb. In the ear- 
lier language of the East the term Araxes 
seems to have been used as a general appel- 
lation for all rivers. 



Arbaces, a Mede who revolted with 
Belesis against Sardanapalus, and founded 
the empire of Media on the ruins of the 
Assyrian power, b. c. 898. He reigned 
above fifty years. 

Arbela, a city of Assyria, near which, 
on the plain of Gaugamela, was fovxght 
the battle between Alexander and Darius, 
Oct. 2, b.c. 331. 

Arbogastus, a nobleman among the 
Franks, who held a high office under 
Gratian, after whose death he passed over 
to Theodosius. At the instigation of that 
emperor, he put to death Victor, the 
nephew of Maximus, and subsequently 
served under Valentinian in Gaul. Being 
of an ambitious spirit, he aimed at sove- 
reignty by corrupting the troops ; but, on 
the death of Valentinian, deeming it more 
prudent to reign by means of another, he 
nominated his secretary Eugenius to the 
throne, and endeavoured to obtain the 
sanction of Theodosius to his choice ; but 
the latter, after two years' preparation for 
war, attacked him near Aquileia ; and 
Arbogast, being deserted by his troops, 
perished by his own hands, a. d. 395. 

Arbuscula, an actress on the Roman 
stage, who laughed at the hisses of the 
populace, while she received the applause 
of the knights. 

Arcadia, a country in the centre of 
Peloponnesus, and, next to Laconia, the 
largest of its six provinces. Its most an- 
cient name was Drymotis, " woody region." 
It was the land of shepherds and of pas- 
toral song, and was peopled with Fauns, 
Satyrs, and the Nymphs, of whom Pan was 
the chief leader and deity. Like the 
Athenians the Arcadians plumed them- 
selves on the antiquity of their origin, 
boasting that they had been in possession of 
their country before the moon rolled in the 
sky ; but they seem to have derived the 
first rudiments of civilisation from the Pe- 
lasgi, who taught them to build huts, and 
clothe themselves with the skins of ani- 
mals. From Areas, a descendant of Pelas- 
gus, who taught them the art of baking 
bread, and weaving, the people and coun- 
try were called Arcades and Arcadia. 
After the first Messenian war, Arcadia 
adopted a republican form of government ; 
but it eventually attached itself to the 
Achaean league, and fell under the Roman 
power. 

Arcadius, eldest son of Theodosius the 
Great, succeeded his father, a. n. 395, in 
the eastern division of the empire, his 
brother Honorius having obtained the 
western division. His history is but a 
tissue of weakness and of vice, though the 
E 2 



76 



ARC 



ARC 



chief blame must be ascribed to his mi- 
nister Rufinus, to whom he was confided 
in his youth. He married Eudoxia, daugh- 
ter of Bauto, and died in his thirty-first 
year, after a reign of thirteen years. In 
the reign of Arcadius, Alaric attacked the 
western empire, and plundered Rome. 

Arcas, son of Jupiter and Callisto, 
daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia. 
He was transformed into the constellation 
Arctophylax, when his mother was changed 
into Ursa Major. (See Callisto.) Pre- 
viously to this, he had succeeded Nyc- 
timus in the government of that district of 
the Peloponnesus which from him was 
called Arcadia. See Arcadia. 

Arce, a city of Phoenicia. It was the 
birth-place of the emperor Sever us. 

Arcens, a Sicilian, whose son accompa- 
nied Mneas into Italy, where he was 
killed by Mezentius. 

Arcesilaus, I., son of Battus, king of 
Cyrene, driven from his kingdom in a 
sedition, died b. c. 575. The second of 
that name died b. c. 550. — II. One of 
Alexander's generals, who obtained Me- 
sopotamia at the general division of the 
provinces after the king's death. — III. 
A philosopher of Pitane in iEolia, the 
founder of what was called the Middle 
Academy; born b. c. 316, died b.c. 241. 
His philosophy was said to be a mixture of 
the dogmatism of Plato, the scepticism of 
Pyrrho, and the dialectics of Diodorus. — 
IV. There were several artists of this name 
in antiquity, of whom the most distin- 
guished was born at Paros, and, according 
to Pliny, was acquainted with the art of 
enameling some time before Aristides, to 
whom it is usually attributed. He was a 
contemporary of Polygnotus. 

Archelaus, L, of Sparta, known only 
as one of the reigning kings when Lycur- 
gus remodelled the constitution. — II. An 
eminent general in the service of Mithri- 
dates, king of Pontus, and the opponent of 
Sylla when the Mithridatic war was carried 
on in Greece. He was twice defeated by 
the latter ; but, in apprehension of danger 
from the jealous temper of Mithridates, he 
went over to the Romans, by whom he was 
well received. — III. Son of the preceding, 
and high priest of the temple of Comana 
in Pontus. He served in the expedition 
of Gabinius to reinstate Ptolemy Auletes 
on the throne of Egypt, then occupied by 
his daughter Berenice ; but having gained 
the affections of the latter, he went over to 
her party, and, after a reign of six months, 
was slain in an engagement with the Ro- 
mans. He was succeeded by his son Ar- 
chelaus in the priesthood, from which, 



j however, he was expelled by Caesar, b. c. 
j 47. — IV. Grandson of the preceding, re- 
j ceived the kingdom of Cappadocia from 
Mark Antony, b.c. 36, whom he had as- 
sisted at Actium. He had the good for- 
tune to retain his kingdom during the 
reign of Augustus ; but, having incurred 
the displeasure of Tiberius, he was sum- 
moned to Rome, where he died a. d. 16. 

— V. A son of Herod the Great, by his 
fifth wife, Malthaca, a Samaritan. His 
father's last will declared him heir to the 
Jewish throne ; but as his brother Antipas 
had been designated as such in a former 
will, the dispute was referred to Augustus, 
who effected a compromise between the 
claimants. But he indulged his hereditary 
propensity to cruelty to such a degree, that 
his subjects complained to Augustus, and 
procured his banishment to Vienna, Fienne, 
in the tenth year of his reign. — VI. A 
king of Macedonia, natural son of Perdic- 
cas II., who ascended the throne, after 
making away with all the legitimate 
claimants, b. c. 413. Under his sway Ma- 
cedonia flourished, and literature and- the 
arts were patronised. Euripides and Aga- 
tho, the tragic poets, and Zeuxis, the painter, 
resided at his court. Plato and Aristotle 
allege that his private excesses led to his 
death by conspiracy ; while, according to 
Diodorus, he was killed accidentally, when 
hunting, by his favourite, Craterus, b. c. 
399. — VII. An eminent philosopher of 
the Ionic school, and the last who presided 
in it in direct succession from Thales. He 
was born either at Miletus or Athens, 
was successor to Anaxagoras, preceptor to 
Socrates and Euripides, and was called 
Physicus, from the celebrity he acquired 
in teaching the doctrines of Anaxagoras 
respecting natural bodies. 

Archemorus. See Opheltes. 

Archias, I., a Corinthian descended 
from Hercules, who founded Syracuse b. c. 
732. Being told by an oracle to make 
choice of health or riches, he chose the 
latter. — II. A poet of Antioch, intimate 
with Lucullus, obtained the rank of a 
Roman citizen by means of Cicero, who 
defended him in an elegant oration, when 
his enemies disputed his privileges of 
citizen of Rome. 

Archidamus, I. Five kings of Sparta 
are known to us by this name. They 
were of the royal line of the Proclidae. 
The first lived before the historical age of 
Sparta, and his name, mentioned by Hero- 
dotus, is the only memorial of his existence. 

— II. Son of Zeuxidamus, succeeded his 
grandfather Leotychides, b. c. 476. The 
Messenians having revolted from Laconia, 



ARC 



ARC 



77 



his greatest efforts were directed to their 
reduction, which he at length accomplished 
after a struggle of ten years. He opposed 
the Peloponnesian war; but finding his 
counsels rejected, he took the command of 
the army, and made several invasions of 
Attica. He died b. c. 428. — III. Son of 
the celebrated Agesilaus, succeeded his fa- 
ther b. c. 361, and died b. c. 338. Before 
coming to the throne, he commanded the 
Lacedsemonian auxiliaries after the battle 
of Leuctra, and gained some advantages 
over the Arcadians and Thebans. He after- 
wards took an active part in the Sacred War, 
and at length fell in battle, while aiding 
the Tarentines, b. c. 338. A statue was | 
erected to his honour by his countrymen 
at Olympia. — IV. Son of Eudamidas, 
was king of Sparta, when Dem. Poliorcetes 
attacked it, b. c. 293, and defeated him. — 
V. Son of another Eudamidas, put to ; 
death by his colleague Cleomenes III., 
B. c. 236. Willi him ended the line of the 
Proclidae ; for though he left five sons, they 
were all superseded on the throne by 
Lycurgus, who was not of the blood royal. 

A r chid as, a tyrant of Athens, killed by 
his troops. 

Archigexes, of Apamea in Syria, a j 
medical author and practitioner who en- ! 
joyed great reputation at Rome in the 
reigns of Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan. 
He belonged to the Pneumatic sect of phy- 
sicians, and is generally regarded as the 
founder of the Eclectic school of medecine. 
His contemporary, Juvenal, employs his 
name to denote a great physician generally. 
His works existed till the sixth century ; 
but all that we possess of them now are 
fragments contained in the writings of 
Galen, Aetius, and Oribasius. 

Archilochus, a Greek poet, native of ' 
Paros, lived b. c. 688. His mother Enipo 
was a slave, but his father Telesicles one ! 
of the most distinguished citizens of the 
island. He is said to have been slain in j 
a duel by one Coros. 

Archimedes, the most celebrated mathe- 
matician, was a native of Syracuse, and re- 
lated to king Hiero. He flourished about 
B.C. 250. His singular ingenuity in the 
invention and construction of warlike en- 
gines is universally known. During the 
storming of Syracuse, Archimedes, when 
the city fell, was so intent on a geometrical 
figure he was tracing in the sand, as to be 
unconscious of the confusion. A soldier 
suddenly entered his room, and ordered 
him to follow him to Marcellus, the Roman 
general having given orders to spare him. 
Archimedes refused to go till he had 
•finished his demonstration, on which the 



soldier drew his sword, and killed him. 
The best translation of the works of Ar- 
chimedes is that into French by Peyrard. 

Archipelagus, a part of a sea where a 
great number of islands are interspersed, 
such as that part of the Mediterranean 
which lies between Greece and Asia Minor, 
and is generally called Mare JEgeum. 

Archippcs, a king of Italy, who gave 
its name to Archippe, a city of the Marsi, 
which was destroyed by an earthquake, 
and lost in the lake of Fucinus. 

Archon, (Gr. apxav, rider) the title of 
the chief magistrate of Athens. The office 
was originally instituted after the death of 
Codrus, the last king of Athens, and was 
vested in one person who enjoyed it for 
life, and was succeeded by his son. Its 
duties were those of a limited monarchy, 
accountable to the assembly of the people ; 
its duration was afterwards limited to ten, 
six, and finally, one year, when its functions 
were divided among nine persons, taken at 
first by suffrage, and afterwards by lot, 
from the nobles. One was chief among 
them, and was called Eponymus, or, 
naming Archon, because the year was dis- 
tinguished by his name. The second, or 
king Archon, exercised the functions of 
high priest. The third, or Polemarch 
(polemarchos,) was originally the chief 
military commander. The other six were 
called Thesmothetce, or setters forth of the 
law ; they presided as judges in the courts, 
and the six formed a tribunal which had a 
peculiar jurisdiction. The nine together 
formed the council of state, on which the 
whole administration rested ; but this was 
transferred by Solon to the senate. The 
exclusive right of the nobles to this office 
was taken away by the measures of Cleis- 
thenes, who threw it open to the people at 
large. 

Archytas, of Tarentum, a Pythagorean 
philosopher, who lived about the middle 
of the fifth century before our era, celebra- 
ted at once for his mathematical and phi- 
losophical works, and for his skill as a 
statesman and a general ; but little can be 
averred with certainty respecting him. He 
was one of the teachers of Plato. Archy- 
tas perished by shipwreck, and his death 
forms the theme of one of the odes of 
Horace. 

Arcitenevs (ro^cxpopos), an epithet ap- 
plied to Apollo, from his bearing a low. 

Arctinus, a cyclic poet, a native of 
Miletus, who lived between the fifth and 
ninth Olymp. He composed an epic on the 
subject of the Amazons, and is said by 
some to have been a disciple of Homer. 

Arctophylax, the star near the Great 
e 3 



73 



ARC 



ARE 



Bear, called also Bootes, into which Areas 
was fabled to have been transformed. 

Arctos, two celestial constellations near 
the north pole, called Ursa Major and 
Minor, supposed to be Areas and his 
mother, who were made constellations. 

Arcturus, a star near the tail of the 
Great Bear, whose rising and setting was 
generally supposed to portend great tem- 
pests. 

Ardalus, son of Vulcan, said to have 
first invented the pipe, which he presented 
to the Muses, thence called Ardalides, and 
Ardaliotides. 

Ardea, capital of the Rutuli, a very 
ancient city of Italy, said to have been 
founded by Danae, mother of Perseus. 
Hence the boast of Turnus, that he could 
number Inachus and Acrisius among his 
ancestors. The antiquity of Ardea is 
attested by the fact that its inhabitants 
formed part of the Zacynthian colony which 
founded Saguntum in Spain ; but the 
name of the city does not occur in history 
till it was besieged by Tarquinius Su- 
perbus. Ardea is celebrated for the refuge 
it afforded to Camillus when banished 
from Rome, and for the assistance it af- 
forded the latter in its hostilities with the 
Gauls ; but during the second Punic war 
it was one of the colonies that incurred 
the censure of the Romans, for having re- 
fused supplies. The ruins of Ardea, which 
still retains its name, are still visible. 

Ardericca, I., a small town of Assyria, 
north of Babylon, on the Euphrates — II. 
A village in Cissia, north-east of Susa, 
where the Eretrian captives were settled. 

Ardiscus, Arda, a river of Thrace, fall- 
ing into the Hebrus. 

Arduenna, Ardennes, a. forest of Gaul, 
reaching from the Rhenus and territories 
of the Treveri to those of the Nervii, up- 
wards of fifty miles in length. It is now 
divided into four districts; of which the 
chief town is Mezieres. 

Ardutne, the goddess of hunting among 
the Gauls. 

Ardys, son of Gyges, king of Lydia, 
who made war against Miletus, took Priene, 
and reigned forty-nine years. 

Arelatum, Aries, (Arelate, among the 
Latin writers, and sometimes Arelas,) a 
town of the Salyes, on the east side of the 
Rhodanus. It was one of the richest cities 
in Gallia Narbonensis ; and was called 
Sextanorum Colonia, from being built by 
the soldiers of the sixth legion, conducted 
thither as colonists by the father of Tibe- 
rius. Many ruins of the ancient city still 
exist. 

Aremorica, a Celtic term, applied in 



! strictness to all parts of Gaul which lay 
along the ocean. As the Romans, before 
Caesar's time, knew no part of the coast 
except that between the Pyrenees and the 
mouth of the Garumna, the name with 
them became restricted to this portion of 
the country. Hie name is derived from 
the Celtic ar, upon, and moir, the sea. 

Arenac um, Arnheim, a fortified place on 
the Rhine in the territories of the Batavi. 

Areopagit^e, the members of the chief 
court of judicature at Athens; so called 
because they met in a hall on an eminence 
called the Hill of Mars ("Apeios Kayos'). 
This court was of very early origin, and 
was raised to the high character it after- 
wards enjoyed by Solon, who decreed it to 
consist of the archons who had undergone 
with credit the scrutiny to which they 
were subject at the expiration of their 
office. The areopagus had cognisance of 
capital crimes, and there was no appeal 
from its decisions. It controlled all issues 
from the public treasury, and exercised a 
censorship over the citizens. The areo- 
pagites generally sat on the twenty-seventh, 
twenty-eighth, and twenty-ninth day of 
every month. Their authority continued 
in its original state, till Pericles, refused 
admittance among them, resolved to lessen 
their consequence, and destroy their power. 
From that time the morals of the Athe- 
nians were corrupted, and the areopagites 
were no longer conspicuous for their virtue 
and justice. 

Areopagus, " Hill of Mars," a small 
eminence at Athens, at a short distance 
north-west of the Acropolis, so called, it 
was said, in consequence of Mars having 
been tried there for the murder of Halir- 
rhothius, a son of Neptune. See Areo- 
pagus. 

Ares, the god of war amongst the 
Greeks, generally regarded as correspond- 
ing to the Roman Mars. See Mars. 

Arestorides, a patronymic given to* 
the hundred-eyed Argus, as son of Arestor. 

Arete, a daughter, or, according to 
others, a sister of Aristippus, celebrated 
for philosophical attainments. Aristippus 
taught her the doctrines of his school, and 
she in her turn became the instructress 
of her son, the younger Aristippus, who 
was thence styled Mfyrep SiBanros, mother' 
taught. 

Aretsus, of Cappadoeia, one of the most 
valuable writers of antiquity, is supposed 
to have flourished a. d. 80. Nothing is 
known with certainty as to the events of 
his life. His works were printed at the 
Clarendon press in 1 723. 

Arethusa, a Nymph of Elis, daughter 



ARE 



ARG 



79 



of Oceanus, and one of Diana's attendants. 
While bathing one day in the Alpheus, 
the god of the river rose and pursued her 
over all the country, when Arethusa, ready 
to sink under fatigue, implored Diana to 
succour her, and she was immediately 
changed into a fountain. The Alpheus, 
resuming his aqueous form, sought to min- 
gle his streams with hers, but Diana 
opened a secret passage under the earth 
and the sea, where the waters of Arethusa 
disappeared, and rose in the island of Or- 
tygia, near Syracuse, in Sicily. Alpheus, 
however, followed her under the sea, and 
rose also in Ortygia ; hence, whatever was 
thrown into the Alpheus in Elis was 
fabled to rise again, after some time, in the 
fountain Arethusa, near Syracuse. — Are- 
thusa was the name of several other foun- 
tains, of a lake, and some cities in antiquity, 
but none of them were sufficiently im- 
portant to be noticed here. 

Areus, L, a king of Sparta, succeeded 
to the throne in preference to Cleonymus, 
son of Cleomenes. The latter having 
called in the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epir us, 
Areus gave him battle and defeated him ; 
but was himself soon afterwards slain near 
Corinth, b. c. 268, in an action with An- 
tigonus Gonatas, whose operations against 
Athens he had gone to resist. — II. A 
Pythagorean philosopher of Alexandria, so 
respected by Augustus, that the latter is 
said to have spared Alexandria, after his 
defeat of Marc Antony, solely out of re- 
spect for the philosopher. 

Arevaci, a people of Hispania Terra- 
conensis, so called from the river Areva 
which flowed through their district. They 
were one of the most powerful branches 
of the Celtiberi. Their chief city was 
Numantia. 

Arceus, a mountain of Cappadocia, so 
lofty that from its summit the Euxine and 
Mediterranean seas might be seen; now 
called Argeh-dag. 

Argathonius, or Arganthonius, king 
of Gades, who lived 120 years, and reigned 
eighty years of this number. 

Arges, one of the Cyclopes. See Cy- 
clopes. 

Argi. See Argos. 

Argia, daughter of Adrastus, and wife 
of Polynices, to whom she was ardently 
devoted. When he was killed in the 
war, she, with her sister Antigone, buried 
his body in the night, against the posi- 
tive orders of Creon, on which Antigone 
was seized, but Argia escaped. See An- 
tigone. 

Argiletum, a street at Rome, which led 
from the Vicus Tuscus to the Forum Oli- 



torium and Tiber. It was chiefly inha- 
bited by booksellers. 

Argilus, a town of Thrace, founded by 
a colony from Andros. 

Arginus^e, three small islands below 
Lesbos, and lying off the promontory of 
Cana, Coloni, in iEolis. They were rendered 
famous for the victory gained near them by 
the Athenian fleet under Conon over that 
of the Lacedaemonians. The largest had 
a town called Arginusa. They are formed 
of a white, argillaceous soil, and hence took 
their names. 

Argiphontes, a surname given to Mer- 
cury, because he killed the hundred-eyed 
Argus, by order of Jupiter. 

Argippei, a nation arn§ng the Sauro- 
metians, born bald, and with flat noses. 
They were accounted sacred, and had no 
warlike weapon among them. They de- 
termined the differences which arose among 
their neighbours, and whoever fled to them 
for refuge was permitted to live unmo- 
lested. They were, probably, one of the 
early sacerdotal colonies from India, which 
had settled in the wilds of Scythia, and 
whose peaceful character had secured the 
regard of the surrounding barbarians. 

Argiva, a surname of Juno, worshipped 
at Argos. 

Argivi, the inhabitants of the city of 
Argos and neighbouring country ; but ap- 
plied by the poets to all the inhabitants of 
Greece. 

Argo, the name of the ship which car- 
ried Jason and his fifty companions to Col- 
chis, when they resolved to recover the 
golden fleece. She had fifty oars ; and on 
her prow was a beam cut in the forest of 
Dodona by Minerva, which had the power 
of giving oracles. After the expedition, 
Jason hauled her ashore at the isthmus of 
Corinth, and consecrated her to the god of 
the sea. The poets, however, made her a 
constellation in heaven. 

Argolicus sinus, a bay on the coast of 
Argolis, Gulf of Napoli. 

Argolis, a country of Peloponnesus, to 
the east of Arcadia, deriving its name from 
its capital city, Argos. Many associations 
of the heroic age are excited by the men~ 
tion of some of the towns of this province, 
such as Argos, Tiryns, Mycenae, Nemea, 
&c. : but though its territory was not incon- 
siderable, it never attained a high rank 
among the first Grecian states. 

A rg o,n a UTiE, the name given to the 
chieftains who accompanied Jason in the 
ship Argo, in his expedition to Colchis 
in search of the golden fleece of Phryxus. 
The original facts on which the story is 
founded cannot now be recalled ; but it is 
e 4 



80 



AUG 



ARG 



generally supposed to represent the result 
of some bold commercial enterprise that 
overstepped the previous discoveries of its 
age, or, more probably still, the series of 
enterprises by which Greek maritime 
knowledge was extended to the furthest 
shores of the Euxine. There is a poem on 
the subject, bearing the name of Orpheus, 
himself one of the Argonauts ; an epic by 
Apol. Rhodius, and another by Valerius 
Flaccus. See Jason. 

Argos (sing, neut., et Argi, masc. plu.) 
the capital of Argolis, on the river Inachus, 
generally regarded as the most ancient city 
of Greece. Argos was founded by Inachus 
b. c. 1856, in whose family the sovereignty 
remained till the arrival of Danaus from 
Egypt, who wrested the government from 
Gelanor, and gave the inhabitants the 
name of Danai instead of Argivi, which 
they had hitherto borne. At this period 
the whole of what was afterwards called Ar- 
golis acknowledged but one sovereign ; but 
after the lapse of two generations, Argos 
and the surrounding territory fell to Acri- 
sius, the lineal descendant of Danaus, 
while Tiryns and the maritime district be- 
came the inheritance of his brother Proe- 
tus, A third kingdom, viz. of Mycena?, 
was subsequently established by Perseus, 
son of Danaus ; but they were all finally 
reunited into one kingdom under Atreus, 
father of Agamemnon, who transmitted it 
unimpaired to his son Orestes. With 
Tissamenes, son of Orestes, anew era begins 
in the history of Argos. Being forced to 
evacuate the throne to Temenus*, the lineal 
descendant of Hercules, a new dynasty was 
established, which, however, was not of 
long duration, for the Argives having ac- 
quired a taste for liberty dethroned Mettas, 
the last of the Temenic race, and changed 
the constitution into a republican form. 
In the Peloponnesian war, Argos took 
part with Athens ; but their defeat at Man- 
tinea, b. c. 418, dissolved the confederacy 
of which she was the head, and Argos was 
compelled to accept an aristocratieal con- 
stitution. She subsequently shook off the 
yoke ; and we then find her taking part 
in the disastrous Sicilian expedition, and 
at a later period assisting the Boeotians 
at the battle of Mantinea, b. c. 362. After 
this period no event of interest or impor- 
tance occurs in her history, till the unsuc- 
cessful attempt of Pyrrhus to take the city, 
b. c. 272. Like other Peloponnesian 
states, she afterwards became subject to the 
domination of a tyrant, joined the Achasan 
league at the desire of Aristomachus, and, 
with a short interruption by Cleomenes, 
continued to form part of the confederacy 



till its final dissolution by the Romans. 
Argos was strongly fortified. In extent 
and population it was only inferior to 
Sparta, and it was adorned with many 
sumptuous buildings and noble works of 
art, vestiges of which are still to be 
traced. The inhabitants were celebrated 
for their love of, and proficiency in all the 
fine arts, and more especially music. The 
city was sacred to Juno. — II. Pelasgicum, 
a city of Thessaly, of Pelasgic origin ; sup- 
posed to be identical with Larissa on the 
Peneus. — III. Oresticum, a city of Ma- 
cedonia, in the district Orestris. Its founda- 
tion ascribed to Orestes, son of Agamem- 
non. — IV. A city of Acarnania, in the ter- 
ritory of the Amphilochi. It was founded, 
according to Thucydides, by Amphilochus, 
son of Amphiaraus, and named Argos after 
his native city, the famous Argos of the 
Peloponnesus ; but according to others it 
owed its origin to Alemaeon, who named 
it Amphilochium after his brother Am- 
philochus. It was by far the largest and 
most powerful city of Acarnania. At a 
later period it fell into the possession of 
the Ambraciots ; still later we find both 
Argos and Ambracia in the hands of the 
iEtolians, and it ultimately contributed to 
the formation of the colony of Nicopolis, 
and became itself deserted. 

Argus, L, son of Arestor, hence often 
called Arestorides ; married Ismene, 
daughter of the Asopus. As he had 100 
eyes, of which only two were asleep at one 
time, Juno set him to watch Io, whom 
Jupiter, to elude the jealousy of his queen, 
changed into a heifer, but Mercury, who 
was instructed to carry her off, after many 
fruitless attempts to surprise the vigilance 
of Argus, at last succeeded in lulling him 
asleep by the sound of his lyre, and cut off 
his head. ( See Io. ) Juno put the eyes of 
Argus on the tail of a peacock, a bird 
sacred to her divinity. — II. The builder 
of the ship Argo, frequently confounded 
with another Argus, son of Phryxus, both 
of whom went in the Argonautic expedi- 
tion. The latter, together with his brothers, 
was found shipwrecked on the island 
Aretias by Jason and his companions, and 
guided the expedition into Colchis ; but 
others allege that he was found in the pa- 
lace of iEetes, on their arrival in Colchis. 
— III. A son of Jupiter and Niobe, who is 
said to have given name to the capital of 
Argolis, over which he reigned, though 
another statement makes him to have been 
the successor of Apis. — IV. A guest of 
Evander, put to death by the followers of 
the monarch, without his knowledge, for 
having conspired against him. The apot 



ARG 



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81 



where he was buried is said to have been 
called Argiletum. 

Argymis, a name of Venus ; from Argy- 
mus, a favourite of Agamemnon, drowned 
in the Cephissus. 

Argyra, I. , a city an - fountain of Achaia. 
— II. A general appellation for the silver 
regions of theEast At first it was given to 
an island near the mouth of the Indus ; at 
a later period it was placed in the Ganges ; 
and still later it became part of a region 
to which the modern Aracan corresponds. 

Argyrasfides, the troops of Alexander ; 
so ealled from the silver plates they bore 
on their shields when about to invade India, 

Argyripa, more ancient name of Arpi. 
See Arpi. 

Aria, a country answering to the present 
Khorasin, comprising several provinces, 
and bounded on the west by Media, on the 
north by Hyrcania and Parthia, on the 
east by Bactria, on the south by Carmania 
and Gedrosia. The capital was Artacoana, 
now Herat. 

Ariadne, daughter of Minos II., king 
of Crete, by Pasiphae. Falling in love with 
Theseus, who was shut up in the laby- 
rinth to be devoured by the Minotaur, 
she gave him the clue of thread by which 
he extricated himself from his confinement, 
and fled with him from Crete; but, accord- j 
ing to the Homeric legend, died at Dia or 
Naxos, on the way to Athens. Another 
story makes her to have been deserted by 
Theseus on this island, and while bewailing 
her abandonment, to have been seen by 
Bacchus, then on his way to India, and 
after many assurances of his love, to have 
become his bride. The golden crown of 
stars which he presented to her afterwards 
became a constellation. 

Ariadnia, festivals solemnised with sa- 
crifices and rejoicings in the island of 
Naxos in honour of Ariadne, who accord- 
ing to one tradition had died here. It was 
the name also of a festival of a mournful 
character, instituted at Cyprus by Theseus, 
in memory of Ariadne. 

Arijeus, or Akid^eus, an officer next in 
command to Cyrus the Younger over his 
Asiatic forces. After the battle of Cunaxa, 
the Greeks in the army of Cyrus offered 
to place him on the throne of Persia, but 
he declined it, and went over to Artaxerxes 
with his troops. 

Ariamnes, king of Cappadocia, son of 
Ariarathes II. 

Ariantas, a king of Scythia, who, to 
number his subjects, commanded each of 
them, on pain of death, to bring him the 
point of an arrow, and in memory of the 
act, caused a large bowl of brass to be made 



of them, which he dedicated in a spot called 
Exampasus, between the Borysthenes and 
the Hypanis. 

Ariarathes, a name common to many 
kings of Cappadocia, who were originally 
satraps of Persia, and descended from 
Anaphus, one of the seven conspirators who 
slew the false Smerdis,and whose grandson, 
Datames, was the first sovereign of the 
Cappadocian dynasty. The first of the 
name was, I., son of Ariamnes, and grand- 
son of Datames, who joined Darius Ochus 
in his expedition against Egypt, b. c. 350. 
He was deprived of his kingdom by Alex- 
ander the Great, and on the death of that 
monarch attempted to regain it, but was 
defeated by Perdiccas, and hung on a cross 
in his eighty-first year, b. c. 321. — II. Son 
of Holophernes, brother of Ariarathes I., by 
whom he was adopted. After the death of 
Eumenes, he recovered his kingdom and 
transmitted it to his son Ariamnes. — III. 
Succeeded his father Ariamnes, married 
Stratonice, daughter of Antiochus Theos, 
and died, after a reign of twenty-eight 
years, b. c. 220. — IV. Son of the pre- 
ceding, was an infant at his accession to the 
throne. On coming of age, he married 
the daughter of Antiochus the Great, and 
was consequently involved in hostilities 
with the Romans, who, after the defeat of 
Antiochus, allowed him to retain his king- 
dom on payment of a large fine. He after- 
wards became an ally of the Romans, by 
the influence of Eumenes, king of Perga- 
mus, who married his daughter. He 
assisted the latter against Pharnaces, e. c. 
183 — 179 ; and died after a reign of fifty- 
eight years. — V. Son of the preceding, 
called Phil opator, from his piety, succeeded, 
his father b. c. 1 66. He was driven from 
his kingdom by Demetrius Soter, king of 
Syria, who favoured the pretensions of Ho- 
lophernes, the supposititious son of Aria- 
rathes IV, but was restored to the throne 
by Attalus II. and the aid of the Romans. 
In return for this service, he devoted him- 
self to the interests of the latter, and fell 
in the war they carried on against Aris- 
tonicus, usurper of Pergamus, b. c. 130, 
leaving six children, five of whom were 
murdered by Laodice. The only one who 
escaped, Ariarathes VI., married Lao- 
dice, daughter of the celebrated Mithri- 
dates, who caused him to be murdered by 
an illegitimate brother. Laodice then 
gave herself and kingdom to Nicomedes, 
king of Bithynia ; but Mithridates made 
war against him, and raised his nephew to 
the throne. The young king, Ariarathes. 
VII., made war against Mithridates, by 
whom he was assassinated, and the mur- 
e 5 



82 



ARI 



AM 



derer's son, who was only eight years old, 
was placed on the throne. The Cappa- 
docians revolted, and made the late mo- 
narch's brother, Ariarathes VIII., king; 
but Mithridates expelled him, and restored 
his own son. The exiled prince died of a 
broken heart ; and Nicomedes, king of 
Bithynia, brought forward a boy, who, 
prompted by Laodice, feigned to be the 
son of Ariarathes VI., and went to Rome 
to claim his father's kingdom. The Ro- 
mans wished to make the country free ; 
but the Cappadocians demanded a king, 
and received Ariobarzanes, b. c. 91. On 
the death of Ariobarzanes, his brother as- 
cended the throne, under the name of 
Ariarathes IX. ; but he was deposed and 
put to death by Mark Antony, b. c. 36, 
and Archelaus, son of Glaphyra, was ap- 
pointed in his stead. 

Aricia, a city of Latium, west of Lanu- 
vium. Near the city was a celebrated 
temple, grove, and lake, sacred to Diana. 

Aricina, a surname of Diana, from her 
temple near Aricia. It is said to have 
derived its name from an Athenian girl of 
this name, whom Hippolytus married after 
he had been raised from the dead by iEscu- 
lapius, and in whose honour he built this 
city in Italy, and called it by her name. 

Arid^us, I., a commander in the army 
of Cyrus the Younger. (See Ari^eus.) — 
II. A natural son of Philip of Macedon 
and Philinna of Larissa. When a child 
he displayed such ability, that Olympias, 
wife of Philip, fearing lest he might pre- 
fer him for his successor to Alexander, 
stultified him by secret potions. After 
the death of Alexander he succeeded to 
a portion of the kingdom ; but as his 
mental imbecility unfitted him to rule, the 
management of affairs was entrusted to 
Perdiccas. After a reign of seven years, 
under the title of Philip Aridasus, he, 
together with his wife Eurydice, was mur- 
dered by Olympias. 

Arienis, daughter of Alyattes, married 
Astyages, king of Media. 

Arima, a chain of mountains, said to 
have been placed on Typhosus, or Typhon. 
Some place them in Phrygia, others in Ly- 
dia, Mysia, Cilicia, or Syria. 

Arimanius, one of the chief deities of 
the ancient Persians. Their philosophers 
entertained the opinion subsequently held 
by the Manicheans, that there were two 
principles, one of good and one of evil. 
To the latter they gave the name of 
Ahriman, and ascribed to his agency all 
the evils existing in the world. The two 
principles were not, however, supposed to 
be co-eternal or alike powerful, at least, 



such was not the orthodox belief ; but it 
was supposed that in the end, the prin- 
ciple of good, Oromasdes, would finally 
prevail over and utterly destroy the prin- 
ciple of eviL 

Arima spi, a people of Scythia, who had 
only one eye, and waged a continual contest 
with the griffins, who guarded the gold, 
which was found in vast quantities in their 
vicinity. Various explanations have been 
given of the origin of the term Arimaspi, 
and of the history of the people ; but their 
improbability and vagueness are such, that 
it would be useless to attempt to give any 
idea of them in this place. 

Arimaspias, a river of Scythia, with 
golden sands. See Arimaspi. 

Arimazes, a prince of Sogdiana, who 
treated Alexander with much insolence. 
He surrendered, and was exposed on a cross 
with his friends and relations. 

Arimi, a nation of Syria. 

Ariminum, Rimini, a city of Umbria 
in Italy, at the mouth of the Ariminus, 
founded by the Umbri. The Romans sent 
a colony to it A. u. c. 485 ; and from this 
time it was regarded as the key of the 
eastern coast of Italy. Here Cassar ha- 
rangued his troops, after having crossed 
the Rubicon, and here he was met by the 
tribunes of the commons, who were in his 
interest. 

Ariminus, a river of Italy, rising in the 
Apennine mountains, and falling into the 
sea at Ariminum, now the Marecchia. 

Ariobarzanes, I., a nobleman of Cap- 
padocia made king by the Romans, after 
the troubles which the false Ariarathes 
had raised had subsided. After various 
changes of fortune to which he was prin- 
cipally subjected by Mithridates, he was 
restored to the throne by Pompey, and re- 
signed it in favour of his son II. Son 

of the preceding, surnamed Eusebes. He 
supported Pompey against Caesar, who, 
however, not only forgave him, but enlarged 
his territories. He was slain by Cassius 
b. c. 42. — III. A name common to some 
satraps of Pontus, the first of whom is said 
to have been betrayed by his son Mithri- 
dates into the hands of the Persian mo- 
narch. The second of this name, after the 
death of Mithridates, invaded the kingdom 
of Pontus, kept it for twenty -six years, 
and was succeeded by the son of Mithri- 
dates. The third of this name succeeded 
the Mithridates above mentioned, sub- 
dued the city of Amastris, expelled an 
Egyptian colony sent by Ptolemy, and left 
his kingdom to his son Mithridates IV., 
while yet a minor. — IV. A general of 
Darius, who defended the passes of Susa 



ARI 



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83 



with 15,000 foot against Alexander. He 
was killed as he attempted to seize the 
city of Persepolis. 

Arion, I., a lyric poet and musician, 
son of Cyclos of Methymna, in the island 
of Lesbos, born 628 — 620 b. c, was cotem- 
porary with Periander, king of Corinth, He 
visited Italy and Sicily, where he amassed 
great wealth, and having set sail from Ta- 
rentum to return to Corinth, the mariners 
formed a plot against him, to throw him 
overboard, and seize his riches. Arion, 
seeing them inflexible, begged that before 
he died he might be allowed to play 
some melodious tune, which they granted, 
and as soon as he had finished it, he 
threw himself into the sea. Meanwhile 
a number of dolphins had been attracted 
by the sweetness of his music, and one of 
them carried him on his back to Tasnarus, 
whence he hastened to the court of Peri- 
ander, who at first disbelieved the story ; 
but an examination of the sailors, whom a 
storm sent by the gods drove reluctantly 
into Corinth, removed all suspicions re- 
specting Arion's veracity, and the mariners 
were put to death. — II. A celebrated steed 
often mentioned in fable, and endowed with 
speech and the gift of prophecy. He was 
said to have sprung from a union of Ceres, 
goddess of earth, and Neptune, god of the 
sea ; and the many legends respecting him 
must be looked upon as one of the many 
forms in which the physical fact of earth 
and water being the cause of growth and 
increase in the natural world has been en- 
veloped in the ancient mythology. 

Ariovistus, king of the Germans, who 
conquered a considerable part of Gaul, and 
cruelly treated the inhabitants. He was 
subsequently defeated by Cassar, and is said 
to have died either of his wounds or cha- 
grin. A fanciful derivation of his name 
has been made from Germ. Heer, an army, 
and Fiirst, a leader. 

Arisba, I., a town of Lesbos, taken by 
the MethymnEeans, and afterwards de- 
stroyed by an earthquake. — II. A colony 
of the Mityleneans in Troas. Various 
traditions respecting it have been collected 
by Steph. of Byzantium. Its ruins are 
supposed to be those at Gangerlee. 

Arist^eus, I., son of Apollo and the 
Nymph Cyrene, born in the deserts of 
Libya, and brought up by the Seasons, 
who taught him the culture of the olive. 
His fondness for hunting procured him 
the surname of Nomios and Agreus. Be- 
sides teaching mankind the culture of the 
olive, and the management of bees, he saved 
the island of Ceos from destruction during 
an excessive drought, and was deified on 



that account by the inhabitants. The 
story of the love of Aristasus for Eury- 
dice, the wife of Orpheus, the vengeance 
which the Napaean nymphs took upon him 
by the destruction of his bees, and the 
mode in which they were replaced, are 
elegantly told by Virgil, Geor. 4. 282. &c. 
He afterwards settled in Greece, where he 
married Autonoe, daughter of Cadmus, by 
whom he had a son called Actaeon. 

Aristagoras, I., a writer who com- 
posed a History of Egypt in the third cen- 
tury b.c. — II. Son-in-law of Histiaeus, 
tyrant of Miletus, who revolted from 
Darius, incited the Athenians against 
Persia, and burnt Sardis, to the great in- 
dignation of Darius. He was killed in a 
battle against the Persians, b. c. 499. 

Aristarchus, I., a tragic poet, native 
of Tegea. He was contemporary of So- 
phocles and Euripides, and lived upwards 
of 100 years. He exhibited seventy tra- 
gedies, of which only one line is left to us. 
— II. A native of Samothrace, preceptor 
to the children of Ptol. VI. (Philometor) ; 
and regarded as the most celebrated 
critic of all antiquity. He was the disciple 
of Aristophanes of Byzantium, whom he 
succeeded ; and such was his success and 
skill as a teacher, that forty distinguished 
professors of his school were to be found 
at one time in Rome and Alexandria. 
When his pupil, Euergetes II., on ascend- 
ing the throne, began to drive men of 
letters from Alexandria, the grammarian 
retired to Cyprus, where he died, of volun- 
tary starvation, at the age of seventy-two, 
b.c. 157. His name was highly respected 
among his cotemporaries ; and even after 
his death his authority was so highly es- 
teemed, that Cicero and Horace employ 
Aristarchus as a general appellation for a 
distinguished critic. His critical Avorks, 
though very voluminous, are now only 
known to us by extracts and quotations 
preserved by other writers. To Aristar- 
chus is attributed the division of the Iliad 
and Odyssey into Books or Cantos. — III. 
An astronomer of Samos, who lived about 
the same time as Archimedes, in the- third 
century before Christ. Scarcely anything 
is known of the particulars of his history ; 
but it is well known that he maintained 
the modern opinion with regard to the 
motion of the earth round the sun, and its 
revolution about its own axis. The only 
work of his now extant is a Treatise on 
the Magnitudes and Distances of the Sun 
and Moon. Oxford, 1688. 

Aristeas, I., a poet of Proconnesus, 
who, as Herodotus states, appeared seven 
years after his death to his countrvmen, 
js 6 



84 



ARI 



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and 540 years after to the people of Meta- 
pontum in Italy, and commanded them to 
raise an altar to Apollo, and a statue near 
it to himself. — II. An officer under Ptol. 
Philadelphus, to whom is ascribed a Greek 
work still extant, entitled, " A History of 
the Interpreters of Scripture," giving an 
account of the manner in which the Sep- 
tuagint was written. 

Arister^e, Hydra, an island south-east 
of the peninsula of Argolis. 

Aristides, a celebrated Athenian ge- 
neral and statesman, son of Lysimachus, 
and contemporary and rival of Themis- 
tocles. was born at Alopece, a demus of 
Attica, e. c. 460. Little is known of his 
early history ; but the first distinct notice 
of his public life does no less honour to 
his military talents than to his disinterest- 
edness. As one of the ten generals at 
Marathon, it fell to his turn to take the 
command ; but he resigned it in favour of 
Miltiades, and to this step must be as- 
cribed the success of the battle. The year 
following, he was elected to the archonship ; 
but, notwithstanding the integrity which 
characterised his administration, and which 
gained for him the epithet of " the Just," 
he became obnoxious to the jealousy of 
Themistocles, and six months afterwards 
was banished by ostracism. But on the 
invasion by Xerxes, he was again recalled, 
with honour, took part in the battle of 
Salamis, and shared with Pausanias the 
glory of the field of Plateea. After the 
total defeat of the Persian forces, he was 
again appointed to the archonship, which 
he rendered memorable by introducing 
an important democratical alteration into 
the constitution ; and by his wise counsels 
and successful negotiations secured to his 
native city a decided preeminence over the 
neighbouring republics. Being subse- 
quently appointed administrator of the 
revenues subscribed by the Grecian states 
for mutual defence, he discharged this 
difficult duty with his accustomed inte- 
grity ; and, after having thus enjoyed the 
highest offices, and possessed numerous 
opportunities for peculation, died b. c. 
467, in such extreme poverty that his 
funeral had to be defrayed at the public 
expense. His son Lysimachus received a 
pension and a grant of lands ; and his two 
daughters were provided for by the state. 
— II. An historian of Miletus, frequently 
quoted by Plutarch in his Parallels. Be- 
sides writing a history of Rome, he was 
the inventor of what were called Milesian 
Tales. — III. A distinguished painter of 
Thebes, in Bceotia, for one of whose pieces 
Attalus offered 6,000 sesterces. He was 



a cotemporary of Apelles. — IV. Aelius, 
a Greek orator, born at Hadrianopolis, 
in Bithynia, a. d. 129, or 117. Having 
finished his studies at Smyrna and Athens, 
he made extensive travels in Asia and 
Egypt, and finally returned to Smyrna, 
where he settled, obtained the priesthood 
of iEsculapius, opened a school of oratory, 
and gained such reputation by his prelec- 
tions, that his compatriots ranked him on 
a par with Demosthenes. When Smyrna 
was destroyed by an earthquake, a.d. 178, 
he wrote so pathetic a letter to M. Aure- 
lius, that the emperor ordered the city to 
be rebuilt ; and the inhabitants honoured 
Aristides, as the founder of their new city, 
with a brazen statue in the forum. — V. 
A Greek writer on music, supposed to 
have lived about the commencement of the 
second century of our era. His work on 
music, in three Books, is one of the most 
valuable contributions of antiquity to this 
science. 

Aristippus, L, a philosopher of Cyrene, 
and founder of the Cyrenaic sect, was born 
b. c. 424, and, while still young, came to 
Athens to profit by the instructions of 
Socrates. But his mode of life and 
opinions were very different from those 
of his master (see Cyrenaici) ; and being 
compelled to leave Athens for the free- 
dom of his manners, he visited Syra- 
cuse, where his flattery of Dionysius se- 
cured him a large share of royal favour, 
and ultimately settled at Cyrene, where, 
after his death, we find his family and 
school. His grandson, called the Younger, 
was a warm defender of his opinions. 
He flourished about b.c. 363. 

Aristobulus, I., a name common to 
some of the high-priests and kings of 
Judaea, &c. — II. A native of Potidasa, 
and a general of Alexander the Great, 
whom he accompanied in his campaigns. 
After the king's death he wrote an account 
of them, which Arrian states to be the chief 
authority for his own History of Alexander. 
— III. An Alexandrian Jew, who flou- 
rished about b.c. 145, and attempted to 
unite the Aristotelian system with that of 
the Mosaic law. 

Aristocles, I., a peripatetic philosopher 
of Messenia, who wrote on rhetoric and 
morals, and composed a critical examina- 
tion of the different sects of philosophy. 
A fragment preserved by Eusebius is all 
that remains of him. 

Aristocrates, I., king of Arcadia b.c. 
720, and stoned to death by his subjects 
for attempting to offer violence to the 
priestess of Diana. — II. Grandson of the 
preceding, also stoned to death for taking 



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85 



bribes, and tbus causing the defeat of his 
Messenian allies, u. c. 682. 

Aristodemus, I., son of Aristomachus, 
brother of Temenus and Cresphontes, who, 
in conjunction with him, conquered the 
Peloponnesus, and father of Eurysthenes 
and Procles, and, consequently, the founder 
of the Eurysthenidae and Proclidae, the 
two royal lines of Sparta. The Lacedae- 
monians believed him to be the founder of 
their nation. — II. The successor of Eu- 
phaes on the throne of Messenia. He sig- 
nalised himself by his chivalrous conduct 
in the Messenian war. The Delphic oracle 
having ordered the Messenians to sacrifice 
to the infernal gods a virgin of Heraclidan 
blood, Aristodemus, while still a subject, 
offered his own daughter ; and when an 
attempt was made to save her, by falsely 
denying her virginity, he slew her with his 
own hand. Elected to the throne on the 
death of Euphaes, he gave a severe check 
to the encroachment of the Spartans ; but, 
in the midst of his successes, he became 
so touched by remorse for his daughter's 
death, that he slew himself on her tomb. 

Aristogiton. See Harmodius. 

Aristomachus, I., son of Cleodaeus, 
grandson of Hyllus, great-grandson of 
Hercules, and father of Aristodemus, Te- 
menus, and Cresphontes, the three Hera- 
clidae that conquered the Peloponnesus. — 
II. The successor of Aristippus on the 
throne of Argos ; which, however, he re- 
signed, and induced his countrymen to join 
the Achaean League. See Argos. 

Aristomenes, a celebrated Messenian 
general, whose adventures hold a middle 
place between history and fable. His 
gallant exploits were elicited by his inve- 
terate hostility to Sparta, which for forty 
years had oppressed his country ; but 
though he performed prodigies of valour, 
he did not ultimately succeed in rescuing 
her from the Spartan yoke. Being made 
prisoner in one engagement, along with 
fifty of his companions, and thrown into a 
cavern, the usual punishment of the meanest 
malefactors at Sparta, he alone escaped 
death from the fall ; and, after remaining 
three days among the corpses of his friends, 
he fortunately descried a fox, which he 
seized, and, allowing it sufficient liberty to 
choose its own path, followed it to a small 
crevice, which he enlarged with his hand, 
and thus effected his escape. Returning 
to his friends, he soon gave proof to the 
enemy of his presence, by exploits equally 
daring and judicious. At length, how- 
ever, the city of Ira, which he had de- 
fended eleven years, fell, by a singular ac- 
cident, into the hands of the Lacedae- 



monians ; and Aristomenes, at the head 
of the Messenians, retired into Arcadia. 
There, in conjunction with 300 Arcadians, 
he formed a plan for invading Sparta ; but 
the enterprise was frustrated by the trea- 
chery of Aristocrates, which, however, was 
detected, and adequately punished. Aris- 
tomenes subsequently retired to Rhodes, 
where he married his daughter to Dama- 
getes, prince of that island, and died in 
great grief at his inability to strike another 
blow at the power of his inveterate 
enemy. 

Ariston, I., a philosopher of Chios, 
originally attached to the school of Zeno, 
but afterwards the founder of an inde- 
pendent sect. Physiology he maintained 
to be incomprehensible ; dialectics to be 
useless ; and the true province of ethics 
to be to show in what the supreme good 
consists, not to inculcate particular duties. 
— II. A Peripatetic philosopher, born at 
Iulis, in the island Cea, and hence called 
Iulietes. He was the disciple and suc- 
cessor of Lycon. 

ARisTONAUTiE, the harbour of Pellene 
in Achaia ; so called from the Argonauts 
having touched there. 

AristonIcus, son of Eumenes II., by a 
lady of Ephesus, b. c. 126, invaded Asia and 
the kingdom of Pergamus, which Attalus 
had left by his will to the Roman people. 
He was at first successful, but was ulti- 
mately conquered by the consul Perpenna, 
and strangled in prison. 

Aristophanes, 1., the most celebrated 
comic writer of antiquity, the sort of Phi- 
lippus, was born either at Athens, Rhodes, 
or iEgina, b. c. 456. Of his private life 
few authentic particulars have been re- 
corded ; but that he early devoted his at- 
tention to the political position of his 
country is evident from his plays, which 
reflect the best and most accurate picture 
of the manners of his times. His first 
play, called the " Daitaleis," or the 
Spendthrift, was exhibited b. c. 427 ; and 
the following year, in his second co- 
medy of the " Babylonians," he so se- 
verely lashed the demagogue Cleon, then 
in the height of his power and insolence, 
that he was accused by the latter of 
having assumed the title of an Athenian 
without grounds ; but on his trial he came 
off victorious ; and the demagogue after- 
wards was handled still more severely in 
the play of the " Knights." Aristophanes 
is said to have written in all sixty plays ; 
but only eleven have come down to our 
times complete, and of these the " Clouds" 
is the most memorable, for its exposure of 
the Sophists and its virulent attack upon 



86 



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Socrates. All his writings are distin- 
guished for their wit and humour, and for 
their elegance, variety, and purity of style; 
and though the moralist cannot approve 
either of his sentiments or expressions, 
before he finally condemn, he will make 
allowance for the standard of taste and 
morals which then prevailed. Aristophanes 
died in his 80th year. Numerous editions 
and translations of his works have ap- 
peared. — II. A famous grammarian of 
Alexandria, born at Byzantium about 
b. c. 240. He was the pupil of Calli- 
machus and the master of Aristarchus, and 
founded the school of criticism which the 
latter afterwards brought to perfection. 
He is said to have invented the Greek ac- 
cents. Of his numerous writings only a few 
fragments remain. 

Aristophon, I., a Greek comic poet co- 
temporary with Alexander. — II. An Athe- 
nian orator whom Demosthenes ranked 
among the most eloquent men of the re- 
public. He must not be confounded with 
another orator of the same name who was 
the teacher of iEschines. — III. A cele- 
brated painter of Thasus, and brother of 
Polygnotus, who lived about Olympiad 80, 
and several of whose productions are enu- 
merated by Pliny. 

Aristotelea, annual feasts celebrated 
by the inhabitants of Stagira in honour of 
Aristotle, who had procured from Alex- 
ander the re-building of that city, which 
had been demolished by Philip. 
. ' Aristoteles, one of the most distin- 
guished philosophers of antiquity, and the 
founder of the Peripatetic School, was born 
at Stagira, a town of Chalcis in Mace- 
donia, in the first year of the ninety-ninth 
Olympiad, or b. c. 384. His father Ni- 
comachus, of the Asclepidean family, was 
the physician and friend of Amyntas II., 
king of Macedonia, and father of Philip ; 
his mother's name was Phaastias. Having 
lost both his parents at a very early age, 
he received the elements of education from 
Proxenus of Atarneus, in Mysia, of whose 
kindness he exhibited a grateful remem- 
brance in making his son Nicanor his 
heir, and giving him his daughter in mar- 
riage. At the age of seventeen, Aristotle 
went to Athens, and devoted himself to 
philosophy in the school of Plato, who 
used to call him the " Mind of the School," 
and say, when he was absent, " Intellect is 
not here." But it was evident that two 
minds like those of Aristotle and Plato, so 
differently constituted, yet both formed to 
reign in the empire of thought, would, 
sooner or later; come into collision. Nu- 
merous anecdotes accordingly are in cir- 



culation respecting the enmities in which 
their opposite theories involved them ; 
and though such rumours appear to have no 
other foundation than the known variance 
between the habits and opinions of the 
master and pupil, it must nevertheless 
be admitted, that Aristotle seldom men- 
tions Plato, except to refute his doc- 
trines, and often evinces something of bit- 
terness in the zeal with which he attacks 
the followers of his master. It does not 
appear, however, that, during his first 
sojourn at Athens, a period of twenty 
years, he set up a school of philosophy in 
opposition to Plato. On the death of the 
latter, he left Athens, and after sojourning 
three years at the court of his former 
pupil, Hermeias, prince of Atarneus, whose 
sister he subsequently married, he retired 
to Mitylene, and was soon afterwards 
chosen by Philip preceptor to his son 
Alexander, an office which he ably dis- 
charged during eight years. Two years 
after Alexander's accession to the throne, 
when that monarch was preparing to 
march into Asia, Aristotle left Mace- 
donia ; but a friendly correspondence, only 
partially interrupted towards the close of 
Alexander's life, was maintained between 
them, in which the philosopher prevailed 
upon Alexander to employ his power in 
the service of philosophy. On his return 
to Athens, Aristotle resolved to found a 
new sect in opposition to the Academy, 
and for this purpose chose a house which, 
from its proximity to the temple of Apollo 
Lyceius, was styled the Lyceum. To this 
building was attached a garden with walks, 
where he used to instruct his pupils, 
whence his followers were termed Peri- 
patetics. His instructions in the Lyceum 
continued for fifteen years, and comprised 
every branch of philosophical inquiry. In 
the morning he delivered his more abstruse 
discourses to his select disciples ; (this he 
called his morning walk;) in the evening 
he lectured on popular subjects to a more 
promiscuous auditory ; (this he called his 
evening walk.) This was the most flou- 
rishing period of Aristotle's life. But 
when, in consequence of Alexander's 
death, the Anti- Macedonian party at 
Athens obtained the ascendancy, an accu- 
sation of impiety was preferred against 
Aristotle, who appears, to the last, to have 
been regarded as a partisan of the Great 
Monarch ; and, as he himself expressed 
it, to prevent the Athenians from sinning 
twice against philosophy (in allusion to 
the death of Socrates), he quitted Athens, 
and retired with a few followers to Chalcis 
in Eubcea, then a province of Macedonia, 



ARI 



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87 



where he soon after died, in the sixty-third 
year of his age, bequeathing to posterity 
one of the most elaborate, if not the most 
sublime, systems of philosophy which the 
world has yet seen. (See Peripatetici). 
The best edition of the entire works of 
Aristotle is by Bekker, 5 torn. 4to. Berol. 
1831. 

Aristoxenus, a philosopher of Ta- 
rentum, a disciple of Aristotle, and the 
earliest extant writer on Greek music, was 
born b. c. 350. He was the founder of 
the Aristoxean system of music, in oppo- 
sition to the Pythagorean, the two great 
sects into which the Greek music is di- 
vided ; the disciples of the former were 
called ixovtxiKol, or musicians by ear ; those 
of the latter vopucoi, or musicians by rule. 
His work on the Elements of Harmony has 
been often printed. 

Arius, a presbyter of the church of 
Alexandria in the fourth century. He de- 
nied the divinity of the Logos. Though at 
first persecuted for his opinions, he subse- 
quently, by favour of the emperor Con- 
stantine, supplanted his adversary St. 
Athanasius ; but died suddenly, when on 
the ere of entering the cathedral in tri- 
umph, a. d. 336. He gave name to the sect 
called Arians. 

Ariusium promontorium, a promon- 
tory of Chios, near which was produced 
the best of all the Grecian wines. 

Armenia, a large country of Asia, tra- 
versed by several lofty mountain chains, 
and bounded on the north by Mt. Cau- 
casus, was divided into Armenia Major 
and Minor. The first, the modern Tur- 
comania, still sometimes called Armenia, 
comprehends the Turkish pachalics Er~ 
zerum, Kars, and Van, and the Russian pro- 
vince Iran or Erivan. Armenia Minor, 
separated from Armenia Major by the Eu- 
phrates, was, properly speaking, a part of 
Cappadocia, now Aladulia or Pegian, be- 
longing to the Turks, and divided between 
the pachalics Merashe and Sivas. Ar- 
menia gives birth to some large and cele- 
brated rivers, as the Euphrates and Tigris, 
the Cyrus or Kur, the Araxes or Aras, 
the Akampsis or Chorak, and some other 
considerable streams. The early history 
of Armenia partakes largely of the fabu- 
lous ; but there is no doubt that it was 
long governed first by independent princes, 
and then by satraps of the Assyrian and 
Persian monarchs. It subsequently be- 
came the theatre of long-continued strug- 
gles between the Persians and the Romans, 
and notwithstanding the hardiness of the 
inhabitants, and the natural advantages of 
the country for defensive warfare, it was 



never able to oppose an effectual resistance 
to any invader. In the thirteenth century 
it was overrun by the Moguls, and soon 
afterwards the last trace of its indepen- 
dence disappeared. 

Armilustrium, a festival held at Rome 
on the 1 9th of Oct. for the expiation of 
the Roman armies. 

Arminius, (the Latin name for Herr- 
mann) the deliverer of Germany from the 
Roman yoke, was son of Sigimer, a prince 
of the Cherusci, and born e. c. 18. He 
was educated at Rome, admitted into the 
rank of equites, and received a high com- 
mission in the army of Augustus. When 
Varus was sent against Germany, he fol- 
lowed him thither, simulated great devo- 
tion to the Roman cause, and approved, 
apparently, of all the measures of the 
Roman general ; but, secretly fomenting 
the discontent of the German nations, he 
produced a wide confederacy for revolt, 
and artfully drew the Roman commander 
into an ambuscade, where three Roman 
legions were cut to pieces. To revenge 
the overthrow of Varus, who, in despair at 
his defeat, had committed suicide, Ger- 
manicus marched a powerful army into 
Germany, but it required more than one 
campaign and several battles before he ob- 
tained any decided advantage ; and at last 
Arminius fell a sacrifice only to the civil 
feuds in which he was involved with his 
own countrymen and kindred, being assas- 
sinated by one of his own relations in his 
thirty-seventh year. 

Armorica. See Aremorica. 

Arna, a town of Umbria in Italy, near 
the Tiber, now Civitella d'Arno. 

Arnobius, I., the Elder, called also the 
African, about a. d. 300, teacher of rhe- 
toric at Sicca Venerea, in Numidia, and, 
in 303, became a Christian. He wrote 
seven books of Disputationes adversus 
Gentes, refuting the objections of the hea- 
thens against Christianity. 

Arnus, Arno, a river of Etruria, rising 
in the Umbrian Apennines, and falling 
into the Mediterranean. On its banks 
stood Florentia, Florence, and Pisa?, 
Pisa. 

Aroe, one of the three towns of Achaia 
on the site of which Patra? was afterwards 
built. The other two were Anthea and 
Messatis. 

Aromata, or Aromatum Promonto- 
rium, the most eastern land of the con- 
tinent of Africa, Cape Guardafui. 

Arpi, originally Argtripa or Argy- 
rippa, a city of Apulia remarkable for its 
antiquity. In the second Punic war, it fell 
into the hands of Hannibal after the battle 



88 



ARP 



ARS 



of Cannae, but was recovered by the 
Romans. It was greatly reduced in the 
time of Strabo. 

Arpinum, Arpino, a small town of La- 
tium, south-east of Rome, famous for 
being the birthplace of Marius and Ci- 
cero. It originally belonged to the Volsci, 
but was taken by the Samnites, from 
whom it was again wrested by the Romans. 
It became a municipal town, and its citi- 
zens were enrolled in the Cornelian tribe. 

tAuRiA, wife of Csecina Psetus, who was 
implicated in an unsuccessful revolt in II- 
lyricum against the emperor Claudius, and 
brought to Rome for trial. Arria, des- 
pairing of saving his life and seeing him 
lack courage to commit suicide, plunged 
a dagger into her own bosom in her hus- 
band's presence, and drawing it forth, 
calmly, handed it to him, with the words 
" it does not pain." 

Arrianus, L, a Greek historian, born at 
Nicomedia, in the second century. In his 
own country he was a priest of Ceres and 
Proserpine, but taking up his residence at 
Rome, he became a disciple of Epictetus, 
and afterwards served in the Roman army. 
He was honoured with the citizenship of 
Rome and of Athens, and a. d. 304 was ap- 
pointed praefect of Cappadocia by Hadrian, 
who held him in high estimation. He 
distinguished himself by his prudence and 
valour against the Massagetae, who had in- 
vaded Asia Minor, and in consequence of 
his services was advanced to senatorial and 
consular dignities. Like Xenophon, to 
whom it was the great ambition of Arrian 
to be compared, he was at once, historian, 
philosopher, geographer, statesman, and 
general ; and that no part of the resem- 
blance might be wanting, he even com- 
posed a work upon the Chace, in which he 
supplies the deficiencies of his model. But 
of all the writings of Arrian, his history 
of the expedition of Alexander is that 
on which his reputation principally rests. 
The best edition is that of Gronovius, foL 
1704. 

Arrius, a noted gourmand, mentioned 
by Horace. 

Arsaces, L, the founder of the great 
Parthian monarchy. He was of obscure 
origin ; but, having incited the Parthians 
to revolt from Antiochus Theos, he was 
elevated to the throne. He afterwards 
defeated and made prisoner Seleucus Cal- 
linicus, and added the kingdom of the 
Hyrcani to his acquired possessions. After 
death he was made a god by his nation, 
and his successors were called Arsacidce. 
— II. His son and successor made war 
against Antiochus, son of Seleucus, who 



j entered the field with 100,000 foot and 
! 20,000 horse ; but peace was afterwards 
made between them, and Arsaces died 
b. c. 217. — III. The third of the name, 
son of the preceding, also called Priapa- 
tius, reigned twelve years, and left his 
kingdom to his son Phraates. 

Arsacid^e, a name given to some of the 
monarchs of Parthia, in honour of Arsaces, 
founder of the empire. Their power sub- 
sisted till a. d. 226. See Artabanus. 

Arsamosata, a town of Armenia Major, 
now Sirmat, seventy miles from the Eu- 
phrates. 

Arsanias, I., a river of Armenia Major. 
See Euphrates. — II. Another lower down, 
Arsen, which entered the Euphrates below 
Melitene. 

Arses. See Bagoas. 

Arsia, a small river between Illyricum 
and Histria, forming at one period the 
boundary of the Roman empire in that 
direction. 

Arsinoe, I., called also Alphesibcea, 
daughter of Phlegeus and wife of Alc- 
maeon, who repudiated her in order to 
marry Callirrhoe, daughter of Achelous. 
— II. Daughter of Meleager, and mother 
of Ptolemy I. of Egypt, by Philip of 
Macedon. During her pregnancy she 
was married to Lagus. — III. Daughter 
of Ptolemy I. of Egypt, and Bere- 
nice. She married Lysimachus, king 
of Thrace, who was slain during an Asi- 
atic expedition, and afterwards gave her 
hand to Ptolemy Ceraunus, who, however, 
before the nuptials were completed, ba- 
nished her to Samothrace, and put two of 
her children by Lysimachus to death. She 
then repaired to Egypt, where she became 
the wife of her brother Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, — the first of this kind of union, which 
afterwards became so common among the 
Ptolemies, — who respected her so highly 
that he called several cities in her honour, 
and even gave the name of Arsinois to 
one of the great divisions of Egypt. — IV. 
A daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, and sister 
of Cleopatra, proclaimed queen by Gany- 
medes, when Cassar attacked Alexandria. 
She was conquered, and brought in triumph 
to Rome, but set at liberty, and subse- 
quently murdered by Miletus, at the insti- 
gation of Cleopatra. Arsinoe was the 
name of several other persons of the Egyp- 
tian dynasty ; but the statements of the 
ancient writers are so obscure and discre- 
pant respecting them, that it would be 
impossible within our limits to attempt to 
reconcile them. — V. A city of Egypt, 
capital of the Arsinoitic nome, so called 
from Arsinoe, sister and queen of Ptolemy 



ARS 



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89 



Philadelphia. The inhabitants paid the 
highest veneration to the crocodiles, hence 
it was called Crocodilopolis ; the modern 
Faioum. — VI. A city of Egypt, on the 
west side of the Sinus Arabic us, not far 
from the modern Suez. From this spot 
Ptol. Philadelphia cut a canal to one of 
the branches of the Nile. Numerous other 
cities of this name are mentioned hy an- 
cient writers, but they are all of minor 
importance. 

Arsissa Palus, a lake in the southern 
part of Armenia Major, Lake of Van. 

Art ab an us, I., son of Hystaspes, bro- 
ther of Darius. Having attempted in 
vain to dissuade his nephew from invading 
Greece, he remained at Susa, to act as vice- 
roy in his absence. It was to Artabanus 
that Xerxes owed his throne, for having 
been appointed by the Persians to adjudi- 
cate between the claims of Xerxes and his 
brother Ariamenes, he decided in favour 
of the former, on the ground of his having 
been born after his father had come to the 
throne, and of his being the son of Atossa, 
daughter of Cyrus. This Artabanus is 
often erroneously confounded with Arta- 
banus II., who slew Xerxes. — II. An 
Hyrcanian, captain of the guards of Xerxes, 
and one of his greatest favourites. On the 
return of the latter from Greece, Artabanus 
assassinated him with the hopes of ascend- 
ing the throne. Darius, son of Xerxes, 
was murdered in a similar manner ; and 
Artaxerxes, his brother, would have shared 
the same fate, had he not discovered the 
snares of the assassin, and punished him 
with death. — III. King of Parthia, after 
the death 'of his nephew Phraates II., un- 
dertook a war against a nation of Scythia, 
in which he perished, and was succeeded 
by his son Mithridates, who merited the 
appellation of Great. — IV. A king of 
Media, and afterwards of Parthia, after the 
expulsion of Vonones, whom Tiberius had 
made king there. He then invaded Ar- 
menia, but was overpowered by the gene- 
rals of Tiberius, and expelled from his 
throne, which Tiridates usurped ; but was 
restored again to power, and died a.d. 44. 
— V. The last of the Parthian dynasty 
of the Arsacidae, known in history as Ar- 
tabanus IV., or Arsaces XXXI., succeed- 
ed, his brother. Scarcely had he ascended 
the throne when the Roman emperor, 
Severus, invaded his dominions, and laid 
waste his capital Ctesiphon. On the 
deatli of Severus, his son Caracalla having 
demanded his daughter in marriage, the 
Parthian king assented, and the Roman 
army marched towards the capital, to cele- 
brate the nuptials; but, on a given signal, 



the Roman troops fell upon the followers 
of Artabanus, and an indiscriminate mas- 
sacre ensued, from which he himself es- 
caped with difficulty. Burning for revenge, 
he then raised an immense army, crossed 
the Euphrates, and, laying waste the whole 
country with fire and sword, came up with 
the Roman forces in Syria. Meanwhile 
Caracalla had been assassinated by Ma- 
crinus. After a hard fought and doubtful 
battle of two days, the Romans announced 
the fact of the death of Caracalla, and 
agreed to defray the expenses of the war, 
and to evacuate the country. But the 
prosperity of Artabanus was of short du- 
ration. Artaxerxes, or Ardshir, having 
incited the Persians to revolt, Artabanus 
marched against him with a large army, 
but was defeated, taken prisoner, and put 
to death, a. d. 229, 

Artabazus, I., son of Pharnaces, gene- 
ral in the army of Xerxes, fled from Greece 
on the ill success of Mardonius. — IL. A 
general of Artaxerxes Longimanus,who was 
sent against Datames, who had revolted ; 
but subsequently revolted himself from 
Ochus, but was pardoned. At the battle 
of Arbela, he fought on the side of Darius, 
after whose death he surrendered himself 
with his sons, to Alexander, by whom he 
was treated with humanity. 

Artabrum, Cape Finisterre, a promon- 
tory on the northwestern coast of Spain. 

Artaphernes, I., brother of Darius, 
and son of Hystaspes, governor of Sardis. 
— II. A son of the preceding, whom Da- 
rius sent into Greece with Datis. He was 
conquered at the battle of Marathon. See 
Datis. 

Artavasdes, I., son of Tigranes, king 
of Upper Armenia, b. c. 70. He was in 
alliance with the Romans, but betrayed 
M. Antony in his expedition against Par- 
thia, for which the latter reduced his king- 
dom, and carried him to Egypt, where he 
adorned his triumph. He was afterwards 
beheaded by order of Cleopatra. Two 
historical works, some tragedies, and dis- 
courses, &c. , are attributed to Artavasdes. 

Artaxata, Ardesh, a fortified town of 
Upper Armenia, built on a plain, which 
Hannibal recommended as a proper site 
for the capital to king Artaxias. It was 
burnt by Corbulo, and rebuilt by Tiri- 
dates, who called it Neronea, in honour of 
Nero. 

ARTAXERxes, a name common to several 
Persian kings, and derived from two Per- 
sian words signifying either " great war- 
rior " or " great king." Artaxerxes I. sur- 
named Longimanus, because his right hand 
was longer than his left, succeeded to the 



90 



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ART 



throne after the murder of his father, 
Xerxes, and his brother, by Artabanus, 
captain of the guards, b. c. 464. After 
taking vengeance on Artabanus, whose 
treason and crimes he had discovered, he 
made war against the Bactrians, re-con- 
quered Egypt, which had revolted under 
Mams, aided by the Athenians, and con- 
cluded an advantageous peace with the 
latter after the death of Cimon. Themis- 
tocles, on being obliged to flee from Greece, 
found an honourable reception at the court 
of Artaxerxes. His last years were spent in 
peace, and he died after a reign of thirty- 
nine years, b. c. 425, bequeathing his king- 
dom to his son Xerxes II. — II. Artaxerxes, 
originally called Arsaces, and surnamed 
Mnemon, on account of his extensive me- 
mory, was the eldest son of Darius II., 
on whose death he succeeded to the throne, 
B. c. 405. His younger brother Cyrus 
aspired to the throne, on the ground of his 
having been born after his father's accession, 
but the conspiracy was detected, and his 
mother, Parysatis, who favoured the pre- 
tensions of her younger son, not only pro- 
Cured the pardon of Cyrus, but even his 
continuation in the command of the mari- 
time provinces of Asia Minor. Taking 
advantage of his position, Cyrus assembled 
a large force, with the intention of usurping 
the throne, and marched against his bro- 
ther at the head of 100,000 barbarians, and 
1 3,000 Greeks ; when a bloody battle was 
fought at Cunaxa, in which Cyrus was 
killed, and Artaxerxes completely esta- 
blished on the throne. The Greeks who 
assisted Cyrus, though 600 leagues from 
their country, made their way through the 
territories of the enemy ; and nothing is 
more famous in the Grecian history, than 
the retreat of the 10,000. (See Xenophon.) 
He then attacked the Lacedasmonians who 
had aided his brother ; and his deep-laid 
policy led to the memorable treaty which 
abandoned all the Greek cities of Asia to 
his sway, and thus terminated the war. 
He failed, however, in checking a revolt 
on the part of the Egyptians, nor was his 
expedition against the Cadusii successful. 
After putting to death his eldest son Da- 
rius, who had conspired against him, he 
died of grief, in consequence of his son 
Ochus's unnatural behaviour, in his ninety- 
fourth year, b. c. 359. — III. Surnamed 
Ochus, youngest son of Artaxerxes Mne- 
mon, established himself on the throne by 
the massacre of his brothers, and nearly 
all the other members of the royal family. 
He recovered Egypt, which had revolted, 
destroyed Sidon, and ravaged all Syria- 
But cruelty towards the inhabitants of 



Egypt, and above all, his impiety towards 
their god Apis, so roused the public in- 
dignation against him, that Bagoas, to 
whom he had entrusted the management 
of his affairs, cut him off by poison, b. c. 
338, and raised his youngest son Arses to 
the throne. 

Artaxerxes or Artaxares, I., a soldier 
of Persia, originally called Ardshir, who 
killed Artabanus, last of the Arsacidae, 
and founded a new dynasty called the 
Sassanidce, from his father's name Sassan, 
A. d. 229. He attempted to recover the 
provinces invaded by the Romans ; but 
Alex. Severus opposed him with a large 
force, and obliged him to abandon his pro- 
ject. He reigned fourteen years, and left 
the throne to Sapor I. One of his suc- 
cessors, brother of Sapor II., bore his 
name, and died after a reign of four years, 
A. d. 384. 

Artaxias, the name of three kings of 
Armenia. I. The first, who reigned in 
Armenia Major, gave an asylum to Han- 
nibal, and was taken prisoner by Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes, but restored to liberty. 
— II. Son of Artavasdes. He was killed by 
his own subjects a. d. 20, and the Romans 
declared Tigranes his successor. — III. 
Son of Polemon, surnamed Zeno, and pro- 
claimed king by Germanicus, after the 
expulsion of Vonones. He died a. d. 35. 

Artemidorus, a name common to se- 
veral persons in ancient Greece and Rome, 
the chief of whom were, I., a geographer 
of Ephesus, born about the end of the 
first century before our era. He visited 
numerous cities on the coast of the Medi- 
terranean, and afterwards proceeded on an 
embassy to Rome, for his success in which 
he was rewarded with a golden statue by 
his fellow citizens. His work on Geo- 
graphy is frequently referred to by Strabo, 
Pliny, and others, and part of it is pre- 
served in Hudson's Minor Geographers, 
vol. 1. — II. A philosopher of Cnidus, who, 
entrusted by Brutus with the conspiracy 
against Caesar, presented to the latter an 
account of the whole affair, as he was 
going to the senate-house. Caesar, think- 
ing it to be of no material consequence, 
did not read it on the instant ; had he 
perused it, the whole plot would have 
been crushed. — III. A native of Ephesus, 
surnamed, by way of distinguishing him 
from others, Daldianus, from Daldis, his 
mother's birthplace. He lived in the time 
of the Antonines. His work on the Inter- 
pretation of Dreams contains all that the 
author had been able to collect on this 
subject during his travels in Greece, Italy, 
and Asia; and, in addition to its deline- 



ART 



ASB 



91 



ation of ancient customs, and explanation 
of allegorical subjects, serves to clear up 
some difficulties on points of mythology. 
The best edition is that of Reiff, 2 vols. 
8vo. Leipsic, 1805. 

Artemis, the Greek name of Diana 
(which see). 

Artemisia, festivals celebrated in Greece, 
and particularly at Delphi, in honour of 
Artemis, where they offered a mullet to 
the goddess, because it is said to hunt the 
sea-hare, and thus bore some fesemblance 
to the goddess of hunting. A solemnity 
of the same name at Syracuse, lasted 
three days, which were spent in banquet- 
ing and diversions. 

Artemisia, I., daughter of Lygdamis of 
Halicarnassus, reigned over Halicarnassus 
after her husband's death. She assisted 
Xerxes in his expedition against Greece, 
and displayed such valour and skill at the 
battle of Salamis, as to have elicited from 
the king the well known remark, that " the 
women had acted like men, and the men 
like women." Xerxes entrusted her with 
the care of conducting his children in 
safety to his kingdom. Ptolemy Hephajs- 
tion alleges that Artemisia cherished an 
affection for a youth of Abydos, named 
Dardanus ; and that, on her love being 
slighted, she put out his eyes, and after- 
wards leaped down the promontory of 
Leucas. — II. Queen of Caria, often con- 
founded with the daughter of Lygdamis, 
celebrated in history for her extraordinary 
love for her husband, Mausolus. After his 
death she erected to his memory a fa- 
mous mausoleum, which, from its magni- 
ficence, was esteemed one of the wonders 
of the world, and bestowed splendid re- 
wards on all the poets who sang the praises 
of the deceased. She is said to have mixed 
the ashes of her husband with water, and 
to have drank them off. She survived 
him only two years. 

Artemisium, a promontory on the north- 
west of Euboea; famous for its temple 
sacred to Artemis (Diana), whence its 
name. Off this coast the Greeks obtained 
their first victory over the fleet of Xerxes, 
on the same day with the action of Ther- 
mopylae 

Artemita, I., a city of Assyria, east of 
Seleucia, now Chalasar. — II. Another 
in Armenia Major, now Van. 

Artemon, I., a celebrated mechanician 
and native of Clazomena?, who was with 
Pericles at the siege of Samos, where he 
invented the battering-ram, testudo, and 
other military engines. — II. A Syrian, 
whose features so strongly resembled those 
of Antiochus Theos, that the queen, after 



| his murder, made use of him to represent 
| her husband in a lingering state, and thus, 
by his seeming to die a natural death, to 
conceal her guilt. See Antiochus. 

Artimpasa, a name given to a goddess 
among the Scythians, whose attributes 
bore a strong resemblance to those of the 
Grecian Venus. 

Arueris, a god of the Egyptians, son 
of Isis and Osiris. See Horus. 

Aruns, I., brother of Tarquin the 
Proud ; and husband of Tullia, who 
murdered him to espouse Tarquin, who 
had, in like manner, assassinated his wife. — 
II. Son of Tarquin the Proud. In the 
first conflict that took place after the ex- 
pulsion of his father, he and Brutus slew 
each other. 

Aruntius, I., a Roman in the reign 
of Augustus, who composed a history of 
the Punic wars in the style of Sallust. — - 
II. Stella, a poet descended of a consular 
family in the age of Domitian. He is highly 
praised by Statius and Martial ; but none of 
his writings have reached our times. 
Aruspex. See Haruspices. 
Arvales, or Ambarvales, twelve priests 
at Rome, who celebrated the festivals 
called Ambarvalia. They were originally 
instituted by Romulus ; and their duty 
consisted in marching in solemn procession 
round the boundaries of the city, accom- 
panied by the victims, a boar, a sheep, and 
a bull (constituting the sacrifice called 
Suovetaurilia), and singing hymns on the 
way. When the extension of territory ren- 
dered it impossible for them to go round 
the city, the sacrifices were offered at cer- 
tain spots, which marked the original 
limits of the Roman domains. 
Arvanius. See Ladon. 
Arverni, a powerful people of Gaul, 
near the Loire, who long resisted the 
Roman arms. Their capital was Au- 
gustunometum, now Clermont. 

Arviragus, a son of Cymbeline, king of 
Britain. He married the daughter of 
Claudius, and revolted from his father, 
but was recalled to his duty by Vespasian. 

Arxata, or Naxuana, a town of Armenia 
Major on the Araxes. 

Aryandes, a Persian, appointed go- 
vernor of Egypt by Cambyses ; but put 
to death by Darius, for issuing silver coin- 
age in his own name. 

Asanber, a governor of the Cimmerian 
Bosporus under Pharnaces, against whom 
he revolted b. c. 47, and obtained posses- 
sion of the government, which was after- 
wards confirmed to him by Augustus. 

AsBYSTiE, a small inland tribe of Africa, 
famous for their skill in chariot-driving. 



92 



ASC 



ASC 



Ascalaphus, I., son of Mars and Asty- 
oche, who went to the Trojan war at the 
head of the Orchomenians with his brother 
Ialmenus, and was killed by De'iphobus. 
— II. Son of Aeheron by Gorgyra or 
Orphne, stationed by Pluto to watch over 
Proserpine in the Elysian fields. When 
Ceres had obtained from Jupiter the pro- 
mise of her daughter's return, provided she 
had eaten nothing in the kingdom of 
Pluto, Ascalaphus discovered that she had 
eaten some pomegranates. Proserpine 
sprinkled some water on his head, and 
turned him into an owl, for his mischief- 
making. 

Ascalon, Scalona, a maritime town of 
Palestine, belonging originally to the Phi- 
listines. After the death of Joshua it was 
taken by the Jews, and fell successively 
into the hands of the Assyrians, Greeks, 
Romans, and Arabians. Venus Urania 
was worshipped at Ascalon ; her cele- 
brated temple, of which some ruins still 
remain, was plundered by the Scythians 
b. c. 630. Here also was worshipped the 
goddess Derceto. Herod the Great, and 
Antiochus, master of Cicero, were born in 
Ascalon. 

Ascanius, I., son of JEneas and Creusa, 
and saved from the flames of Troy by his 
father, whom he accompanied to Italy, 
where he assumed the name of lulus. He 
succeeded iEneas in the kingdom of Lati- 
nus, and built Alba, whither he transferred 
the seat of his empire from Lavinium. 
The descendants of Ascanius reigned in 
Alba for 420 years, under fourteen kings, 
till the age of Numitor. Ascanius reigned 
thirty-eight years, and was succeeded by 
Silvius Posthumus, son of iEneas by La- 
vinia. lulus, the son of Ascanius, con- 
tested the throne with the former ; but the 
people decided against him, and by way 
of compensation invested him with the 
office of high-priest, which remained a long 
while in his family. — II. A river and lake 
of Bithynia. The waters of the lake were 
so impregnated with nitre, as to cleanse 
the clothes dipped into them. 

Asciburgium, I., a Roman fortified post 
on the German side of the Rhine, supposed 
to have been situated on the spot where 
the canal of Drusus joined the Yssel. — • 
II. A town of Germany, on the western 
bank of the Rhine, south of the modern 
Sautern. 

Ascn, (Gr. a, priv, and aic'ia, shadow,) a 
term applied to the inhabitants of the 
torrid zone, because the sun is twice a 
year vertical to them, and they have then 
no shadow. 

Asclepia, festivals in honour of Ascle- 



pius, or JEsculapius, celebrated all over 
Greece, but chiefly at Epidaurus. 

Asclepiades, descendants of JEscula* 
pius at Epidaurus, professing to have 
certain secrets of the healing art from their 
great progenitor. See iEscuLAPius. — As- 
clepiades was also a name common to 
several persons of antiquity, of whom the 
Greek physician, born at Prusa in Bi- 
thynia about the end of the second century 
b. c, is the most distinguished. After 
having acquired considerable reputation 
in Asia, he repaired to Alexandria and 
Athens, and finally settled in Rome, b. c. 
110, where his skill as a practitioner raised 
him to great eminence. Various opinions 
have been promulgated by ancient writers 
respecting him, some alleging that his 
practice was philosophical, others that he 
was a mere charlatan. But, be this as it 
may, there can be no doubt as to his suc- 
cess. He lived in great intimacy with 
Cicero, and other distinguished Romans, 
and was the first to bring the science of 
medicine into reputation at Rome. Though 
he attained to a great age, he used to 
say that he had never been ill ; and he 
died at last by accidentally falling down 
stairs. 

Asclepiodorus, an Athenian painter in 
the age of Apelles, whom, even by the ad- 
mission of the latter, he excelled in some 
branches of the art. He painted the 
Dii Majores for Mnaso, and received for 
each 300 minas. 

Ascoua, (aaKuXid^eiv, leaping on the 
bottle,) one of the many amusements in 
which the Athenians indulged during the 
Dionysia, or festivals of Bacchus. Having 
sacrificed a he-goat to the god, (that ani- 
mal being a great enemy to the vine,) they 
made a bottle of the skin, filled it with oil 
and wine, and afterwards tried to dance on 
it. He who could stand on it first was 
victorious. This amusement was after- 
wards introduced into Italy. 

Asconius Labeo, Pedianus, a Roman 
grammarian, born at Patavium, in the 
time of Augustus ; and known to modern 
times by his commentary on the orations 
of Cicero, of which a few fragments still 
remain. 

Ascra, a town of Bceotia, of considerable 
antiquity, and celebrated for being the 
residence of Hesiod, hence called the As- 
crean bard. 

Asculum, I., Picenum, (so named to 
distinguish it from the Asculum of Apulia,) 
an inland and strongly fortified city of Pi- 
cenum, on the Truentus. It was the first 
city to declare against the Romans when 
the Social war broke out ; and its example 



ASD 



ASI 



93 



was followed by the whole of Plcenum. 
It sustained a long and memorable siege 
against Pompey, who finally compelled 
the place to surrender, and caused several 
of the chiefs to be beheaded. — II. Appu- 
lum, a city of Apulia, supposed to be the 
modern Ascoli. Under its walls Pyrrhus en- 
countered a second time the Roman army, 
after having gained a victory in Lucania. 

Asdrubal. See Hasdrcbal. 

Asi, (Sanscrit, the Beings,') a general 
appellation, in the northern mythology, for 
the deities who came in with Odin from 
the east, and penetrated from the shores of 
the Caspian sea to the northern extremity 
of Europe. They were twelve in number, 
with an equal number of female deities, 
called Asynice. All the Scandinavian gods 
belong to the race of the Asi. They 
dwelt in a beautiful castle called Asgard, 
analogous to the Olympus of the Greek 
and Roman mythology. 

Asia, I., the largest and most celebrated 
of the three parts of the ancient world, is 
separated from Europe by the JEgean, 
Euxine, Palus Maeotis, Tanais or Don, 
and the Dwina ; from Africa by the Red 
Sea, and isthmus of Suez. The name of 
Asia was confined by Homer, Herodotus, 
and Euripides, to a district of Lydia, 
watered by the Cayster ; but the Greeks 
gradually extended this name from the 
district to which it was applied, till it 
embraced the whole of Asia Elinor, and 
ultimately the other extensive countries 
of the east. The surface of Asia covers 
about 17,000,000 square miles, or about 
four times the area of Europe. The early 
commerce of the world, especially of the 
east, was originally through Asia. The 
natural places of depot in the interior were 
on the banks of the large rivers ; on the 
Oxus, in Bactria ; on the Euphrates, at 
Babylon. The natural places of depot on 
the coast were the western coast of Asia 
Minor, and Phoenicia, where arose the 
series of Grecian and Phoenician cities. 
Asia from the first, as at present, contained 
in its interior empires of immense extent ; 
by which they are distinguished from those 
of cultivated Europe, as well as by their 
constitution. They often underwent revo- 
lutions^but their form remained the same. 
For this causes must have existed, lying 
deep and of wide influence ; and which, 
notwithstanding these frequent revolutions, 
still continued to operate, and always gave 
to the new empires of Asia the orga- 
nisation of the old ones. The great revo- 
lutions of Asia (with the exception of that 
of Alexander) were occasioned by the 
numerous and powerful nomadic nations 



which occupied a great part of the conti- 
nent. Compelled by accident or neces- 
sity, they left their places of abode, and 
founded new empires, while they passed 
through and subjected the fruitful and 
cultivated countries of southern Asia, until, 
unnerved by luxury and effeminacy, con- 
sequent on the change in their habits of 
life, they in their turn were in like man- 
ner subjected. From this common origin 
may be explained in part the great extent, 
in part the rapid rise, and the usually 
short continuance, of these empires. — II. 
Mixor, a large country of Asia in the 
form of a peninsula, bounded on the north 
by the Euxine, on the west by the ..Egean 
sea and the Propontis, on the south by the 
Mediterranean, and on the east by the 
Euphrates and Mount Amanus. It con- 
sisted of eleven grand divisions. Nine ma- 
ritime : Pontus ; Paphlagonia ; Bithynia ; 
Mysia, including the Troad and Phrygia 
Minor ; Lydia or Ma?onia, including Ionia ; 
Caria ; Lycia ; Pamphylia, including Pi- 
sidia and Lycaonia ; and Cilicia, divided 
into Trachea and Campestris : and two in- 
land, Phrygia Magna, including Isauria 
and Galatia or Gallograecia ; and Cappa- 
docia, including Armenia Minor. (See 
these terms.) This vast tract of country 
was originally called simply Asia, but 
afterwards 7] k<xtw 'Acri'a, to distinguish it 
from the rest of the immense continent 
of which it formed a part, and which then 
came to be designated 77 &vco 'Aaia, and did 
not receive its appellation of AsiaMinor ear- 
lier than the fifth century of our era. With 
respect to the original inhabitants, there is 
little information on which any reliance 
can be placed, but it is supposed that the 
Phoenicians had settlements on its southern 
and western coasts at a very early period, 
and that there were frequent immigrations 
from Thrace, as well as from Thessaly, soon 
after the Trojan war. The Asiatic penin- 
sula having never had a separate and inde- 
pendent political existence, it will be suffi- 
cient to note the most remarkable events 
and periods in its history. These were, 
1. The settlement of the Greek colonies 
on the Asiatic coast of the iEgean. The 
chief Ionian emigration took place about a 
century and a half after the Trojan war, 
and was followed by a long period, during 
which the arts of civilised life were carried 
to a high degree of improvement in that 
country. 2. The existence of a kingdom 
of Lydia, from the iEgean sea to the 
Halys, which terminated in the defeat of 
Croesus by Cyrus, king of Persia, b. c. 54S, 
a. u. c. 206. 3. The conquest of the penin- 
sula by Alexander the Great, \. u, 421 



94 



ASl 



ASP 



b. c. 333, after it had formed a part of the 
Persian empire for upwards of two cen- 
turies. 4. The Mithridatic war, which 
ended in the submission of Asia Minor to 
the Romans (a.u.c. 689, b. c. 65), in whose 
hands it remained till it was overrun by 
the Turks in the fifteenth century. Al- 
though Asia Minor, especially the coast of 
the JEgean, was in ancient times the seat 
of many noble cities, adorned with splen- 
did monuments of art, time and barbarism 
have either entirely destroyed even the 
ruins, or left them in such shapeless and 
mutilated masses, as to convey but little 
information. Not only are there no re- 
mains of the temple of Ephesus, but the 
very site of the town is disputed. The ex- 
istence of former civilisation is attested by 
fragments, curious indeed, and interesting, 
but not singly of importance enough to be 
enumerated in so general an outline as 
this. Asia Minor is now called Anatolia, 
or rather Anadoli, from avaroXri, the Orient. 
' — III. One of the Oceanides, who mar- 
ried Japetus, and gave her name to one of 
the quarters of the globe. 

Asia Palus, a marsh in Lydia, near the 
mouth of the Cayster, greatly frequented 
by swans and other water-fowl. 

Asiana, one of the divisions of Asia 
Minor which took place towards the de- 
cline of the Roman empire. The other 
was called Pontica. They were each 
governed by a lieutenant called Vicarius. 

Asiatxcus, I., the surname of Lucius 
Cornelius Scipio, from his conquests in 
Asia. — II. A Roman senator, put to death 
by Claudius on a false charge preferred 
by Messalina, who was anxious to obtain 
the gardens of Lucullus which were in 
his possession. 

Asinarus, a river of Sicily, now Fiume 
di Noto, flowing into the sea to the north 
of Helorun. 

A sine, I., a town of Argolis, on the 
Sinus Argolicus. — II. Another in Mes- 
senia, south-west of Messene, founded by 
the inhabitants of the former place, when 
driven from their city by the Argives. 

Asinius Gallus, I., son of Asinius 
Pollio, the orator, was consul a. u. c. 748. 
He married Vipsania, the repudiated wife 
of Tiberius, a step which gave rise to a 
secret enmity on the part of the latter ; 
for he starved himself to death, either 
voluntarily, or by order of his imperial 
enemy. — II. Pollio. See Pollio. 

Asius, L, a son of Dymas, brother of 
Hecuba. He assisted Priam in the Trojan 
war, and was slain by Idomeneus. — II. 
Son of Imbracus, who accompanied JEneas 
into Italy. 



Asmodeus, according to the old Hebrew 
fables, was a wicked spirit, who on the 
marriage night slew successively seven 
husbands of Sara, daughter of Raguel. 
At length Tobias, who was on the eve of 
becoming her husband, succeeded, by the 
advice of Raphael, in warding him off by 
means of prayers and fumigation ; and he 
was then seized by Raphael, and banished 
to the deserts of iEgypt. The poets have 
availed themselves largely of this story, 
and represent Asmodeus as a species of 
daemon, whose greatest pleasure consists 
in producing strife in the marriage state. 

Asopiades, I., a patronymic of JEacus, 
son of JEgina, daughter of Asopus. — II. 
A daughter of Thespius, mother of Men- 
tor. 

Asopis, the daughter of the Asopus. 

Asopus, I., a river of Thessaly, which 
rises in Mt. (Eta, and, flowing through 
a gorge in the mountain enclosing the 
Trachinian plain, falls into the Sinus Ma- 
liacus. — II. A river of Boeotia, rising in 
Mt. Cithaeron, near Platasa, and flowing 
into the Euripus. The battle of Plataea 
was fought on its banks. — III. A river of 
Achaia, rising in the Argolic mountains, 
on the frontiers of Arcadia, and falling 
into the Corinthian gulf a little below 
Sicyon. On its banks were celebrated the 
games instituted by Adrastus in honour 
of Apollo. It was thought to be the same 
river as the Menander of Asia Minor, 
which, flowing into the sea near Miletus, 
passed under the waters of the Mediter- 
ranean, and re-appeared in Achaia as the 
Asopus. — III. A son of Neptune, and 
god of the river above mentioned. Three 
of his daughters are celebrated, iEgina, 
Salamis, and Ismene. 

Asparagium, a town of Illyricum, on 
the southern bank of the Apsus. 

Aspasia, I., daughter of Hermotimus 
of Phocasa, celebrated for her beauty. She 
was priestess of the sun, and became the 
wife of Cyrus, and afterwards of his brother 
Artaxerxes. She was called Milto, Ver- 
milion, on account of the beauty of her 
complexion.- — II. One of the most cele- 
brated women of antiquity, distinguished 
no less for her beauty, than for her mental 
accomplishments, was the daughter of 
Axiochus of Miletus. She came to Athens 
in the time of Pericles, and by the com- 
bined charms of her person, manners, and 
conversation, so completely wOn the affec- 
tions and esteem of that distinguished 
statesman, that he divorced his wife in 
order to marry her. Freed by her station 
from the restraints which custom had im- 
posed upon the Athenian matrons, she 



ASP 



AST 



95 



collected around her a circle of the most 
brilliant spirits of the age, and num- 
bered among her friends and disciples in 
eloquence, Pericles, Socrates, Zeno, Pro- 
tagoras and Anaxagoras. Such was her 
influence over Pericles, that the Samian 
war was ascribed to her interposition in 
behalf of her birthplace. It must be 
admitted, however, that this, and many 
charges of a grosser character are not pre- 
ferred against Aspasia by any contemporary 
historian ; and their origin must be as- 
cribed to the envy and calumny of the 
comic poets of the day. On one occasion, 
indeed, she was publicly charged by Her- 
mippus with impiety ; but the eloquence 
of Pericles, who was moved even to tears 
in pleading for her, procured her acquittal. 
After the death of Pericles, Aspasia at- 
tached herself to a young man of obscure 
birth, named Lysicles, who rose, through 
her influence in moulding his character, 
to some of the highest offices in the state. 

Aspendus, a populous city of Pam- 
phylia, founded by an Argive colony. It 
is mentioned by Hierocles under the name 
of Tremupolis. 

Asphaltites Lacus. See Mare Mor- 
tuum. 

Aspis, I., a town of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, Aspe, north-west of Ilicis — II. 
An island on the coast of Ionia, Carabagh, 
opposite Lebedus, sometimes called Arcon- 
nesus.— III. A town of Africa Propria. 
See Clupea. 

Aspledon, a town of Boeotia, northeast 
of Orchomenus, which derived its name 
from Aspledon, a son of Neptune, by the 
Nymph Midea, It was afterwards called 
Eridielas, from its advantageous position, 
though this opinion is combated by Pau- 
sanias. 

Assa, a town of Macedonia, on the 
Sinus Singiticus. 

Assaracus, a Trojan prince, son of Tros 
by Callirrhoe, and father of Capys, the 
father of Anchises. 

Assos, Asso, a town of Mysia, on the 
coast, west of Adramyttium, founded by a 
colony from Lesbos. It was the birth- 
place of Cleanthes the Stoic ; and is men- 
tioned in the Acts (xx. 13.). 

Assyria, a country of Asia, originally 
of small extent, but afterwards greatly 
enlarged. It was bounded, according to 
Ptolemy, on the north by part of Armenia 
and Mt. Niphates ; on the west by the 
Tigris ; on the south by Susiana ; and on 
the east by part of Media and the moun- 
tains Chaotra and Zagros. The country 
within these limits is called by some Adia- 
bene, and by others Aturia or Atyria : the 



whole country is now called Kurdistan. 
The Assyrian was one of the most ancient 
and greatest empires of Asia. It was 
founded either by Assur or Ashur, son of 
Shem or Ninis, the Nimrod of Scripture, 
who made Nineveh the capital of his em- 
pire, and in whose family the crown re- 
mained for many ages, till Arbaces intro- 
duced a Median dynasty. 

Astaboras, Tacazze, a river of Ethi- 
opia, falling into the Nile. See Nilus. 

Astacus, a town of Bithynia, on the 
Sinus Astacenus, built by Astacus, son of 
Neptune and Olbia, or rather by a colony 
from Megara and Athens. It was subse- 
quently seized by Daedalsus, a native chief, 
who became the founder of the Bithynian 
monarchy ; and at a later period the in- 
habitants were transferred to Nicomedia. 

Astafa, Estepa la Vieja, a town of His- 
pania Baetica, famous for its vigorous de- 
fence against the Romans, a. u. c. 54.6. 

Astapus, Abawi, a river of ^Ethiopia, 
flowing through Nubia and falling into 
the Nile. 

Astarte, an ancient divinity of the 
Phoenicians and Syrians, equivalent, it is 
supposed, to the Venus of the Greeks and 
Romans. She had a celebrated temple at 
Hierapolis in Syria. 

Aster, a dexterous archer of Methone, 
who aimed an arrow at Philip of Macedon, 
when besieging it. The arrow, on which 
was written, " Aster aims a deadly shaft at 
Philip's eye," struck the king's eye, and 
put it out ; Philip, to return the pleasantry, 
threw back the arrow, with the words, " If 
Philip takes the town, Aster shall be 
hanged." The conqueror kept his word. 

Asteria, I., daughter of Cceus, one of 
the Titans, and Phoebe, daughter of Coelus 
and Terra, and wife of Perses, son of Crius, 
by whom she had Hecate. She fled from 
the suit of Jupiter, and throwing herself 
down from heaven like a star (in allusion 
to her name, from Gr. acrriip, a star), was 
transformed into the island afterwards 
named Delos. Another legend makes her 
to have taken the form of a quail (o/rru|); 
hence the island was called Ortygia. ( See 
Delos.) — II. One of the daughters of 
Danaus, who married Chastus, son of JE- 
gyptus ; 

Asterion and Asterius, I., son of Co- 
metes, one of the Argonauts, and the 
fabled father of Euboea, Prosymna, and 
Acraea, all of whom claimed the honour of 
being nurses to Juno. — II. A rivulet of 
Argolis, rising on the slope of Mt. Euboea, 
and soon disappearing among the rocks. — 
III. A king of Crete, descended from 
Deucalion, who married Europa, and 



"96 AST 

brought up the children whom she had 
previously had from her union with 
Jupiter. Another account makes him to 
have been a son of Minos, king of Crete, 
and slain by Theseus. 

AsteropjEa, daughter of Deion, king 
of Phocis, or more probably Phthiotis, and 
Diomede. 

Asterope, L, one of the seven daughters 
of Atlas by his wife Pleione. (See Plei- 
ades.) — II. Daughter of Cebren aDd wife 
of iEsacus. 

AsteropuEus, son of Pelegon, king of 
Pa?onia. He assisted Priam in the Trojan 
war, and was killed by Achilles. 

Astr^a, goddess of justice, and daughter 
of Astra?us, king of Arcadia, or, according 
to others, of Titan, Saturn's brother, by 
Aurora, or, again, of Jupiter and Themis. 
She lived on the earth during the golden 
age, but the wickedness of mankind drove 
her to heaven in the brazen and iron ages, 
and she was placed among the constel- 
lations, under the name of Virgo. She is 
represented as a virgin, with a stern coun- 
tenance, holding a pair of scales in one 
hand, and a sword in the other. 

Astr^eus, I., son of the Titan Crius, and 
Eurybia, daughter of Pontus, or, according 
to others, of Terra and Tartarus, king of 
Arcadia, and father of Astra?a, the goddess 
of justice, and also of the winds and stars. 
He united with the Titans against Jupiter, 
and with them was hurled into Tartarus. 
— II. A river of Macedonia, flowing past 
Beroea, and falling into the Erigonus, a 
tributary of the Axius. It is now the 
Vostrizza. 

Astu, city, a Greek word applied by 
way of distinction to Athens, the capital 
city of Greece ; as urbs is applied to Rome, 
and tt6\ls to Alexandria, the capital of 
Egypt, and to Troy. 

Astur, an Etrurian, who assisted JEneas 
against Turnus. 

Astura, a small river and village of 
Latium, near which was a villa of Cicero, 
to which he retired from the proscription 
of Antony. A decisive action took place 
on its banks between the Romans and 
some of the Latin states, which led to the 
complete subjugation of the latter. 

Astures, a people of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, who occupied the eastern half of 
modern Asturias, the greater part of the 
kingdom of Leon, and the northern half of 
Valencia. Their capital was Asturica Au- 
gusta, now Astorga. 

Astyache, daughter of the river god 
Simois, and mother of Tros, who after- 
wards gave his name to Troas, by Erich- 
thonius. 



AST 

Astyages, I., last king of Media, son of 
Cyaxares, reigned from 595 to 560 b. c. 
He married Aryenis, sister of Crcesus. 
Having dreamed that he would be de- 
throned by a grandson, he gave his daughter 
Mandane in marriage to Cambyses, a Per- 
sian of good family, though not of royal 
rank, in the hope that the offspring of such 
a parentage would not be disposed to re- 
alise his dream. A second dream, however, 
induced him to expose his daughter's son ; 
but Harpagus, to whom the deed was en- 
trusted, deceived him, by substituting his 
own child, who had died, in his room; 
and the child thus preserved (who was 
Cyrus the Great) grew up, and dethroned 
his grandfather, according to the import 
of both the dreams. But a wholly different 
account is given by Xenophon in the " Cy- 
ropa?dia." It is there stated that Astyages 
and his grandson lived in the greatest 
amity, and that leaving a son named Cy- 
axares as his successor, who died without 
issue, the crown consequently fell to Cyrus. 
According to Ctesias, Astyages was kindly 
treated by Cyrus, who invited him to visit 
him in Persia, but the person appointed to 
escort him led him into a desert, where he 
perished. 

Astyanax, son of Hector and Andro- 
mache, who saved him, on the capture of 
Troy, by taking him in her arms. To 
prevent the fulfilment of an old prophecy, 
which said that the young prince would 
one day avenge the ruin of his country on 
the Greeks, Ulysses, or, as others say, 
Menelaus, seized him, and threw him from 
the walls of Troy. Hector had given his 
son the name of Scamandrius, but the 
Trojans, out of gratitude to the father, 
their chief defender, called the son Asty- 
anax, " prince of the city." 

Astydamas, an Athenian tragic writer, 
son of Morsimus, and grandson of Philocles, 
nephew of iEschylus. He studied under 
Isocrates, and is said to have composed 
240 tragedies. He lived sixty years. 

Astydamia, or Hippolyte, daughter of 
Amyntor, king of Orchomenos in Boeotia, 
and wife of Acastus, son of Pelias, king 
of Iolchos. See Acastus. 

Astynous, a brave Trojan prince, killed 
by Diomedes. 

Astyoche and Astyochia, daughter of 
Actor, and mother of Ascalaphus and 
lalmenus, who were at the Trojan war, by 
the god Mars. 

AsTYPALiEA, Stanpalia, one of the Cy- 
clades, south-east of Cos, contains a town 
of the same name. According to Cicero, 
divine honours were rendered here to 
Achilles. It was called Pyrrha, when 



ASY 



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97 



the Carians possessed it ; afterwards Pylcea ; 
also Qewv Tpoire^a, table of the gods, on ac- 
count of its fertility. 

Asychis, a king of iEgypt,who succeeded 
Mycerinus, and built a magnificent pyra- 
mid, supposed to be that now seen near 
El Lahun. For a singular law which he 
enacted during a scarcity of money, see 
Herodotus, ii. 136. Diod. S. makes Boc- 
choris to have reigned after Mycerinus. 

Asyxas, a friend of JEneas skilled in 
auguries, and represented by Virgil as 
pouring along his thousands from Thesean 
Pisa, a colony of Alphean Pisa, over which 
he presided. 

Atabulus, a wind frequent in Apulia, 
and destructive to the productions of the 
earth : it is identical with Sirocco. 

Atabyris, a mountain in Rhodes, where 
Jupiter had a temple, hence surnamed 
Atabyrius. 

Atabyrion, a fortress on the summit of 
a mountain in Galilee, answering to the 
Thabor of Scripture. It was captured 
by Antiochus the Great. 

Atacini, a people of Gallia Narbonensis 
inhabiting the banks of the Atax, Aude, 
whence their name. Their capital was 
Narbo, Narbonne. 
s At ala nt a. Two women of this name 
^r"feave been often confounded by the ancient 
mythologists. The one was a daughter 
of Iasos, king of Arcadia, by whom she 
was exposed when an infant, but found by 
some hunters, who brought her up, and 
instructed her in archery. With her ar- 
rows she killed the centaurs Rhcecus and 
Hyheus, who had attempted her honour. 
She took part in the Argonautic expe- 
dition ; was at the hunt of the Calydonian 
boar, to which she gave the first blow, and 
whose head she received from Meleager 
as a present. At the funeral games of 
Pelias, she bore off the prize of wrestling 
from Peleus. The other was the daughter 
of Schoeneus, king of Scyros, celebrated 
for her beauty, and her swiftness in the 
chace. She was determined to live in 
celibacy ; but her father, wishing her to 
marry, she consented to select him for her 
lover who should overtake her in running ; 
but on the other hand she stipulated, that 
she should have the privilege of killing 
those whom she overtook. Notwithstand- 
ing many sad examples, Hippomenes, son 
of Macareus, or, as others say, her cousin 
Meilanion, was not deterred from under- 
taking the race, which he entertained hopes 
of winning by means of the following 
stratagem : Venus had presented him with 
three golden apples, either from the gar- 
den of the Hesperides, or from an orchard 



in Cyprus ; and as soon as he had started, 
and found Atalanta gaining upon him, he 
artfully threw down one of the apples, the 
beauty of which enticing Atalanta, she 
went out of her way to pick it up ; he 
used the second and third in the same 
manner, and while she was busied in fol- 
lowing the apples, he reached the goal, 
and received his fair competitor as the 
reward of his victory. They were after- 
wards turned into lions for profaning the 
temple of Jupiter. It is believed that 
both these stories are different appropri- 
ations of the same legend. 

Atarantes, a people of Africa, ten days' 
journey from the Garamantes, whose origin 
and history have given rise to many curi- 
ous speculations among the learned. 

Atarbechis, a city of Egypt, sacred to 
Venus, in one of the small islands of the 
Delta called Prosopitis. Strabo and Pliny 
call the city Aphroditespolis. 

Atargatis, or Atergatis, an eastern 
deity, the same with the Great Goddess of 
Syria, and worshipped chiefly at Mabotz 
or Bambyce, Edessa, and afterwards at 
Hierapolis. She was also called Athara, 
and is sometimes confounded with Derceto, 
another Syrian goddess, who was repre- 
sented as a fish in the lower extremities. 

Atarneus, I., a town of Mysia, oppo- 
site Lesbos; ceded to the Chians by the 
Persians, in the reign of Cyrus, for having 
delivered into their hands the Lydian 
Pactyas. — II. A small town near Pitane> 
in Mysia, opposite the island Eheussa, and 
called " Atarneus under Pitane" to dis- 
tinguish it from Atarneus in Mysia. 

Ataulphus, brother-in-law of Alaric, 
king of the Goths, whom he assisted in 
his invasion of Italy, and succeeded on the 
throne, a. d. 411. Having made an alli- 
ance with Honorius, he attacked, defeated, 
and put to death Jovinus, who had re- 
volted against the empire ; he then married 
Placidia, the sister of Honorius, who had 
long been his captive, and afterwards pass- 
ing into Spain he was murdered at Barce- 
lona by one of his equerries, a. b. 417. 
He died without issue, and was succeeded 
by Vallia, who restored Placidia to her 
brother, by whom she was married to the 
consul Constantius. 

Atax, Aude, a river of Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, rising in the Pyrenees, and falling 
into the Rubresus at Narbo, Narbonne. 

Ate, goddess of mischief. When Jupi- 
ter had been deceived by Juno into the 
rash oath that rendered Hercules subject 
to Eurystheus, he laid the blame of the 
deceit, on Ate, his own daughter, and 
banished her for ever from Olympus. 

F 



98 



ATE 



ATH 



Thenceforward she took up her abode 
among men. Her name is derived from 
&Ofxai, I injure. 

Atella, a town of Campania, west of 
Suessula, the ruins of which are still to 
be seen near the village of St. Arpino. It 
was known to have been an Oscan city, 
and has acquired some importance in the 
history of Roman literature, from the 
farces called Fabulce Atellance. The Ro- 
mans were so fond of these comic repre- 
sentations, that they at first extended 
numerous privileges to the actors who 
performed them ; but when at last they 
began to degenerate into licentiousness, 
they were prohibited by Tiberius, and 
their players banished from Italy. Atella 
joined Hannibal after the battle of Can- 
na?, and was afterwards reduced to the 
condition of a prasfectura ; but it subse- 
quently became once more a municipal 
town, and even a Roman colony, under 
Augustus. 

Atkamanes, a rude but ancient people 
of Epirus, who proved no less valuable 
allies to the JEtolians, than formidable 
enemies to the Macedonians. 

Athamantiades, a patronymic of Meli- 
certa, Phryxus, and Helle, children of 
Athamas. 

Athamas, son of iEolus, and king of 
Thebes in Boeotia. He married Nephele, 
by whom he had Phryxus and Helle. 
But some time after, on pretence that 
Nephele was subject to fits of madness, he 
married Ino, daughter of Cadmus, by 
whom he had two sons, Learchus and Me- 
licerta. Ino, jealous of the children of 
Nephele, resolved to destroy them ; but 
they escaped from her fury to Colchis on a 
golden ram. (See Phryxus.) Athamas was 
afterwards seized with madness, and in his 
fury slew his son Learchus ; upon which 
Ino, fearing a similar fate for her son 
Melicerta, sprung with him from the cliff 
Molyris into the sea, when Neptune gave 
them a place among the marine deities. 
Athamas subsequently settled in Thessaly, 
where he built Athamantia, and married 
Themisto, daughter of Hypseus, by whom 
he had four children, Leucon, Erythroe, 
Schoeneus, and Ptoos. 

Athanasxus, one of the most celebrated 
early fathers of the Christian Church, a 
native of Egypt, and deacon of the church 
of Alexandria under Alexander, whom he 
succeeded in the bishopric a. d. 326. 
His defence of the doctrine of the Trinity 
at the Council of Nice, a.d. 325, subjected 
him to numerous persecutions, which were 
renewed and augmented with every suc- 
ceeding year : so that, by turns deposed, 



' established, exiled, and recalled, out of an 
official career of forty-six years, twenty 

| were spent in banishment. He died in 
the seventy -third year of his age, having 
nobly merited the title of " the Virtuous," 
and bequeathing to posterity works which 
have been the model of theological writers 
in all succeeding ages. The best edition 
of his works is that of Montfaucon, Paris, 
1698, 3 torn. fol. 

Athena, name of Minerva among the 
Greeks. 

Athene, I., the celebrated capital of 
Attica, founded by Cecrops, b. c. 1550. 
The primitive name was Cranae, so called 
from Cranaos, who gave to the Pelasgi the 
name of Cranai, and all Attica that of 
Cranae. At a later period it was called 
Cecropia, from Cecrops, and finally A theme 
by Erechthonius, from its being under the 
protection of Minerva or Athene. The 
city was first erected on the summit of a 
lofty rock, probably as a protection against 
attacks from the sea; and a distinction 
was made between it and the part subse- 
quently added in the plain. The former, 
the primitive Cecropia, was called f) 6.vu> 
ir6\is, or 'AnpoiroAis, " the Upper City ; " 
the buildings in the plain, where eventu- 
ally Athens itself stood, were termed 7) 
koltco ttoXis, " the Lower City." The A- 
cropolis was sixty stadia in circumference. 
Little can be averred with certainty re- 
specting the size of Athens under its 
earliest kings ; but it is supposed that, 
even down to the time of Theseus, it was 
entirely confined to the Acropolis and 
the Areopagus. Subsequently to the Tro- 
jan war, it increased considerably in popu- 
lation and extent ; and the improvements 
continued during the reign of Pisistratus. 
The invasion of Xerxes, and the irruption 
of Mardonius, effected the destruction of 
the ancient city, and reduced it to a heap 
of ruins. But when the battles of Salamis, 
Plataea, and Mycale, had averted all danger 
of invasion, Athens soon rose from its state 
of ruin and desolation ; and, furnished by 
the energetic conduct of Themistocles with 
military works necessary for its defence, 
attained, under the administrations of Ci- 
mon and Pericles, especially the latter, to 
the highest pitch of beauty, magnificence, 
and strength. At this period, the whole 
of Athens, with its three ports of Pirasus, 
Munychia, and Phalerus, connected by 
means of the celebrated long walls, formed 
one great city inclosed within a vast peri- 
bolus of massive fortifications. She had 
now attained the summit of her splendour 
and prosperity. But the Peloponnesian 
war gave the first effective blow to her 



ATH 



ATL 



99 



grandeur ; and her successive humiliations 
under Philip of Macedon and his son re- 
ceived their final consummation when the 
victorious Sylla planted the Roman eagles 
on the Acropolis, b. c. 86. But, notwith- 
standing her political annihilation, Athens 
long remained the teacher and arbiter of 
all matters of taste and philosophy. Under 
Hadrian, and four of his successors, she 
even regained some of her former splen- 
dour ; but at the invasion of Alaric, king 
of the Goths, a. d. 400, her stately struc- 
tures were completely laid in ruin, and she 
thenceforth sunk into utter insignificance. 
It would be useless to pursue her history 
through the dark records of the middle 
ages. Suffice it to say, that she became the 
prey of every spoiler, till at length she fell 
into the hands of the Turks, under whose 
jurisdiction she remained, until the Treaty 
of Adrianople in 1829 established the new 
kingdom of Greece, of which she is now 
the capital. 

Athen^a, festivals at Athens in honour 
of Minerva. One of them was called 
Panathencea ; the other Chalcea. 

Athene um, a building at Athens, sa- 
cred to Minerva, (whence its name,) where 
literary men were accustomed to recite 
their compositions, or engage in discus- 
sion. Hadrian built an Athenaeum at 
Rome in imitation of that at Athens. 

Athen^eus, I., a native of Naucratis in 
JEgypt, and author of a compilation, en- 
titled Deipnosophistce, " the learned men at 
supper," from which the moderns have 
derived a large portion of their knowledge 
respecting the private life of the ancient 
Greeks. The best editions of his works 
are those of Casaubon, Schweighauser, 
and DindorfF. — II. A contemporary of 
Archimedes, whose native country is not 
known. He wrote a treatise on Ma- 
chines, and dedicated it to Marcellus, who 
is generally supposed to be the same with 
the conqueror of Syracuse. — III. A cele- 
brated physician, born at Attalia in Pam- 
phylia, and flourished at Rome a. ». 50. 
Of his numerous writings only a few 
chapters remain, in the collection of 
Oribasus. 

Athenagokas, a Platonising father of the 
church, author of an " Apology for Chris- 
tians," and a treatise on the " Resurrec- 
tion of the Body." He was born at Athens 
about the beginning of the second century 
of our era ; but nothing is known of his 
personal history. Besides the works above 
mentioned, the romance of Theagenes and 
Charis has been erroneously ascribed to 
him. 

Athenion, a painter of Maronea, b. c. 



300. Several of his productions are enume- 
rated by Pliny. 

Athenobokus, I., a philosopher, bom 
at Cana, near Tarsus, in Cilicia. He lived 
at Rome during the reign of Augustus, by 
whom he was so highly esteemed that he 
intrusted him with the education of the 
young prince Claudius. He died at 
Tarsus in his eighty-second year. — II. A 
Stoic philosopher of Tarsus, keeper of the 
library at Pergamus, and the friend of 
Cato of Utica, in whose house he died. — 
III. A sculptor, who, in conjunction with 
Agesander and Polydorus, executed the 
famous Laocoon group. 

Athesis, Adige, a river of Venetia, in 
Gallia Cisalpina, rising in the Rhaetian 
Alps, and, after a course of nearly 200 
miles, flowing into the Adriatic. 

Athos, Monte Santo, a mountain in 
the district Chalcidice of Macedonia ; so 
high that it projects its shadow at the 
summer solstice eighty-seven miles. When 
Xerxes invaded Greece, he cut a canal 
through the peninsula of Athos, in order 
to avoid the danger of doubling the pro- 
montory, the fleet of Mardonius having 
previously sustained a severe loss in passing 
round it. (See Acanthus.) In modem 
times the peninsula of Mount Athos has 
been occupied, since a remote era, by nu- 
merous monks of the Greek church, who 
live in fortified convents, of different de- 
grees of magnitude and importance. 

Atina, I., Atino, one of the most an- 
cient cities of the Volsci, situated south- 
east of Arpinum, near the source of the 
Melfa. It was a considerable town as 
early as the Trojan war. In the time 
of Cicero, it was one of the most populous 
and distinguished prasfecturae in Italy ; 
and it was colonised under Nero. — II. 
Atena, a considerable town of Lucania, not 
far from the Tanager. 

Atlantes. See Atarantes. 

Atlantiades, a patronymic of Mercury, 
as grandson of Atlas. 

Atlantides, a name given to the daugh- 
ters of Atlas, who were afterwards trans- 
lated to heaven under the names of Hyades 
and Pleiades. See these terms. 

Atlantis, an island mentioned in Pla- 
to's Dialogue entitled Timasus, as having 
once existed in the Atlantic Ocean op- 
posite to the Pillars of Hercules. It was 
said to have exceeded Europe and Africa 
jointly in magnitude ; and after exist- 
ing for 9000 years, during which period 
its inhabitants extended their conquests 
throughout the known quarters of the 
globe, to have been uprooted by prodigious 
earthquakes and inundations, and sub- 
f 2 



100 



ATL 



ATR 



merged in the ocean. The question of 
the reality and site of this island has been 
frequently discussed by modern geogra- 
phers, who have displayed much critical 
perspicacity in its elucidation. M. Bailly 
supported the Platonic view of the existence 
and site of the island, on the authority of 
the ancients, and cited Homer and Dio- 
dorus Siculus in corroboration of his 
views. Rudbeck, Kircher, Beckman, and 
others, concur in opinion respecting its 
reality, but each assigns to it a different 
locality. According to the conjectures of 
Buffon and Whitehurst, who regarded the 
Canaries and the Peak of Teneriffe as the 
summits of mountains belonging to some 
submerged continent, Atlantis was the land 
which, at a former period, united Ireland 
to the Azores and the Azores to America. 
On the other hand, DAnville and Heeren 
regard Plato's account of the Atlantis as 
altogether a fanciful speculation ; while 
there are not wanting many who " discover 
in it proofs that the American continent 
was known at some remote period to the 
people of the Eastern hemisphere, but 
that the knowledge was subsequently 
lost. 

Atlas, I., one of the Titans, son of Ia- 
petus and Clymene, one of the Oceanides, 
and brother of Epimetheus, Prometheus, 
and Mencetius, was king of Mauritania, and 
compelled by Jupiter to support the heavens 
on his shoulders for the part he bad taken in 
the Gigantomachia. A later legend makes 
him to have been transformed into the moun- 
tain, which still bears his name, by Perseus, 
tOAvhomhe had refused hospitality, after his 
conquest of the Gorgons ; while according 
to another story, Atlas was an astronomer 
of Africa, who, having ascended a lofty 
mountain to make observations, fell from 
it into the sea, both of which were after- 
wards called by his name. Atlas married 
Pleione or Hesperia, daughter of Oceanus, 
by whom he had seven daughters, called 
Atlantides, afterwards transferred to heaven 
as the Pleiades. He was also the father 
of the fair Nymph Calypso, and of the Hy- 
ades. Some modern expounders of mytho- 
logy, taking into consideration the mean- 
ing of the name Atlas, the species of know- 
ledge ascribed to him, and the other legends 
connected with him, regard Atlas as a per- 
sonification of navigation, the conquest of 
the sea by human skill, trade, and com- 
mercial prosperity. — II. A celebrated 
range of mountains in Africa, some of their 
summits having an elevation of 13,000 
feet. The early Phoenician and Greek 
navigators, who saw this vast chain from 
a distance, and who were unacquainted 



with the intervening country, imagined 
that its summits pierced the skies ; and the 
poets, improving upon this belief, repre- 
sented Atlas as a man of gigantic stature 
who supported the heavens on his shoulders. 

Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and succes- 
sively the wife of Cambyses, Smerdis, and 
Darius, by whom she had Xerxes. 

Atraces, the people of Atrax, an ancient 
colony of the Perrhoebi in Thessaly, on 
the right bank of the Peneus, and ten 
miles above Larissa. The city Atrax was 
successfully defended by the Macedonians 
against T. Flaminius. 

Atrax, I., son of iEtolus, or, according 
to others, of the Peneus, king of Thessaly, 
and father of Hippodamia, who married 
Pirithous. He built Atrax, which became 
so famous, that Atracius has been applied 
to any inhabitant of Thessaly. — II. Ay 
river of ./Etolia, flowing through the coun- 
try of the Locri Ozolae, and falling into the 
Sinus Corinthiacus, west of Naupactus. 

Atrebates, a powerful people of Gaul, 
who, with the Nervii, opposed J. Caesar 
with 15,000 men, but were conquered. 
They received for king Commius, one of 
their own nation, and on account of his 
services, were reinstated in their former 
independence. Their capital was Neme- 
tacum, afterwards Atrebates, now Arras. 

Atrebatii, a people of Britain occupying 
what is now Berkshire, part of Oxfordshire, 
Buckinghamshire, and part of Middlesex. 
Their chief city was Caleva, now Sil- 
chester. 

Atreus, son of Pelops by Hippodamia, 
and king of Mycenae. Having, in con- 
junction with his brother Thyestes, killed, 
out of jealousy, his half-brother Chrysippus, 
they were both banished by their father. 
Atreus retired to the court of Eurysfheus, 
king of Argos, whose daughter Aerope 
he married, and became by her the father 
of Plisthenes, Menelaus, and Agamemnon. 
Others, however, affirm that, prior to her 
marriage with Atreus, Aerope had been 
the wife of Plisthenes, by whom she had 
Agamemnon and Menelaus, who were re- 
puted to be sons of Atreus, because he 
took care of their education, and brought 
them up as his own. Thyestes, captivated 
by the beauty of his sister-in-law Aerope, 
prevailed on her to be unfaithful to her 
husband ; but on the discovery of his crime, 
he was driven ignominiously from the court 
of Mycenae, along with his two sons, the off- 
spring of his illicit intercourse. Not sa- 
tisfied with his first crime, he induced one 
of Atreus's sons, whom he had educated as 
his son, to murder his father ; but the plot 
was discovered, and Atreus, who took the 



ATR 



ATT 



101 



assassin for the son of Thyestes, ordered 
him to be put to death. When he dis- 
covered the awful mistake he had com- 
mitted, his vengeance knew no bounds, 
and he resolved to find consolation in the 
most violent measures. Feigning to be 
reconciled to Thyestes, he invited him with 
his two children to return to Mycena?, where 
a great feast was given to celebrate their 
reconciliation ; but Atreus, having caused 
the children of Thyestes to be murdered, 
served some of their members up to the 
father, and, after the repast was finished, 
produced the arms and head of the chil- 
dren, to convince Thyestes of what he had 
feasted on. At the sight of this horrible 
deed, the sun is said to have checked 
his chariot in his course through the 
heavens. Thyestes fled to Thesprotia, and 
thence to Sicyon, where he became the 
rather of JEgisthus, by his own daughter 
Pelopea, without knowing who she was. 
Meanwhile famine and plague were de- 
solating the kingdom of Atreus, and the 
oracle having declared that nothing but 
the return of Thyestes could stay their 
virulence, he set out to Thesprotia in search 
of him, saw Pelopea, and married her. 
Atreus afterwards adopted ^Egisthus, and 
sent him to murder Thyestes, who had 
been seized and imprisoned by Agamem- 
non and Menelaus. But Thyestes re- 
cognised his son by means of the sword 
which he had brought to murder him, and 
having made himself known to him, in- 
duced him to espouse his cause and avenge 
his wrongs, whereupon he returned to 
Atreus and assassinated him. This is the 
most horrible legend in the Grecian mytho- 
logy. Nothing of it is known in Homer, 
who speaks of the Pelopidee as a family of 
princes transmitting their sceptre from one 
generation to another, without any admix- 
ture of the above-mentioned atrocities. But 
in spite of its horrible character, this legend 
was introduced on the Greek stage in two 
plays of Sophocles, and one of Euripides, 
which are lost. 

Atrid^e, a patronymic given by Homer 
to Agamemnon and Menelaus, who were 
brought up by their father, or as others 
say, their step-father, as if they had been 
his own sons. 

AtropatLa, Aderbigian , the north- 
western part of Media, between Mt. Tau- 
rus and the Caspian sea ; so called from 
Atropates, a satrap of this province, who, 
after the death of Alexander, rendered 
himself independent, and took the title of 
king, which his successors enjoyed for 
manv ages. Its capital was Gaza, now 
Ttbriz. 



Atrop-os, one of the Pareae, daughters 
of Nox and Erebus. Her name (Gr. a, 
not, and TpeVo!, to turn,) represents her as 
inexorable and inflexible, and her duty 
among the three sisters was to cut the 
thread of life. See Parc^e. 

Atta, T. Q., a Roman comic writer 
who died a. u. c. 633. His productions 
were very popular in the time of Horace, 
whose language, however, respecting them 
is not very eulogistic. He received the 
surname of Atta from some defect in his 
feet. 

Attalia, I., a city of Pamphylia, south- 
west of Perga, built by king At talus. — II. 
A city of Lydia, on the Hermus, north-east 
of Sardis. Its more ancient name was 
Agroira, now Adala. 

Attaltts, the name of three kings of 
Pergamus who rendered it proverbial for 
rank and wealth. Attalus I. deserves a 
distinguished place among the sovereigns 
of antiquity, for his talent and sound policy. 
Having succeeded his uncle Eumenes I. 
on the throne, he obtained a signal victory 
over the Gallo- Graeci, who had invaded 
his dominions ; he then formed an intimate 
alliance with the Romans, whom he vi- 
gorously assisted in their wars against 
Philip of Macedon ; and in conjunction 
with the Athenians he invaded Macedonia, 
and recalled Philip from his enterprise 
against Athens. In gratitude for his ser- 
vices to the Greeks, the inhabitants of Si- 
cyon raised a statue to his honour, and 
the Athenians gave his name to one of their 
tribes. "When his kingdom was menaced 
by Antiochus, he induced the Achaean 
cities to join in an alliance with Rome for 
mutual defence ; he then repaired to Thebes 
to win the Boeotians to the Roman cause, 
and spoke with such energy in favour of 
his suit, that he was seized with apoplexy, 
and died shortly afterwards at Pergamus, in 
the seventy-second year of his age, and the 
forty-second of his reign. Amidst the cares 
and bustle of his active life, he had found 
time for literary pursuits. Some writings 
of his are cited by Strabo and Pliny, and 
he is regarded as the founder of the library 
of Pergamus, which afterwards became so 
famous. He had married Apollonias, a 
lady of Cyprus of obscure birth, but of 
great merit and virtue, and had by her four 
sons, Eumenes, Attalus, Philetaeus, and 
Athenaeus. — II. The second of the name 
was surnamed Philadelphus, from his af- 
fection for his brother Eumenes II., whom 
he succeeded b. c. 159, the son of the latter 
being of too tender an age to hold the reins 
of government. Before ascending the 
throne, he had distinguished himself both 
F 3 



102 



ATT 



ATT 



by shrewdness and courage as ambassador, 
statesman, and commander, in negotiations 
with the Roman and the Greek cities, 
and in the war with Antiochus and Persia, 
and his reign was no less marked by suc- 
cessful policy. He restored Ariarathes to 
the throne of Cappadocia, drove Prusias, 
king of Bithynia, who had attacked Per- 
gamus, from his dominions, and took part 
with Mummius in the conquest of Achaia. 
In accordance with the policy of his family, 
he cultivated the close alliance of the 
Romans, whose respect and confidence he 
enjoyed to the last. The last nine years of 
his life were spent in the peaceful occupa- 
tion of building cities, and in the patronage 
of the arts. Even the government of the 
kingdom seemed to have been wholly in- 
trusted to his minister, for we find the 
Romans jestingly enquiring of persons re- 
turning from Asia, if Attalus were still in 
favour with Philopasmen. He died at the 
age of eighty-two, after a reign of twenty- 
one years, having been poisoned by At- 
talus, son of his brother Eumenes II. 
— III. The third of the name, surnamed 
Philometor, for his affection for his mother, 
succeeded to the kingdom of Pergamus, 
by the murder of Attalus II., as above 
mentioned. He made himself odious by 
his cruelty and wanton exercise of power ; 
but was afterwards seized with such re- 
morse, that he shut himself up in his palace, 
assumed the habiliments of sorrow, and 
finally devoted himself entirely to garden- 
ing, botany, and medicine, in which he at- 
tained great eminence. He died after a 
reign of five years, from a stroke of the sun, 
received while he was superintending the 
erection of a tomb in honour of his mother. 
His will contained the words, " P. R. bo- 
norum meorum haeres esto," which the 
Romans interpreted as conveying to them- 
selves his entire kingdom, of which they 
accordingly took possession b. c. 133, and 
made it a province of their empire. From 
this circumstance, whatever was a valuable 
acquisition was called Attalicus. 

Atthis, daughter of Cranaus, king of 
Athens, said to have given her name to 
Attica. 

Attica, the most celebrated country of 
ancient Greece, forming a kind of trian- 
gular peninsula, was bounded on the north 
by Bceotia and the Euripus ; west by Me- 
garis ; south by the Sinus Saronicus ; and 
east by part of the JEgaean sea. It extended 
from north-west to south-east about eighty 
miles, with decreasing breadth, but at an 
average of forty miles. The situation of 
Attica singularly fitted it for a commercial 
country. The base or northern side of 



the irregular triangle which it forms is 
applied to the continent of Greece ; with 
its eastern face it looks towards Asia ; 
from its apex on the south it contemplates 
Egypt ; and on the west it looks towards 
the Peloponnesus, and Sicily and Italy 
lying beyond. And while, on the one 
hand, this singular union of advantages 
distinguished Attica from all the other 
states hoth of the Grecian peninsula and 
continent, on the other, the unfruitfulness 
of its soil protected her against foreign 
invaders. Hence Attica, secure in her 
sterility, boasted that her land had never 
been inundated by foreign emigration, and 
her inhabitants, in token of their ancient 
descent, called themselves sons of the soil 
on which they dwelt, and pretended that 
they originated contemporaneously with 
the sun. (See Autochthones. ) The oldest 
political division of Attica known to tra- 
dition was that by Cecrops into twelve 
parts, several of which retained their names 
after the country emerged into authentic 
history ; but this arrangement was changed 
repeatedly, and the best known and most 
intelligible divisions were those of Ion 
into four trihes, and at a later period, 
that of Cleisthenes into ten, the names 
of which were Hippothoontis, Antio- 
chis, Cecropis, Erechtheis, Pandionis, 
Leontis, iEgeis, Acomantis, CEneis, and 
iEantis. These tribes were again subdi- 
vided into 174 demi or townships, each of 
which contained a town or small village. 
At a later period the Macedonians added 
two additional trihes, called Antigonis and 
Demetrius, which were afterwards changed 
into Ptolemais and Attalis ; and one was 
subsequently added in honour of Adrian. 
The total population of Attica, e. c. 317, 
may be taken at 527,660. 

Attic us, I., Titus Pomponius, descended 
from an ancient equestrian family, was 
born b. c. 109. His early years were 
spent under the direction of his father, who 
early imbued him with the taste for lite- 
rature, by which he was so eminently dis- 
tinguished. When he attained maturity, 
the republic being disturbed by the fac- 
tions of Cinna and Sylla, he removed to 
Athens, where he devoted himself to 
science, and acquired so thorough a know- 
ledge of Greek, that he could not be dis- 
tinguished from a native Athenian, and 
hence surnamed Atticus. When the po- 
litical horizon of Rome had assumed a 
brighter aspect, he returned to his native 
city, where he inherited from his uncle 
ten millions of sesterces, which he shared 
with his sister, who married the brother 
of Cicero. He lived in the greatest inti- 



ATT 



ATY 



103 



macy with Cicero, Ceesar, Brutus, Marius, 
Sylla, Antony, and Augustus, and all the 
illustrious men of his age ; and, from never 
mixing in politics, he passed undisturbed 
through all the successive factions which 
reigned in Rome. But few details of the 
private life of Atticus are recorded. He 
married at an advanced age a lady named 
Pelia, of whom scarcely anything is known ; 
but his daughter Pomponia, whom Cicero 
also calls Attica and Cascilia, became the 
wife of M. Vipsanius Agrippa; and his 
grand-daughter by this marriage, Vipsania 
Agrippina, was married to Tib. Claudius 
Nero, and became the mother of Drusus. 
At the age of seventy-seven, Atticus was 
seized with an incurable disorder in the 
intestines, upon which he ordered his son- 
in-law Agrippa, and other friends, to be 
sent for ; declared to them his intention 
of terminating his life by abstaining from 
food, and in spite of their affectionate in- 
treaties, he persisted in this resolution, 
and the fifth day closed his existence, b. c. 
33. Cicero's letters to Atticus form one 
of the most valuable records of that period. 
—II. Herodes. See Herodes. 

Attila, surnamed the " Scourge of 
God," was son of Mandras, a Hun of royal 
descent, and succeeded his uncle Rugilas 

a. d. 434, sharing the supreme authority 
with his brother Bleda, whom he after- 
wards caused to be assassinated. This 
remarkable man, of whose life, as it cannot 
be said to belong to the classical period, we 
shall not attempt to give even an outline, 
originally settled in Scythia and Hungary; 
but he afterwards threatened the Eastern 
empire, and twice compelled the weak 
Theodosius II. to purchase a peace. His 
power was feared by all the nations of 
Europe and Asia, and the Huns them- 
selves esteemed him their bravest warrior 
and most skilful general. After carrying 
his victorious arms throughout Europe, 
he died, by the bursting of a blood-vessel, 
on the night of his marriage with a beau- 
tiful maiden named Ildegund, a. i>. 453. 

Attilitts, I., one of the first three mili- 
tary tribunes with consular power, chosen 
by the people, b. c. 444, in place of the 
regular consuls. — II. A Roman consul in 
the first Punic war. (See Regulus.) — III. 
Calatinus, consul e. c. 258, in which year 
he captured Mylistratus in Sicily. Two 
years afterwards, being elected consul a 
second time, he took Panormus and many 
other cities ; and was appointed dictator 

b. c. 249. — III. Marcus, a poet who 
translated into Latin the Electro, of Sopho- 
cles, and whose unintelligible language 
procured him the appellation of Ferreus. 



— IV. A Roman freedman, who was ba- 
nished from Fidenae for having exhibited 
games in an amphitheatre so badly con- 
structed, that it broke down and killed 
and wounded about 50,000 persons, a. d. 
27. 

Attius, I., or Accius, as he is some- 
times, but improperly, called, a Roman 
tragic writer, born b. c. 170, was held 
in high estimation for the force and elo- 
quence of his productions. Unlike his 
successors, who generally had recourse to 
Greek originals, the titles of three of his 
tragedies, the Brutus, Decius, and Mar- 
cellus, prove that he selected the subject of 
his plays from the history of his own 
country. He died about b. c. 103. — II. 
Tullus, general of the Volsci, to whom 
Coriolanus fled, when banished from Rome. 
See Coriolanus. 

Attus Navius, a Roman augur, of 
whom a marvellous story is related. Tar- 
quinius Priscus, after his victory in the 
Sabine war, wishing to double the num- 
ber of the equestrian centuries, was op- 
posed by Attus Navius, who represented 
that Romulus had acted under the gut- 
dance of the auspices in regulating the 
centuries, and that nothing but the consent 
of the auspices could warrant a change 
in the distribution of the knights. Tar- 
quinius, to shame the augurs, commanded 
him to divine whether what he was at 
that moment thinking of were possible or 
impossible. When Attus had declared 
that the object of the king's thoughts 
could be effected, Tarquinius held out to 
him a whetstone, and a razor to split it 
with, when the augur did so without de- 
lay. The whetstone and razor were pre- 
served in the Comitium under an altar ; and 
beside them was placed the statue of Attus. 

Atyad^e, the descendants of Atys, an 
ancient king of Lydia. 

Atys, I., an ancient king of Lydia, sup- 
posed by Herodotus to be the son of 
Manes. — II. Son of Croesus, king of 
Lydia, who, having dreamed that he was 
to be killed by the point of a spear, care^ 
fully kept him at home to avoid every 
danger. Atys, however, having prevailed 
on his father to permit him on one occa- 
sion to hunt a wild boar, he was accident- 
ally killed in the attempt by Adrastus, 
who had been appointed his guardian. — 

III, A Trojan, who came to Italy with 
iEneas, and was supposed to be the pro- 
genitor of the family of Attii at Rome. — 

IV, A beautiful shepherd of Phrygia, be- 
loved by Cybele, and intrusted with the 
care of her temple. Having broken the 
vow which he had made to the goddess of 

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104 



AUF 



AUG 



perpetual celibacy, she is said to have 
rendered him insane, or, according to 
others, to have metamorphosed him into a 
pine. Diodorus makes Atys to have been 
put to death by Ma?on, the mortal father 
of Cybele, who had discovered their inti- 
macy ; while another, and a wilder legend, 
of Lydian origin, is narrated by Pausanias, 
7. 17. 

Aufidena, Alfidena, a city of Samnium, 
capital of the Caraceni, on the Sagrus. 

Aufidia lex, a law of the tribune Au- 
fidius Lurco, a.u.c. 692, ordaining, that if 
a candidate, in canvassing for an office, 
promised money to a tribe, and failed in 
the performance, he should be excused ; 
but, if he actually paid it, he should pay 
every tribe a yearly fine of 3000 sesterces. 

Aufidius, I., Bassus, a historian in the 
age of Augustus, who wrote a history of 
the Roman civil wars, and of the war in 
Germany. The latter was continued by 
the elder Pliny. — II. Caesius Bassus, a 
Greek poet, to whom Persius addressed 
his sixth satire. He perished in the same 
eruption of Mt. Vesuvius that proved fatal 
to Pliny. — III. Saleius Bassus, a poet of j 
the age of Vespasian, highly praised by 
Quintilian. — IV. Luscus, a praetor of 
Fundi, ridiculed by Horace. 

Aufidus, a river of Apulia, Ofanto, 
remarkable for the rapidity of its course. 
On its banks the battle of Canna? was 
fought. 

Auga, and Auge, and Augea, daughter 
of Aleus, king of Tegea, by Neasra, and 
mother of Telephus by Hercules. Aleus 
exposed the infant, and commissioned j 
Nauplius to put Auga to death ; but, in- 
stead of fulfilling his promise, he gave her j 
to Teuthras, king of Mysia, who adopted | 
her as his daughter. Some time after, the 
dominions of Teuthras were invaded by 
an enemy, and the king promised his crown 
and adopted daughter to him who could 
deliver him from the calamity. Telephus, 
who, having been saved by some shep- 
herds, had meanwhile grown up, being di- 
rected by the oracle to go to the court of j 
Teuthras, if he wished to find his parents, | 
offered his services to deliver Teuthras 
from his enemy, which were accepted. 
Telephus was crowned with success ; but 
on his demanding the hand of Auga in 
consequence of his victory, she threatened 
to murder him if he approached her ; 
and while he was still persisting in ob- 
taining his rights, the gods sent a ser- 
pent to separate them, and Telephus 
then recognised his mother. Euripides 
has made this legend the subject of a 
tragedy. Various other versions are given 



of the story of Auga ; among others it is said 
that Aleus, on discovering his daughter's 
dishonour, put her and her son into a chest, 
and ordered them to be thrown into the 
Cayster ; but the chest, being wafted to the 
mouth of the river, was taken up by Teu- 
thras, who, falling in love with Auga, 
married her, and left his kingdom to her 
son. 

A uge/e, I., a town of Laconia, supposed 
to be the same with iEgiae, and situated 
north-west of Gythium. — II. a town of 
the Epicnemidian Locri, 

AugIas and Augeas, son of Neptune or 
of the Sun, one of the Argonauts, and 
afterwards king, the cleansing of whose 
stables, in which numerous herds of cattle 
had stood for time immemorial, constituted 
one of the labours of Hercules. The hero 
had engaged to perform this task, on con- 
dition of receiving a tenth of the herds ; 
but when he had accomplished it, by 
changing the course of the Alpheus or the 
Peneus, Augeas refused the promised re- 
compense, and ordered him to quit Elis, 
along with his own son, Phyleus, who had 
supported the claims of Hercules. After 
the termination of all his labours, Hercules 
returned to Elis, slew Augeas, and placed 
his son Phyleus on the throne. Some 
maintain that Hercules spared the life of 
Augeas for the sake of his son ; that Phy- 
leus went to settle in Dulichium ; and at 
the death of Augias, his other son, Agas- 
thenes, succeeded to the throne. 

Augujlla, Angela, one of the oases of 
the great African desert, with a town of 
the same name. It was one of the stations 
for the caravans which carried on the in- 
land trade of Africa. 

Augures, a class of sacerdotal officers 
among the Romans, whose duty it was to 
observe and interpret omens, and perform 
other analogous acts of religion. The 
term augur has been often, though erro- 
neously, derived from avis, a bird, on the 
supposition that omens were originally 
deduced from the inspection of birds ; but 
it is more probable that the word is de- 
rived from the Gr. auyij, light; which 
would make the meaning of augur equi- 
valent to the English seer. The duties of 
the Roman augurs may be arranged under 
four heads : 1 . the inspecting and observ- 
ing of omens ; 2. the declaring of the will 
of heaven as ascertained by these omens ; 
3. the inaugurating of magistrates, and the 
consecrating of buildings ; 4, the deter- 
mining in what way the omens were to be 
taken, and whether or not they permitted 
any business to be transacted. The augur 
made his observations on the heavens 



AUG 



105 



usually at night; he took his station on an [ 
elevated place, where the view was open 
on all sides ; and having first offered up 
sacrifices, he sat down, with his face turned 
to the east. He then determined with his 
lituus the regions of the heavens from east 
to west, and marked in his mind some 
object that lay before him, at a distance 
within which boundaries he should make 
his observations. There were generally 
five things from which the augurs drew 
omens : 1. the phenomena of the heavens ; 
2. the chirping or flying of birds ; 3. the 
sacred chickens, whose eagerness or in- 
difference in eating food was looked on as 
lucky or unlucky ; 4. quadrupeds, from 
their crossing or appearing in some unac- 
customed place ; 5. different casualties, 
called DircB, such as spilling salt on a 
table, or wine on one's clothes^ hearing 
strange noises, &c. Among the Romans 
the sight of birds on the left hand was 
deemed a lucky object ; while among the 
Greeks, objects on the left were evil omens, 
because their augur faced the north, and 
had the east, the lucky quarter, on his 
right. Sinister and Icbvus, therefore, signify 
lucky among the Romans ; and when they 
are used as terms of ill luck, it is in con- 
formity with Gr. usage. But the whole 
art of augury was involved in uncertainty, 
and was in effect a mere system of de- 
ception for restraining the multitude and 
increasing the influence of the aristocracy. 
The origin of the augurs is lost in the 
early history of Rome. It is, however, 
supposed that the Romans derived their 
knowledge of augurs from the Tuscans, 
who were celebrated for their skill in this 
and other religious ceremonies. Romulus 
is said to have instituted a college of three 
augurs, one for each tribe, and a fourth 
was added by Servius Tullius. They were 
all of patrician origin until a. u. c. 454, 
when five plebeians were added. Sylla 
increased their number to fifteen ; and on 
Augustus was conferred the high privilege 
of electing as many as he pleased, so that, 
from his time down to the fall of the em- 
pire, the number was unlimited. The 
chief of the augurs was called Magister 
Collegii. They all enjoyed distinguished 
privileges. Even if capitally convicted, 
they could not be deprived of their office ; 
and such was the extent of their authority, 
that the most urgent business was deferred, 
and sometimes even laws were repealed, by 
the mere interposition of their veto. They 
were finally abolished by Theodosius ; but 
so deeply was the superstition rooted, that 
a Christian bishop in the fourteenth cen- 
tury found it necessary to issue an edict 



! against it. There was scarcely any differ- 
ence between the Augures and Auspices. 

Augusta, a name given singly, or in 
conjunction with some epithet, to nu- 
merous cities, either founded, embellished, 
or protected by Augustus Caesar, and his 
successors on the imperial throne. It was.; 
also the title given to his widow Livia by ' 
the will of the emperor ; and at a subse- 
quent period, it became a common title of 
the sister, mother, wife, or daughter of 
an emperor. 

Augustalia, a quinquennial festival, 
instituted in honour of Augustus, after 
the battle of Actium, and celebrated at 
Rome, and throughout the Roman empire. 
There were also other annual and biennial 
festivals called Augustalia celebrated in 
honour of the birthday of the emperor. 

Augustinus, one of the most renowned 
fathers of the Christian Church, born at 
Tagaste, in Africa, a. d. 354, during the 
reign of Constantine. His early youth 
and manhood were passed in the pursuit 
of pleasure, from which, however, he was 
ultimately weaned by the perusal of Ci- 
cero's Hortensius, and he soon afterwards 
joined the sect of the Manichaeans, and 
became an ardent defender of their opi- 
nions. Leaving Tagaste, he proceeded 
successively to Carthage, Rome, and Milan, 
where he taught eloquence with great 
success. At Rome he had left the Mani- 
chaeans, and become a member of the 
Academy ; but the preaching of St. Am- 
"brose at Milan effected his entire conversion 
to Christianity, and he was baptised in the 
thirty-third year of his age. He then 
proceeded to Africa, where he was or- 
dained, and a council of bishops being held 
at Hippo, a. d. 395, he was unanimously 
elected one of their number, and two years 
afterwards appointed bishop of Hippo. 
Meanwhile, the Vandals having overrun 
Africa, and threatened Namo with a siege, 
Augustine was advised to flee ; but he 
strenuously refused, and seeing the evils 
to which his people would be exposed in 
the event of the enemy's success, he prayed 
that he might not survive such a calamity. 
It would appear that his prayer was grant- 
ed, for he died of fever in the third month 
of the siege, in the seventy-second year of 
his age. Augustine is one of the most 
voluminous of the Christian writers. His 
works, in the Benedictine edition of Ant- 
werp, 1700-3, fill twelve folio volumes. 

Augustulus, the last Roman emperor 
of the West, son of Orestes, a patrician and 
commander of the Roman forces in Gaul, 
by whom he was crowned, a. d. 475. On 
the following year he was dethroned by 
F 5 



106 



AUG 



AUG 



Odoacer, king of the Heruli, who put J 
Orestes to death, but contented himself 
with banishing Augustulus to Campania, 
where he allowed him a handsome revenue 
for his support. The name of this emperor 
was Romulus Augustus, but he is only 
known to history by the epithet of Au- 
gustulus, indicating the contempt in which 
he was held by his contemporaries. 

Augustus, a title of honour conferred 
on Octavius Caesar, first emperor of Rome, 
to whom, indeed, it is limited by history, 
but which was assumed by all his succes- 
sors on the imperial throne. 

Augustus, Caius Octavius Caesar, first 
emperor of Rome, was the son of Octa- 
vius, a senator, and Accia, daughter of 
Accius Balbus and Julia, sister of Julius 
Caesar. He lost his father while quite a 
boy, and his mother soon afterwards mar- 
ried L. Marcus Philippus, consul b. c. 56., 
by whom he was brought up until his six- 
teenth year, when his grand-uncle, Julius 
Caesar, adopted him, and bestowed upon 
him some military rewards at the celebra- 
tion of his African victories. In the fol- 
lowing year, he accompanied his grand- 
uncle into Spain, when he displayed great 
talents and activity ; and in the winter of 
the same year he proceeded to Apollonia 
in Epirus to complete his studies, and 
where he had hardly remained six months, 
when he was apprised of Caesar's assassi- 
nation. Though only eighteen at this pe- 
riod, he hastened to Rome, assumed the 
name and inheritance of his grand-uncle, 
and so manoeuvred with all parties in 
the state as to baffle the utmost skill of 
the historian to discover his real sen- 
timents. Meanwhile, at Rome two par- 
ties divided the state ; that of the repub- 
licans who had made away with Caesar, 
and that of Antony and Lepidus, who 
pretended to avenge the dictator's death, 
but whose sole object was their own ele- 
vation. On the arrival of the young Oc- 
tavius in Rome, the latter was in the 
ascendant ; and Antony having received 
him with great coolness, Octavius resolved 
to do himself justice by the most atrocious 
measures, and suborned ruffians to assas- 
sinate Antony in his own house. But 
the attempt was discovered in time, and 
Antony, trembling at the insecurity of his 
position, encreased his military guards, and 
having tried to gain over the whole army 
to his side, but unsuccessfully, he resolved 
to hazard all in the open field. Cisalpine 
Gaul became the theatre of the war. 
Antony was defeated, and the two consuls, 
Hirtius and Pansa, having fallen, almost all 
the veteran legions became subject to 



Augustus, who marched to Rome at the 
head of his forces, and was elected consul, 
by open intimidation of the senate and 
people. Antony and Lepidus, meanwhile, 
having collected their forces, had recrossed 
the Alps ; but Octavius, perceiving that 
nothing beneficial was likely to result from 
a continuance of hostilities, artfully made 
overtures of peace to the two hostile gene- 
rals, which soon resulted in the establish- 
ment of the second triumvirate. They di- 
vided among themselves the provinces of the 
empire, and their power was cemented by 
the most dreadful scenes of proscription and 
murder, during which Cicero fell a victim 
to the vengeance of Antony. By the 
divisions made among the triumvirs, Au- 
gustus retained the more important pro- 
vinces of the West, and banished, as it were, 
his colleagues, Lepidus and Antony, to 
more distant territories. As long as the 
murderers of Caesar were alive, the reign- 
ing tyrants had reasons for apprehension, 
and therefore the forces of the triumvirate 
were directed against the partisans of 
Brutus and the senate. The battle was 
decided at Philippi, where the valour and 
conduct of Antony alone preserved the 
combined armies, and effected the defeat 
of the republican forces. On his return 
to Italy, Octavius rewarded his soldiers 
with the lands of the proscribed ; a mea- 
sure which resulted in the most violent 
disturbances. The triumvirs did not 
long preserve concord among themselves. 
Octavius on a slight pretext deprived Le- 
pidus of his share in the triumvirate ; and 
the jealousies and resentment of Fulvia 
led to an estrangement between his two 
remaining colleagues which had nearly 
ended in a complete rupture. Her death, 
however, retarded hostilities ; the two 
rivals were reconciled, and their united 
forces were successfully directed against 
the younger Pompey. To strengthen 
their friendship, Antony agreed to marry 
Octavia, sister of Octavius; but as this 
step was political, and not dictated by af- 
fection, Antony soon became enslaved by 
a criminal passion for Cleopatra, and di- 
vorced Octavia. Availing himself of the 
unpopularity of his colleague, and eager 
to avenge his own personal wrongs, Octa- 
vius led a considerable naval and military 
force into Epirus, and the battle of Actium, 
b. c. 31, while it proved fatal to the hopes 
of Antony, rendered his rival undisputed 
master of the Roman world. The con- 
queror soon after passed into Egypt, be- 
sieged Alexandria, and honoured with a 
| magnificent funeral the unfortunate Roman 
and the celebrated queen, whom the fear 



AUG 



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107 



of being led in the victor's triumph at 
Rome had driven to commit suicide. After 
having spent two years in the East, arrang- 
ing the affairs of Egypt, Syria, Asia 
Minor, and Greece, he celebrated, on 
his return to Rome, a triumph for three 
successive days. Having restored peace 
and order to the state, he made the best 
regulations for promoting its prosperity. 
That he might not be regarded as an un- 
limited monarch, he abolished the laws of 
the triumvirate, beautified the city, and 
exerted himself in correcting the abuses 
which had prevailed during the civil wars. 
To crown the whole, at the end of his 
seventh consulship, he declared his resolu- 
tion to lay down his power ; but the senate, 
as might have been expected, urged him 
to retain it, and he consented. He now 
obtained the surname of Augustus, which 
marked the dignity of his person and 
rank ; and by degrees he united in himself 
the offices of imperator, or commander- 
in-chief by sea and land, with power to 
make war and peace, of proconsul over all 
the provinces, of perpetual tribune of the 
people, which rendered his person inviol- 
able, and, in fine, of censor and pontifex 
maximus, or controller of all things ap- 
pertaining to public morals and religion. 
Thus, though the ancient forms were 
artfully preserved, all powers centred 
in Augustus ; and by these means his 
was so firmly established, that the Ro- 
mans never afterwards recovered their 
liberty. Though more solicitous to esta- 
blish his authority at home than to extend 
his conquests abroad, many wars were 
carried on during the reign of Augustus. 
Cantabria, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, 
Rhaatia and Vindelicia were completely 
subdued ; the Parthians restored the stan- 
dards they had taken from the Romans 
under Crassus ; monuments of his con- 
quests over the mountaineers were erected 
at the foot of the Alps ; and peace being 
established throughout the empire, the tem- 
ple of Janus was closed for the third time 
since the foundation of Rome, b. c. 10. 
During his reign, the limits of the empire 
extended on the north to the Danube and 
the Rhine, on the west to the Ocean, on 
the south to Mount Atlas and the deserts 
of Africa and Arabia, and on the east to 
the Euphrates. From this state of power 
and tranquillity, Augustus was first roused 
by the defeat of Varus, and the destruction 
of his three legions by the Germans, a. d. 9 ; 
and the intelligence of this misfortune 
affected him so deeply, that he let his hair 
and beard grow, and often exclaimed, in 
the deepest sorrow, " Varus, Varus, give 



me back my legions." But the Germans 
were at last driven beyond the Elbe, and 
two of their tribes transplanted into Gaul. 
Augustus was not happy in his domestic 
relations. Though several times married, 
he had only one daughter, Julia, the off- 
spring of his first marriage, whose conduct 
gave him the greatest pain. His sister's 
son Marcellus, to whom he was affection- 
ately attached, and his daughter's sons, 
Caius and Lucius, whom he had appointed 
his successors, and Drusus his step-son, all 
died early. These numerous calamities, 
together with his constantly increasing in- 
firmities, giving him a strong desire for 
repose from the cares of state, he under- 
took a journey to Campania ; but disease 
fixed upon him, and he died at Nola, 
August 19, a. d. 14, in the seventy-sixth 
year of his age and forty-fifth of his reign, 
leaving his step-son Tiberius his successor 
on the imperial throne. The great en- 
couragement which Augustus gave to lite- 
rature, and the galaxy of genius which his 
patronage fostered, at least, if it did not 
call it into existence, has procured for his 
reign the distinguished epithet of the 
Augustan age. 

Aulerci. Under this name are rec- 
koned three nations of Gaul : — I. The 
Aulerci Brannovices, contiguous to the 
iEdui, to whom they were subject, and 
corresponding to the modern Briennois. — 
II. The Aulerci Cenomani, between the 
Sarta, Sarthe, and the Loedus, two northern 
branches of the Liger, now the department 
de la Sarthe.— III. The Aulerci Eburo- 
vices, on the left bank of the Sequana, 
Seine, below Lutetia, Paris, answering 
to the department de VEure. 

Auletes, Gr. " flute-player," the sur- 
name given to the father of Cleopatra, for 
his skill in playing on the flute. 

All lis, a town of Boeotia, on the shores 
of the Euripus, nearly opposite Chalcis, 
celebrated as being the rendezvous of the 
Grecian fleet when about to sail for Troy, 
and the place where they were so long 
detained by adverse winds. (See Iphi- 
genia.) Aulis was sacred to Diana. 

Auxon, I., a fertile ridge and valley near 
Tarentum, in southern Italy, the wine of 
which equalled the Falernian. — II. A dis- 
trict and city of Messenia, bordering on 
Triphylia and part of Arcadia, from which 
it was separated by the Neda. 

Aulus, I., a praenomen common among 
the Romans. — II. Gellius. See Gellius. 

Aurelianus, I., emperor of Rome, was 
the son of a peasant of Sirmium in Illyria. 
At an early age he enlisted as a common 
soldier ; but his fine manly appearance, 



108 



AUR 



AUT 



good conduct, bravery, and intelligence 
procured him rapid advancement ; and 
during the reigns of Valerian and Clau- 
dius II. he rose to the highest military 
and civil offices. On the death of the 
latter, being proclaimed emperor by the 
troops, he put an end to the Gothic war ; 
chastised the Germans who had invaded 
Italy ; recovered Gaul, Spain, and Britain 
out of the hands of Tetricus, and destroyed 
the monarchy which Zenobia and her coun- 
sellors, among others the celebrated Lon- 
ginus, had erected in the East, on the ruins 
of the afflicted empire. ( See Zenobia ; 
Longinus. ) On his triumphant return to 
Rome, he proceeded to reform abuses in 
the state ; but the general severity of his 
measures tarnished his good intentions, 
and ultimately led to his assassination by 
conspiracy, a. d. 275, after a reign of four 
years and nine months. — II. Cselius, a 
physician, born at Sicca in Numidia, be- 
tween a. d. 180 and 240. Nothing is 
known of the particulars of his life : but 
two of his works have reached our times. 
He belonged to the sect called Methodici. 

Aurelius, I., Marcus, a Roman empe- 
ror. See Antoninus. 1 1. — II. Victor, a 
Roman historian. See Victor. 

Aurinia, a prophetess held in great 
veneration by the Germans. 

Aurora, the goddess of the dawn, and 
daughter of Hyperion and Thia or Thea, 
though other genealogies represent her as 
having sprung from Titan and Terra, or 
from Pallas, son of Crius, whence she is 
sometimes called Pallantias. She married 
Astrasus, by whom she became the mother 
of some of the winds and the stars ; but 
she was more than once smitten with love 
for mortals, of whom Orion, Clitus, Ce- 
phalus, and above all Tithonus, son of 
Laomedon, king of Troy, are the most 
celebrated. (See these terms.) Aurora is 
equivalent to the Eos of the Greeks. She 
is represented in a rose-coloured chariot 
drawn by winged horses, opening with 
her rosy fingers the gates of the East, 
pouring the dew on the earth, and making 
the flowers grow. 

. Aurunci, a people of Latium, south- 
east of the Volsci, supposed to be identical 
with the Ausones, the Italian form ot 
whose name was Aurini, afterwards changed 
into Aurunci. 

Auschis^e, a people of Libya, extending 
from above Barca to the neighbourhood 
of the Hesperides. 

, Ausci, a people of Gallia Aquitania, 
with , a capital of the same name, now 
Ausch on the Ger, a branch of the Ga- 
rumna, 



Auson, son of Ulysses and Calypso, 
from whom the Ausones, a people of Italy, 
were fabled to be descended. 

Ausonia, a name originally confined to 
the district round Cales and Beneventum 
in Italy, but in later times applied as 
widely as that of Italia. According to 
Niebuhr, the Ausones were a portion of 
the great Oscan nation, identical with the 
Aurunci. 

Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, a Roman 
poet of the fourth cent., born at Burdi- 
gala, Bourdeaux, where his father was an 
eminent physician, and Roman senator. 
His success as a grammarian recommended 
him to the emperor Valentinian as a fit 
person to undertake the education of his 
son ; and in the course of time he was 
raised successively to be a count of the 
empire, qua?stor, governor of Gaul, Libya, 
Latium, and, a. d. 379, first consul. The 
period of his death is not known. The 
best edition of his works is that of Tollius, 
Amst. 1671, 8vo. 

Auspices. See Augures. 

Auster, the south-wind, equivalent to 
the Notos of the Greeks. Its influence 
was so pernicious, both to plants and man, 
that it has been identified with the Sirocco. 

Autochthones, (ourbs x®^ v r) an appel- 
lation assumed by some nations of an- 
tiquity, importing that they sprang from 
the soil they inhabited. The Athenians, 
whose territory had been held by the same 
race from time immemorial, particularly 
laid claim to this title, in memorial of 
which they wound the emblematic grass- 
hopper in their hair. 

Autololje, a people of Mauritania de- 
scended from the Gaetuli. 

Autolycus, son of Mercury and Philo- 
nis, or, according to others, of Daedalion, 
and remarkable for his craft and dexterity 
as a thief. Living on Parnassus, he stole 
the flocks of his neighbours, and, skilfully 
effacing their marks, mingled them with 
his own. Among others he drove off the 
cattle of Sisyphus, son of iEolus, and 
effaced their marks as usual ; but Sisy- 
phus, coming in quest of his lost property, 
to the great astonishment of Autolycus, se- 
lected his own cattle from among the herd, 
having marked them under the feet with 
his own initial. Autolycus, pleased with 
the artifice, admitted Sisyphus to his con- 
fidence, and allowed him so familiar an in- 
tercourse with his daughter, Antielea, that 
the results soon became apparent, which 
compelled him to conclude a hurried mar- 
riage between her and Laertes. See An- 
ticlea. 

Autojijsdon, son of Dioreus, who went 



AUT 



AZO 



109 



to' the Trojan war with ten ships. He [ 
was the eharioteer of Achilles, and, after j 
his death, acted to Pyrrhus in the same 
capacity. 

Autoxoe, daughter of Cadmus, ar.d 
wife of Aristeeus, by whom she became the 
mother of Actaeon, often called Autoneius 
heros. The death of her son was so painful 
to her, that she retired from Boeotia to j 
Megara, where she died. 

AcTRiGOifEs, a people of Hispania Tar- | 
raconensis, among the Cantabri, occupying 
the eastern half of la Montana, the western 
part of Biscay and Alava, and the north- 
eastern portion of Burgos. 

Auxesia and Damia. two virgins who 
came from Crete to Trcezene, where the 
inhabitants stoned them to death in a se- 
dition. The Epidaurians raised statues to 
them by order of the oracle. They were 
held in great veneration at Trcezene. 

Avaricum, a fortified town of Gaul, 
capital of the Bituriges, Bourges. Caesar 
captured it during the Gallic wars, and 
put its inhabitants to the sword. 

Avatar a, a Sanscrit word, signifying 
literally a descent, but applied, in a more 
limited sense, to the incarnations of Hindoo 
divinities, or their appearance in some 
corporeal or manifest form upon earth. 
Of the three supreme deities of the Hindoo 
mythology, Bramah, Siva, and Vishnu, the 
last alone undergoes the changes of the 
Avatara ; but those of the minor deities 
are innumerable. 

Aveela. See Abella. 

Avextixcs, I., a son of Hercules by 
Rhea, who assisted Turnus against .Eneas. 
— II. King of Alba, buried on Mt. At en- 
tine. — III. The largest of the seven hills 
on which Rome was built, said to have 
derived its name, either from the birds 
(aves) that frequented it, from Aventinus, 
a king of Alba, who was buried there, or 
from the son of Hercules, so called. The 
period at which Mt. Aventine was in- 
cluded within the walls of Rome is differ- 
ently given: some authorities assigning it 
as early a date as Ancus Martius, others 
not till the reign of Claudius. Juno, the 
Moon, Diana, Bona Dea, . Hercules, and 
the goddess of Victory and Liberty, had 
temples on it. It was called Murcius, from 
Murcia, goddess of sleep, who had a temple 
here ; Collis Dianas, from the temple of 
Diana : Remonius, from Remus, who is 
said to have been buried here. 

A verses, or Aver>~a, a lake of Cam- 
pania, near Baias, celebrated in antiquity 
as the entrance to the infernal regions. 
It was surrounded on almost every side 
by steep hills, covered with immense fo- 



rests. Their waters were so unwholesome, 
that birds, on attempting to fly over them, 
were destroyed by its poisonous exhala- 
tions; hence its name was said to be de- 
rived from a, pit v., and opvis, bird. The 
waters of the Avernus were indispensably 
necessary in all enchantments. It con- 
tinued to be the favourite haunt of super- 
stition till the time of Augustus, who 
violated its sanctity, and dispelled the 
darkness in which it had hitherto been 
shrouded, by cutting down the surround- 
ing wood, and connecting it with the Lu- 
crine Lake, then an arm of the sea. 
The modern name is Lago (TAverno. All 
lakes whose stagnated waters were offen- 
sive to the smell were called AvernL 

Aviaxcs or Aviexcs Flavius, I., a Latin 
versifier of JEsopie fables, supposed to 
have lived about 160 a. r>., though several 
commentators assign him a much later 
date. — II. Rufus Festus, a Roman poet, 
| whose age and country are both disputed. 
He is generally supposed to have flourished 
a. d. 370; and, according to the inscrip-" 
tion found in the Cesarean Villa, he wa.s 
j born at Vulsinia in Etruria, afterwards re- 
] sided at Rome ; was twice proconsul, and 
the author of many poetical pieces. — These 
\ two poets have been frequently identified. 
1 Axents, ancient name of the Euxine 
sea, signifying inhospitable. 

Axiox, brother of Alphesiboea. See 
j Alcm^ok and Alphesi3cea. 
j Axius, J'ardar, the largest river in Mace- 
donia, rising in the chain of Mt. Scardus, 
! and, after a course of eighty miles, during 
j which it receives the Erigonus, Ludias, 
and Astraeus, it forms a large kke near its 
mouth, and falls into the Sinus Thermaicus. 

Azax, I., a mountain of Arcadia, sacred 
to Cybele. — II. Son of Areas, king of 
I Arcadia, by Erato, one of the Dryades, 
He divided his father's kingdom with his 
brothers Aphidas and Elatus, and called 
his share Azania, — III. A part of the 
; coast of .Ethiopia, on the Mare Erythreeum, 
| new Ajan. 

Aziuis, a place in Libya, where Battus 
built a town, previously to founding Cy- 
rene. It is called Axylis by Ptolemy. 

Azotes, Ashedud, one of the five chief 
cities of the Philistines, and one of the most 
ancient of the country. It lay on the sea- 
coast, and. though it may be supposed that 
it fell temporarily into the hands of David, 
i it was not in the full possession of the 
Jews for 200 years afterwards. In the 
time of Hezekiah it was taken by the As- 
syrians, and subsequently by Psammeti- 
■ ehus, king of Egypt, after a siege of 
twenty-nine years. 



110 



BAB 



BAB 



B. 

Babrius, or Babrias, (sometimes cor- 
rupted into Gabrias,) a Greek poet, who 
lived about the time of Augustus ; but 
others make him to have been a contem- 
porary of Bion and Moschus. While in 
prison, he published a collection of fables, 
under the title of Mvdoi or Mvd'ia§oi, from 
which the fables of Phcedrus are closely 
imitated. Much labour has been expended, 
by numerous modern philologists, in ex- 
plaining and arranging such of the fables 
of Babrius as have come down to our 
time. 

Babylon, I., one of the largest and 
most celebrated cities of antiquity, situated 
on the Euphrates, was the capital of Chal- 
daea and the Assyrian empire. The city 
was built on both sides the Euphrates, the 
connection between its two divisions being 
kept up by means of a bridge formed of 
wooden planks laid on stone piers. The 
streets are described as having been paral- 
lel, and the houses from three to four 
stories in height. The city was surrounded 
by a deep and broad ditch, and by a wall 
of extraordinary dimensions, flanked with 
towers, and pierced by 100 gates of brass. 
The wall was built of bricks, formed from 
the earth taken out of the ditch, and ce- 
mented by a composition formed of heated 
bitumen and reeds; the former being 
brought from Is {Hit), on the Euphrates, 
about 128 m. above Babylon. The temple 
of Jupiter Belus (most probably the Tower 
of Babel) occupied a central position in 
one of the divisions of the city. Herodotus 
describes it as a square tower of the depth 
and height of one stadium, upon which, as 
a foundation, seven other towers rose in 
regular succession, the last tower having a 
large chapel, a magnificent couch, and a 
table of solid gold. The building was as- 
cended from without by means of a wind- 
ing-stair. The space in which it was built 
was enclosed within walls eight stadia in 
circumference, and consequently occupying 
above thirty-three acres. The gates to the 
temple, which were of brass, and of enor- 
mous magnitude, were seen by Herodotus. 
In the other division of the city stood the 
royal palace, which seems to have been a 
sort of internal fortification, and was, no 
doubt, of vast dimensions. This account 
of the city is borrowed from Herodotus, 
who was an eye-witness of what he de- 
scribed, but later accounts put Babylon in 
possession of some still more extraordinary 
monuments than those enumerated by 



Herodotus. Among these, the most cele- 
brated were the tunnel under the Euphrates, 
subterranean banqueting rooms of brass, 
and the famous hanging-gardens, (after- 
wards considered one of the wonders of the 
world,) containing nearly four acres of 
land, elevated 300 feet above the level of 
the city, and bearing timber trees that 
would have done no discredit to the Me- 
dian forests. .The magnitude assigned by 
ancient writers to this celebrated city stag- 
gers belief. At the very lowest computa- 
tion, the area of Babylon within the walls 
was 72 sq. m., or nearly 3| times that of 
London, with all its suburbs, while, if the 
highest computation be adopted, the area 
was ] 881 S q. m., or 9 times that of London. 
The population is estimated at consider- 
ably more than a million. The origin of 
Babylon is lost in the obscurity of early 
times. It is supposed to have been founded 
by Nimrod, but it is to Semiramis that 
the origin of its grandeur is to be ascribed. 
In her reign Babylon became a kind of 
second capital of Assyria, and continued to 
be so till, thirty generations later, the re- 
volt of Arbaces against Sardanapalus raised 
it to be the sole capital. Daily advancing 
in grandeur and prosperity, it at last reached 
its highest zenith under Nebuchadnezzar, 
who enriched it with the spoils of Egypt, 
Nineveh, and Jerusalem, and made it the 
centre of a mighty empire, which extended 
even to the Mediterranean. But in the 
midst of its glory, the voice of the Jewish 
prophet was raised against it. In the 
reign of Belshazzar, son of Nebuchadnezzar, 
Cyrus attacked the city, took it by strata- 
gem, and, establishing his court at Susa, 
reduced it to the rank of a provincial town, 
from which it never recovered. It was 
subsequently plundered by Darius and 
Xerxes. Alexander the Great purposed 
to restore it to its former .greatness, by 
making it the capital of his gigantic em- 
pire ; but his death hindered the execution 
of his scheme ; and the transference of the 
court to Seleucia, by Seleucus Nicator his 
successor, led to its being completely de- 
serted. At the commencement of the 
Christian era Babylon was in ruins. It is 
said to have been turned into an hunting 
park by the Parthian kings, who overthrew 
the Seleucidiac dynasty ; and it is probable 
that the materials of its vast buildings 
served to construct the newer cities in its 
neighbourhood. In the eleventh century, 
the modern village of Hilleh was founded 
on its site. Travellers and antiquaries 
busy themselves in modern times in trying 
to identify the once proud monuments of its 
grandeur, which have long been mouldering 

j 



BAB 



BAC 



111 



in ruin ; but Few distinct vestiges of its j 
existence remain ; so that the predictions i 
concerning it recorded in Scripture have 
literally been fulfilled. The bricks ob- 
tained from the ruins of Babylon are cele- 
brated for their inscriptions in the cunei- 
form character, in deciphering which much 
labour and ingenuity has been expended. 
— II. A city of iEgypt, north of Memphis, 
supposed to have been founded by the 
Persians in the reign of Cambyses. 

Babylonia, a large province of Upper 
Asia, of which Babylon was the capital. 
It was bounded on the north by Mesopo- 
tamia and Assyria, on the west by Arabia | 
Deserta, on the south by the Sinus Persi- : 
cus, and on the east by the Tigris. It 
comprised the provinces of Chaldasa and 
Amardacia, and, in its most flourishing 
period, part of Mesopotamia and Assyria, 
and was the most important satrapy of the 
Persian empire. It enjoys a delightful 
climate, and is one of the most fertile 
countries in the world. The modern name 
is Irak Arabi. 

Babtrsa, a fortified castle near Artaxata, 
in which were kept the treasures of Ti- 
granes and Artabanes. 

Bacchje. See Bacchantes. 

Bacchanalia, festivals in honour of 
Bacchus at Rome, the same as the Di- 
onysia of the Greeks. See Dionysia. 

Bacchantes, the persons who took part 
in the orgies celebrated at the festivals of 
Bacchus when they had attained a high 
degree of licentiousness. The female vo- 
taries of this god were called Bacchse, Me- 
nades, Thyades, Euades, and Mimallonides. 

Bacchics and Bithus, two gladiators of 
equal age and strength, who, after con- 
quering many competitors, engaged with 
each other, and died of mutual wounds. 

Bacchus, son of Jupiter and Semele, 
daughter of Cadmus. (See Semele.) The 
rash request of his mother having given him 
a premature birth, he was sewn up in his 
father's thigh ; and in the fulness of time, 
produced to light. He was then conveyed 
by Mercury to Ino, sister of Semele, and 
Athamas her husband, with instructions to 
rear him as a girl ; but Juno (who had 
been the malicious cause of Semele's mis- 
fortune) caused Athamas and Ino to go 
mad, and Jupiter changed Bacchus into 
a kid, under which form Mercury con- 
veyed him to the Nymphs of Nisa, by whom 
he was reared. When he grew up, he dis- 
covered the culture of the vine, but he was 
driven mad by Juno, and wandered over 
Asia. In Phrygia he was cured by Rhea, 
who instructed him in her mysteries, and 
gave him a large army, with which he 



I marched into Thrace ; but his progress 
I was stoppedby Lycurgus, who attacked and 
defeated his forces, and compelled Bacchus 
to take refuge with Thetis ; Bacchus, how- 
ever, inflicted on him a severe retaliation. 
( See Lycurgus.) He next came to Thebes, 
where he introduced the rites of Rhea, 
and compelled the women to hold Bac- 
chanalian revels on Citha?ron ; but Pen- 
theus, king of Thebes, set himself against 
them, and on coming to Cithanon, to watch 
the Baccha?, he was torn in pieces by his 
mother Agave. (See Agave.) Having 
thus manifested his divinity to the Thebans, 
he proceeded to Attica, where he taught 
the culture of the vine, and thence to Argos, 
where the introduction of his worship at 
first met with considerable obstacles, but 
was ultimately acceded to on the interven- 
tion of Jupiter. Desiring to be conveyed 
to Naxos, he hired a piratical trireme be- 
longing to the Tyrrhenians, who having 
taken him on board, bound him with cords, 
and resolved to make for Asia, to sell him 
for a slave. But the god turned the mast 
and the oars into serpents, and filled the ves- 
sel with ivy, while the mariners, becoming 
frantic, plunged into the sea through terror, 
and were changed into Dolphins. At Naxos, 
he found the beautiful Ariadne, whom he 
married, and after his celebrated expedi- 
tion to India, transformed into a constella- 
tion. His expedition to India has been a 
prolific theme for poets in every age. He 
marched at the head of an army, com- 
posed of men and women, all armed with 
thyrsi, clashing cymbals, and other musical 
instruments. His conquests were easy, and 
without bloodshed ; the people readily sub- 
mitted, and elevated to the rank of a god 
the hero who taught them the use of the 
vine, the cultivation of the earth, and the 
art of making honey. On his return from 
his Indian conquest, he descended into the 
realms of Hades, to seek his mother Semele, 
and calling her by the name Thyone, he 
ascended with her into heaven. Bacchus 
has been frequently identified with the 
Osiris of the Egyptians, the Schiva of 
the Hindoos, and the Sun of other eastern 
nations ; but it would be impossible for 
us to enter into an examination of this 
complicated question, or to explain the 
various interpretations which the mytho- 
logists of modern times have assigned to the 
legends above narrated. He has received 
the name of Evan, Bromius, Liber, 
Psilas, Thyona?us, &c, mostly derived from 
the places where he received adoration, or 
the ceremonies observed in his festivals. 
He is represented as an effeminate young 
man, crowned with vine and ivy leaves, 



112 



BAC 



BAL 



with a thyrsus in his hand. The panther 
and the magpie are sacred to him. The 
festivals of Bacchus, generally called Or- 
gies, Bacchanalia, or Dionysia, were intro- 
duced into Greece from Egypt by Danaus 
and his daughters. See Dionysia, 

Bacchylides, a Lyric poet of Ceos, 
nephew to Simonides. He flourished 
about b.c. 450, and shared with Pindar the 
favour of king Hiero, at the Syracusan 
court. A complete edition of his works 
appeared at Berlin, by C. F. Neue, in 
1822. 

Bacenis, a wood in Germany, supposed 
to be a part of the Hercynia Silva. It 
separated the territories of the Catti from 
those of the Cherusci, and appears to be 
the same with the Buchonia of later writers. 

Bactra, Balkh, called also Zariaspe and 
Zariaspa, the capital of Bactria, situated 
on the Bactrus, a tributary of the Oxus. 
See Bactria. 

Bactria and Bactriana, a country of 
Asia, now forming part of Afghaunistan and 
Caubul. Its proximity to northern India, 
and its possession of a large river, the Oxus, 
made it, at a remote period of antiquity, 
the centre of Asiatic commerce, and the 
great point of union for the natives of that 
vast continent. It would seem, in early 
times, to have been the seat of a powerful 
empire long prior to that of the Medes or 
Persians. The inhabitants, rude, uncul- 
tivated, and warlike, were conquered suc- 
cessively by the Assyrians, Medes, Per- 
sians, and Alexander ; but at a later period 
their country became remarkable for the 
Greek kingdom founded in it by Theo- 
dotus, L, when he revolted from Antiochus 
II., king of Syria, and which lasted 112 
years, from b. c. 254 to b. c. 142. See 
Parthia. 

Bactrus, a river of Bactria, running 
into the Oxus. On its banks was situated 
Bactra, capital of the country. 

Bacuntius, Bossirt, a river of Pannonia, 
in the vicinity of Sirmium, flowing into 
the Savus. 

Badia, a town of Hispania Baetica, sup- 
posed to be Badajoz. 

Badius, a Campanian, challenged T. Q. 
Crispinus, one of his friends, by whom he 
was killed. 

Baduhenn^e, Lucus, a grove in the 
country of the Frisii, West Friesland, 
where 900 Romans were killed. 

B^tica. See Hispania. 

B^etis, a river of Spain, from which a 
part of the country has received the name 
of Bcetica. It was more anciently called 
Tartessus, from the island of the same 
name at its mouth. The modern name is 



Guadalquivir, a corruption of the Arabic 
words signifying " the great River." 

Bagistanus, a town of Media, south- 
west of Ecbatana, sacred to Jupiter. 

Bagoas and Bagosas, an Egyptian eu- 
nuch of great influence in the court of 
Artaxerxes Ochus, and remarkable for his 
talents and bravery. He regained for Ar- 
taxerxes the Egyptian provinces which had 
revolted ; but the latter having offended 
his religious prejudices by his conduct to- 
wards the great Egyptian god Apis, lie 
caused him to be poisoned, and placed on 
the throne Arses, youngest of the slaugh- 
tered prince's children. But he afterwards 
put him to death also ; and was himself 
killed, b. c. 335, by Darius Codomanus, 
whom, after raising to the crown, he had 
attempted to poison. Most of the eunuchs 
of the monarchs of Persia were known by 
the appellation of Bagoas. 

Bagradas, Mejerda, a river of Africa, 
flowing between Utica and Carthage. 

Baim, Baia, a city of Campania, on a 
small bay west of Xeapolis, famous for its 
delightful situation and baths. It was 
said to have been founded by Baius, one 
of the companions of Ulysses, and was first 
called Aquas Cumanae. Numerous villas 
graced the surrounding country, and many 
were built on artificial moles extending a 
long way into the sea. It was the Bath t 
or rather Brighton, of the Romans, the most 
distinguished of whom, as Lucullus, Caesar, 
Pompey, and Augustus, had residences 
near it, and it continued to be a favourite 
resort of the emperors and of the affluent 
voluptuaries of Rome till the corruption 
of the barbarians under Theodoric. Owing 
to earthquakes and inundations of the sea, 
Baia? is now a mere waste, compared with 
its former state ; but many remains of an- 
cient villas may still be descried under the 
water. 

Balanea, Belnias, a town of Syria, north 
of Aradus. 

Balbinus, Decimus Ccexus, a Roman 
who, after governing provinces with credit 
and honour, assassinated the Gordians, and 
seized the purple ; but was murdered by 
his soldiers, a. n. 238. 

Baleares, a term applied anciently to 
the islands of Majorca and Minorca, off 
the coast of Spain, the one being called 
Balearis Major, and the other Balearis 
Minor, hence their names. The word is 
derived from fiaWeLV, " to throw," because 
the inhabitants were expert archers and 
slingers, besides great pirates. They were 
also called Gymnesia?, either from the in- 
habitants going naked (yv/u.vbs') in summer ; 
or from their using only a sling in battle, 



BAL 



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113 



yvfivrires being a Greek word for light- 
armed troops. . Ebusus, Ivica, was some- 
times included in the Baleares. Palma 
in Majorca still retains its ancient name, 
and Port Mahon in Minorca is only a 
slight variation from Portus Magonis, the 
name which it acquired from the Cartha- 
ginian general Mago. They were reduced 
by Metellus, hence surnamed Balearicus, 
a. u. c. 631 ; and they were thereafter 
considered as forming part of Hispania 
Tarraconensis. 

Balnea. Baths. Among the ancients, the 
public baths were of very considerable ex- 
tent, and consisted of a great number of 
apartments. They seem to have been bor- 
rowed in some respects from the Gym- 
nasia of the Greeks, both the one and the 
other being instituted with a view to the 
exercise and health of the people. The 
word thermcc, which the Romans applied to 
these edifices, signifies a place for the re- 
ception of hot baths ; but both hot and 
cold were generally comprised in the same 
building. In later times, the Romans 
used the bath before they supped. The 
rich usually had hot and cold baths in 
their own houses, and it was not till the 
time of Augustus that the baths as- 
sumed an air of grandeur and magnifi- 
cence. Different authors reckon nearly 
800 baths in Rome. The most celebrated 
were those of Agrippa, Antoninus, Cara- 
calla, Diocletian, Domitian, Nero, and 
Titus. Those of Diocletian are said to 
have been capable of accommodating 1 800 
bathers. The vestiges of these stupendous 
buildings indicate the amazing magnifi- 
cence of the age in which they were 
erected. Their pavements were mosaic ; 
the ceilings vaulted, and richly gilt and 
painted ; the walls encrusted with the 
rarest marbles. Many examples of ancient 
Greek sculpture have been restored to the 
world from these edifices. It was from 
the recesses of these buildings that Raphael 
took the hint for the decorations of the 
Vatican, and from these resources the first 
restorers of the art drew largely. 

Bantia, a town of Apulia, south-east 
of Venusia. The Roman general Mar- 
cellus fell in its vicinity, a victim to the 
stratagem of Hannibal. 

Bapt^e, priests of Cotytto, goddess of 
lasciviousness at Athens, notorious for the 
profligacy of their manners. The name 
is derived from their painting ({SaivTziv) 
their cheeks like women. 

Barbari, a name applied by the Greeks, 
and sometimes by the Romans, to all na- 
tions but their own. 

Barbaria or Azania, the name given 



in the Peripius of the Erythraan sea to 
part' of the coast of Africa, now Ajan. 

Barbakicus Sinus, a gulf on the coast 
of Africa, below the mouth of the Sinus 
Arabicus. 

Barc^e, or Barcit^e, a warlike nation 
of Africa. See Barca. 

Barce or Barca, Barca, I., a district 
of Africa, occupying the western part of 
the ancient Cyrenaica, and corresponding 
to the eastern division of the regency of 
Tripoli. The most exaggerated reports 
of its sterility have prevailed for ages ; 
but it is impossible to reconcile the idea 
of utter barrenness with the pastoral life 
said by Herodotus to have been led by 
the aborigines, or with the subsequent 
colonisation of the country by the Greeks. 
— II. The capital of the district above 
mentioned, erroneously confounded with 
Ptolemais by many writers. According 
to Herodotus, the city of Barca was 
founded by the brothers of Arcesilaus, 
fourth king of Cyrene ; but others men- 
tion that it was of Libyan origin, and that 
the Greeks only enlarged it by a colony. 
Be this as it may, it is certain that it rose 
into importance at a very early period. 
Its great rival was Cyrene. In conse- 
quence of Arcesilaus IV., king of Cyrene, 
having fallen at Bactra, the inhabitants 
were treated with great cruelty ; many of 
them were led into captivity, and afterwards 
settled by Darius in a district of Bactria, 
which they called by their native country. 
Barca followed the fate of the whole of 
this portion of Africa, having fallen in 
succession into the hands of Cambyses 
and Alexander. Under his successors it 
formed part of the Grteco- Egyptian king- 
dom ; but before the fall of the latter, it 
passed into the hands of Rome, from which 
she was again wrested by the irruption 
of the Vandals. During the long period 
that the Greeks and Romans ruled in Barca, 
civilisation, arts, and sciences, flourished ; 
the remains of temples, aqueducts, and 
other works sufficiently attest this fact ; 
but the refinement was entirely foreign, 
and vanished with the exotic population 
which introduced it. Barca was one of 
the five cities known by the name of Pen- 
tapolis. 

Barcha, the surname of a noble family 
at Carthage, from which Hannibal and 
Hamilcar were descended. Their great 
influence placed them at the head of a 
powerful party, celebrated in the annals of 
Carthage by the name of the Barcha fac- 
tion. 

Bardi, a celebrated poetico-sacerdotal 
order among the ancient Gauls, who sought 



114 



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BAT 



to rouse their countrymen to gallant deeds 
by their martial strains, and used to follow 
the camp. They were the priests as well 
as the poets of their tribes, and were re- 
garded with peculiar veneration. 

Barium, Bari, a town of Apulia, on 
the Adriatic, in the district of Peuceti, 
famous for its fisheries. 

Barsine and Barsene, daughter of 
Darius, and wife of Alexander, by whom 
she had a son called Hercules. Cassander 
ordered her and her child to be put to 
death. 

Basilia, L, an island in the northern 
ocean, famous for its amber. It is sup- 
posed to be the southern extremity of 
Sweden, which the ancients erroneously 
thought to be an island. It was some- 
times called Abalus II. Basle, a city on 

the Rhenus, in the territory of the Rau- 
raci. The writers of the middle ages called 
it Basula. 

Basilius, an eminent father of the 
church, born at Caesarea, in Cappadocia, 
a.d. 326, and called the Great, to dis- 
tinguish him from other patriarchs of the 
same name. His studies were commenced 
under the direction of his father, but com- 
pleted at Antioch, Athens, where he formed 
a close intimacy with Gregory of Nazian- 
zus, which lasted throughout life, and 
Constantinople. On the completion of his 
education, he devoted himself to rhetoric 
and the bar ; and having afterwards visited 
Egypt, his imagination became so im- 
pressed by the monastic severities he had 
witnessed, that he sought a retreat in Pon- 
tus, for the purposes of study and medi- 
tation, and there instituted the monastic 
order which still bears his name. After a 
short interval, he was ordained priest by 
^Eusebius, bishop of his native city, upon 
whose death he succeeded to the same dig- 
nity. The rest of his life was passed in 
the greatest activity. He took part in all 
the controversies that agitated the Church 
at that period, and contributed, by his sa- 
gacity, eloquence, and amenity, to heal the 
wounds which threatened to destroy her. 
He died Jan. 1. a. d. 379, the anniversary 
of which has been ever since celebrated as 
his festival by the Greek church. Of four 
brothers who survived him, two were 
bishops, and two monks. The best edition 
of his works is that of the Benedictines, 
Paris, 3 torn. fol. 1721-30. 

Bassareus, a surname of Bacchus, from 
{3d<T(rapos or fiaacrapiov, " a fox ; " the Bac- 
chantes having worn skins of foxes when 
celebrating the orgies. 

Bassus AufidTus. See Aunnius. 

BastarNuE, a people who inhabited that 



part of European Sarmatia which cor- 
responds to part of Polish Prussia ; sup- 
posed to have been the ancestors of the 
Russians. 

Batavi, a German nation, which inha- 
bited a part of the present Holland, es- 
pecially the island called Batavorum In- 
sula. They were distinguished for their 
bravery. On their subjugation by the 
Romans, they became friends of the em- 
pire, were exempted from taxation, and 
received many other privileges. During 
Vespasian's reign they revolted under 
Civilis,. and extorted favourable terms of 
peace, but were again subdued under Tra- 
jan and Hadrian. Their capital was 
Lugdunum Batavorum, now Leyden. 

Bathycles, a celebrated artist of Mag- 
nesia on the Menander, supposed to have 
lived during the age of Croesus. 

Bathvllus, I., a beautiful youth of Sa- 
mos, often alluded to by Anacreon. — II. 
A youth of Alexandria, who came to Rome 
in the age of Augustus, and acquired 
great celebrity as a dancer in pantomimes. 
He was a favourite of Maecenas. — III. A 
dancer alluded to by Juvenal. The term 
seems to have been used as a general 
appellation for a famous dancer, in con- 
sequence of the skill displayed by Bathyl- 
lus of Alexandria in the time of Augus- 
tus. 

Batrachomyomachta, a serio-comic 
poem, describing the battle between the 
frogs and mice. It has sometimes been as- 
cribed to Homer, but modern critics concur 
in the opinion that it was not written by 
the author of the Iliad and Odyssey. 

Battiades, I., patronymic of Callima- 
chus, either from his father Battus, or 
from his being a native of Cyrene, the 
founder of which was Battus, b. c. 630. — 
II. A name given to the people of Cy- 
rene from Battus, the founder of the co- 
lony. 

Battus, I., a Lacedaemonian, who built 
the town of Cyrene, b. c. 630, with a 
colony from the island of Thera. His 
name, according to Callimachus, was Aris- 
totle ; and the difficulty with which he 
spoke first procured him the name of Bat- 
tus. Herodotus, however, maintains that 
the name Battus is of Libyan origin, sig- 
nifying "king." He reigned forty years, 
and after his death received divine honours. 
— II. Grandson of Battus I., by Arcesi- 
laus, succeeded his father, was surnamed 
Felix, and died b. c. 554. — III. A shep- 
herd of Pylos, who promised Mercury that 
he would not discover his having stolen 
the flocks of Admetus ; but violated his 
promise, and was turned into a pumice- 



BAT 



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115 



stone IV. A general of Corinth against 

Athens. 

Batulcm. a town of Campania, which 
assisted Turnus against JEneas. 

Baucis, a poor old woman, who lived 
with her husband Philemon in a small 
town of Phrygia. "When Jupiter and 
Mercury were travelling in disguise over 
Asia, they came to the town in which they 
lived, and were refused hospitality by all 
the inhabitants, but at last found shelter 
and a kindly welcome in the abode of the 
aged pair. To punish the inhabitants of 
the place for their inhumanity, the gods 
desolated their country with a deluge ; but, 
to reward the kindness of their hosts, con- 
ducted them to the top of a mountain, 
from which, among the surrounding waters, 
they saw their own little hut transformed 
into a temple. On being requested by 
Jupiter to express their wishes, they 
prayed for permission to officiate in the 
new temple, and that they might be united 
in death as in life. Their prayer was 
granted ; and, after a long life spent in the 
service of the god, they were changed in the 
same instant into an oak and a lime tree 
before the gate of the temple. 

Bavius and M^evics, two stupid and 
malevolent poets in the age of Augustus, 
who attacked Virgil, Horace, and other 
contemporary writers. 

Bebryces, the aboriginal inhabitants of 
Bithynia. See Bithvxia. 

Bebrvcia, the primitive name of Bi- 
thynia, so called from the Bebryces, who 
settled there, after passing from Europe. 

Bedriaccm, a small town of Italy be- 
tween Mantua and Cremona ; the modern 
Caneto, or, according to others, Cividala. 
It was famous for two battles fought within 
a month of each other : in the one Otho 
was defeated by the generals of Vitellius, 
in the other Vitellius by Vespasian, a. d. 
69. Tacitus and Suetonius call it Betria- 
cum; Pliny, Juvenal, and later writers, 
Bebriacum. 

Belesis, a priest of Babylon, who con- 
spired with Arbaces against Sardanapalus, 
king of Assyria, and was rewarded by the 
new king with the government of Babylon, 
B. c. 826. 

Belgae, a warlike people of ancient 
Gaul, separated from the Celtae by the 
rivers Matrona and Sequana. In the new 
division of Gaul by Augustus, the Belgae 
received a great accession of territory. 
The Belgae were of German extraction, 
and, according to Caesar, the most warlike 
of all the Gauls. 

Belgica, one of the four provinces of 
Gaul near the Rhine. 



Belgium, a canton of Gallia Belgica, 
from which it is distinguished by Caesar 
as a part from the whole. It contained 
the three tribes of the Bellovaci, Atrebates, 
and Ambiani, who are usually regarded 
as the genuine Belgae. 

BelTdes, a surname given to the daugh- 
ters of Danaus from their grandfather Belus. 

Belides, a name applied to Palamades, 
as descended from Belus. 

BelisXna, a Gallic deity, analogous to 
the Minerva of the Romans. 

Belisarius, a celebrated general, who, 
in the reign of Justinian, renewed all the 
glorious victories, battles, and triumphs, 
which had rendered the first Romans so 
distinguished in the time of their republic. 
He died, after a life of military glory, 
a. d. 565. His history has been much 
coloured by the poets, and more especially 
by Marmontel, who relates that the em- 
peror caused his eyes to be put out, and 
reduced him to such poverty that he was 
forced to beg his bread in the streets of 
Constantinople. It must be remarked, 
however, that such stories are no where 
mentioned by contemporaneous writers, or 
by any subsequent writer till the twelfth 
century. 

Bellerophox, son of Glaucus, king of 
Ephyre, and grandson of Sisyphus. He 
was at first called Hipponous ; but the 
murder of his brother Bellerus procured 
him the name of Bellerophon, " Murderer 
of Bellerus," and compelled him to seek 
refuge at the court of Prcetus, king of 
Argos. There, the king's wife Antaea, or 
Stenobcea, fell in love with him ; and on 
his slighting her passion, she accused him, 
before her husband, of attempts on her 
virtue. Prcetus, unwilling to violate the 
laws of hospitality, sent him to his father- 
in-law, Jobates, king of Lycia, with a 
letter desiring him to put to death a man 
who had so dishonourably treated his 
daughter. (Hence a letter unfavourable 
to the bearer has been called ? Literae 
Bellerophontis.") Jobates, to satisfy his 
son-in-law, sent Bellerophon to conquer 
the horrible monster Chimaera, in which 
dangerous expedition he was assured he 
must perish. But Minerva supported 
him, and with the aid of the winged horse 
Pegasus, he conquered the monster. In 
his next expedition against the Solymi and 
the Amazons, he was equally successful ; 
but on his return he was attacked by a 
party sent against him by Jobates, but he 
destroyed all his assailants : on which the 
king, convinced that innocence is always 
protected by the gods, no longer sought 
his life, but gave him his daughter in mar- 



116 



BEL 



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riage, and made him his successor on the 
throne. Bellerophon, elated with his suc- 
cess, attempted, by means of Pegasus, to 
ascend to heaven ; but Jupiter, incensed 
at his boldness, sent an insect to sting the 
steed, which flung the rider to the earth, 
where he wandered in solitude and melan- 
choly till his death. 

Bellerus, brother of Hipponous. See 
Bellerophon. 

Bellona, goddess of war, daughter of 
Phorcys and Ceto, sister, or according to 
others, wife of Mars, called by the Greeks 
Enyo. The Romans paid her great ador- 
ation. At Rome she had a famous temple 
without the city near the Carmental gate. 
It was here that the senate granted au- 
diences to foreign ambassadors, and re- 
ceived generals on their return from 
abroad. In front of this temple also stood 
the pillar against which the javelin was 
hurled when the Romans declared war 
against any people. Bellona is generally 
depicted as the charioteer of Mars, with 
wild dishevelled hair, bloody garments, 
and a torch in her hand. The priests of 
this goddess, who were called Bellonarii, 
consecrated themselves by incisions in 
their bodies, and sacrificed to her honour 
the blood which flowed from their wounds. 

Bellovaci, a powerful tribe of the 
Belga? ; corresponding in position to the 
people of Beauvais. 

Bellovesus, a king of the Celts?, who, 
in the reign of Tarquin Priscus, was sent, 
at the head of a colony, to Italy by his 
uncle Ambigatus. 

Belo, a city and river of Hispania 
Bajtica, the usual place of embarkation 
for Tingis in Africa. It is the modern 
Balonia. 

Belus, I., a name given to several kings 
of the East, whose existence appears ex- 
tremely doubtful. The most ancient is 
Belus, king of Assyria, father of Ninus, 
who reigned at Babylon 1 800 years before 
the age of Semiramis. He was deified 
after death, and worshipped by the As- 
syrians and Babylonians. His temple 
was the most magnificent in the world. 
See Babylon. — II. A small river of Gali- 
lee, where the art of making glass is said 
by Pliny to have been first invented. 

Benacus, a lake of Italy, from which 
the Mincius flows into the Po ; the modern 
Lago di Garda. It was remarkable for 
being subject to sudden storms. 

Bendis, a Thracian goddess, the same 
with Diana or Artemis. Her worship 
spread into Attica ; and she had a temple 
in the Munychium at Athens, and a fes- 
tival, called BevSiSeia, at the Piraeus. 



Beneventum, Benevento, a city of Sam- 
nium, ten miles beyond Caudium, on the 
Appian Way. Its more ancient name was 
Maleventum, said to have been given to 
it from its unhealthy atmosphere. The 
more auspicious appellation was substi- 
tuted, when the Romans sent a colony 
thither, a. u. c. 483. Tradition ascribes 
the origin of Beneventum either to Dio- 
mede or the Ausones. During the whole 
of the second Punic war, it remained faith- 
ful to Rome, for which it received the 
thanks of the senate. It was subsequently 
recolonised by Augustus, and again by 
Nero. Beneventum is richer in remains 
of ancient sculpture than any town in 
Italy. 

Bek.ectnthus, a mountain of Phrygia 
Major, sacred to Cybele, hence styled 
Berecyntliia Mater. 

Berenice and Beronice, a name com- 
mon to several ladies of antiquity, of whom 
the most remarkable were the following : 
— I., the granddaughter of Cassander, bro- 
ther of Antipater, and one of the four 
wives of Ptolemy I., the founder of the 
dynasty of the Lagidae, by whom she be- 
came mother of Ptolemy II. By her 
former marriage, with Philip, one of Alex- 
ander's officers, she had a numerous family, 
among whom were Magas, king of Cyrene, 
and Antigone, afterwards wife of Pyrrhus, 
king of Epirus. She was remarkable for 
her beauty, and her portrait often appears 
on the medals of Ptolemy I. along with 
his own. — II. Daughter of Ptolemy Phi- 
ladelphus, by Arsinoe, daughter of Lysi- 
machus, and wife of Antiochus, king of 
Syria, after he had divorced Laodice his 
former wife. After the death of Phila- 
delphus, Antiochus recalled Laodice, who, 
in requital, poisoned her husband, placed 
her son on the throne, and murdered Bere- 
nice and her child at Antioch, b. c. 246. — 
III. Daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, and 
sister of the celebrated Cleopatra. During 
her father's absence in Rome, she was ap- 
pointed regent, but usurped the crown, 
which she held for three years ; and was ex- 
pelledby the Roman general Gabinius, b.c. 
55, who restored her father to the throne 
and put her to death. She was twice mar- 
ried ; first to Seleucus, whose mental and 
physical deformities caused her to have 
him strangled, and secondly to Archelaus, 
who was put to death at the restoration of 
Auletes. — IV. Called by some authors 
Cleopatra, was the only legitimate child 
of Ptolemy Lathurus, whose successor she 
became b. c. 81. Sylla, at that time dic- 
tator, compelled her to marry and share 
her throne with her cousin, who, having 



BER 



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117 



taken the name of Ptolemy Alexander, 
poisoned her nineteen days after the 
marriage. — V. Daughter of Herodes 
Agrippa I., king of Judaea, and sister of 
Agrippa II., before whom Paul preached 
at Jerusalem. She married first her uncle 
Herodes of Chalcis, who appears to have 
died young, and afterwards Polemo, king 
of Cilicia, who became a convert to Ju- 
daism at her request ; but she soon after- 
wards left him and lived, it is said, in 
incestuous intercourse with her brother 
Agrippa II. at Jerusalem. At a subse- 
quent period she won the affections of 
Titus, who took her with him to Rome, 
in the intention of marrying her ; but, 
finding the proposed match odious to his 
subjects, he was forced to abandon the 
idea, and reluctantly sent Berenice from 
Rome, soon after his accession to the 
throne. There is great difficulty attend- 
ing the history of this Berenice, as regards 
her intimacy with Titus. On this sub- 
ject the reader will find some ingenious 
remarks in the Biographie Universelle. — 
VI. Wife of Mithridates, who, conquered 
by Lucullus, ordered his wives to destroy 
themselves, for fear the conqueror should 
offer violence to them. — VII. Another 
daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus and 
Arsinoe. She retired with her mother 
to the court of Magas at Cyrene, who 
married the latter and adopted Berenice ; 
hence Berenice has sometimes been con- 
sidered the daughter of Magas. When 
Magas was on his death-bed, he bound 
Arsinoe by a solemn promise to betroth 
her daughter Berenice to his nephew 
Ptolemy Euergetes ; but Arsinoe', regard- 
less of her oath, resolved to transfer the 
hand of her daughter and her kingdom to 
Demetrius, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
On the young prince's arrival in Cyrene to 
solemnise the marriage, Arsinoe became at- 
tached to him herself, and resolved to pre- 
vent the nuptials ; but Berenice, burning 
with indignation at being slighted, took 
advantage of the unpopularity of Deme- 
trius, cut him off by a conspiracy, and 
thereupon married Ptolemy Euergetes, to 
whom she had been originally betrothed. 
A short time after the nuptials, Ptolemy 
being obliged to go on a dangerous expe- 
dition into Syria, Berenice vowed she 
would consecrate her beautiful hair to 
Venus, if he returned in safety. Conform- 
ably to this vow, the locks were conse- 
crated in the temple which Ptolemy had 
built in honour of Arsinoe, under the name 
of the Zephyrian Venus, but were stolen 
during the night, upon which Conon the 
astronomer, to pay his court to the queen, 



reported that Jupiter had carried them 
away, and had made them a constellation. 
Hence the cluster of stars near the tail of 
the Lion is called Coma Berenices, Bere- 
nice's Hair. Berenice was put to death 
by order of her own son, Ptolemy IV., 
surnamed Philopator, b. c. 216. — VIII. A 
city of Egypt on the coast of the Sinus 
Arabicus, from which a road was made, 
across the intervening desert, to Coptos on 
the Nile, by Ptolemy Philadelphus. Bere- 
nice was the harbour whence the Egyptian 
ships took their departure for Arabia Felix 
and India ; and she was the great entrepot 
for the transmission of Indian and other 
eastern products to Rome. The ruins of 
Berenice are found at the modern port of 
Habest. — IX. A city of Cyrenaica, in 
whose vicinity the gardens of the Hes- 
perides were sometimes said to be placed. 
It is now Bengazzi, a poor and filthy town. 
Few traces of the ancient city remain. 

Beroe, I., the nurse of Semele, an old 
woman of Epidaurus, whose shape Juno 
assumed when she persuaded Semele not 
to receive the visits of Jupiter, if he did 
not appear in the majesty of a god. — II. 
Wife of Doryclus, whose form was assumed 
by Iris, at the instigation of Juno, when 
she advised the Trojan women to burn the 
fleet of iEneas in Sicily. 

Beroea or Berrhcea, an ancient and 
populous city of Macedonia, south of 
iEdessa, corresponding, it is generally sup- 
posed, to the modern Kara Veria. Beroea 
is mentioned under interesting circum- 
stances in the Acts of the Apostles, xvii. 
11. 

Berosus, a Babylonian historian ; priest 
of the temple of Belus, in the time of 
Alexander. Having learned the Greek 
language from the Macedonians, he re- 
moved to Greece, and opened a school of 
astronomy and astrology in the island of 
Cos, where he acquired great reputation. 
Several of his fragments of Chaldaean his- 
tory have been preserved by Josephus and 
Eusebius. 

Berytus, Beirout, a very ancient tOAvn of 
the Phoenicians, deriving its name, accord- 
ing to Stephen of Byzantium, from the num- 
ber of its wells, the prefix beer signifying a 
well in the language of the country. Under 
the Romans it rose to great eminence, not- 
withstanding it had been entirely destroyed 
in the wars of Alexander's successors, 
about 80 years before the Roman conquest 
of Syria. Augustus planted in it a colony, 
and gave it his daughter's name, with the 
addition of the epithet Felix. A school of 
law, established here in the beginning of 
the third century (probably by Alexander 



118 



BES 



BIT 



Severus), continued for 300 years, or till 
the town was overwhelmed by an earth- 
quake in 551, to be the most celebrated 
institution of the kind in the empire. 

Besippo, a maritime town of Hispania 
Baetica, where Mela was born. Its ruins 
lie in the vicinity of Porto Barbato. 

Bessi, a people of Thrace, occupying a 
district called Bessica. They belonged to 
the great tribe of the Satrae, the only Thra- 
cian people that had never been subdued, 
and were the most savage and inhuman of 
all the Thracians. 

Bessus, a governor of Bactriana, who, 
after the battle of Arbela, seized Darius 
his sovereign, and put him to death ; but 
was some time after brought before Alex- 
ander, who cut off his hands and ears, and 
exposed his body on a cross to be shot at 
by the soldiers. 

Bianor, son of the river god Tiber and 
Man to, daughter of Tiresias. Servius 
makes him identical with Ocnus, the foun- 
der of Mantua. 

Bias, I., son of Amythaon and Idomene, 
was king of Argos, and brother of the 
famous soothsayer Melampus. See Me- 
lampus. — II. One of the seven wise men 
of Greece, was son of Teutamidas, and 
born at Priene b. c. 566. He was a prac- 
tical philosopher, whose sound sense and 
knowledge of mankind enabled to be of 
great use to his country and his friends. 
Many of his apophthegms are still pre- 
served. When Priene was threatened with 
a siege byMazares, the inhabitants resolved 
to quit the city with their property ; but 
Bias made no preparations for his depar- 
ture, and on being remonstrated with, re- 
plied, in the saying which has since become 
famous, " Omnia porto mecum." He died 
in his native country at an advanced age, 
and was honoured by a splendid funeral. 

Bibaculus, M. Furius, a Latin poet, 
born at Cremona, in the age of Cicero ; 
the author of a turgid poem entitled 
iEthiopis, and another on the Gallic wars 
of Caesar. He is ridiculed by Horace. 

Bibracte, a large town of the iEdui 
in Gaul, on the Arroux, one of the branches 
of the Ligeris or Loire. It was afterwards 
called Augustodunum, Autun. 

Bibulus, son of M. Calpurnius Bibulus, 
by Portia, Cato's daughter. He was 
Caesar's colleague in the consulship ; but 
disliking his measures, he retired in a great 
degree from public life. In the war be- 
tween Caesar and Pompey he sided with 
the latter, and obtained the command of 
the fleet ; but he died at sea during the 
civil conflict. 

Bicornis, a name of Alexander among 



the Arabians, expressive of his having 
added the Eastern to the Western empire, 
or in allusion to his medals, on which he is 
represented with horns, under the pretence 
that he was the son of Ammon. 

Bifrons, surname of Janus, because 
represented with two faces. See Janus. 

Bilbilis, Bambola, a town of the Celti- 
beri in Hispania Terraconensis, celebrated 
for being the birth-place of the poet Mar- 
tial. It lay on the Western bank of the 
river Bilbilis, now Xalon, and was a Ro- 
man municipium. 

Bimater, surname of Bacchus, signi- 
fying that he had two mothers, because, 
when taken from his mother's womb, he 
was placed in the thigh of his father Ju- 
piter. 

Bingium, Bingen, a town of Gaul, in 
Germania Prima, on the Rhine. 

Bion, a name common in antiquity to 
several persons, of whom the most dis- 
tinguished were : — I., a native of Borys- 
thenes, sold as a slave to an orator, who 
afterwards gave him his freedom, and left 
him large possessions. Upon this he went 
to Athens, and applied himself to the study 
of philosophy. He first attached himself to 
the school of the Cynics, but afterwards went 
over to the Cyrenaic sect. He flourished 
about the 120th Olymp. — II. A Greek 
bucolic poet, born near Smyrna, in the 
village of Phlossa. He appears to have 
lived in Sicily, and died there of poison, as 
his pupil and brother poet Moschus in- 
forms us in an elegy on his death. Some 
make him contemporary with Theocritus, 
while others suppose that he flourished a 
century later, about b. c. 187. His works, 
which are usually printed with those of 
Moschus, have passed through numerous 
editions. 

BisALTiE, a people of Macedonia, of 
Thracian origin. 

Bisanthe, a town on the Propontis ; 
called also Rhoedestus, Rodosto. 

Bistonis, a lake of Thrace, near Abdera. 
It derived its name from the Bistones, who 
inhabited its shores, and held dominion 
over the surrounding districts. 

Bithynia, a country of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by the Euxine, on 
the south by Phrygia and Galatia, on the 
east by Paphlagonia, and on the west by 
the Propontis and Mysia. The more an- 
cient name of the country was Bebrycia, 
the inhabitants being called Bebryces ; and 
the testimony of antiquity is unanimous in 
ascribing to the Bithynians a Thracian ori- 
gin. Bithynia was first subjugated by Croe- 
sus, and on the dissolution of the Lydian 
monarchy, it became a satrapy of Persia, 



BIT 



BCEO 



119 



sometimes known in history by the title of 
Daschylium, and sometimes of the Helles- 
pont. It was next subdued by Alexander 
the Great, on whose decease Botirus, a 
Thracian chief, succeeded in establishing an 
independent empire, which he transmitted, 
through his lineal descendants, Bas and 
Xipcetes, to Nicomedes, son of the latter, 
„ who first assumed the title of king of Bi- 
thynia, b.c. 281 . It remained in this family 
till b.c. 74, when Nicomedes III., dying 
without heirs, left his kingdom as an in- 
heritance to the Romans. The interior of 
the country was mountainous and woody ; 
but near the sea it was covered with rich 
and fertile plains, thickly spread with towns 
and villages. The produce consisted of 
grain of every sort, wine, cheese, figs, and 
various kinds of wood. The western por- 
tion of Bithynia is now called Khodavend- 
khiar ; and that situated on the Euxine 
and round the Bosphorus is Kodjaili. 

Bitias, a Trojan, son of Alcanor and 
Hiera, brought up in a wood sacred to 
Jupiter. He followed the fortune of iEneas, 
and with his brother Pandarus was killed 
by the Rutuli in Italy. 

Biton. See Cleobis. 

Bituricum. See Avaricum. 

Bituriges, a people of Gaul, divided into 
two great tribes, the Bituriges Cubi, and 
the Bituriges Vivisci ; the former occupied 
Gallia Celtica, to the west of the iEdui, 
the latter Aquitania, below the mouth of 
the Garumna. Avaricum, Bourges, was 
the capital of the Cubi, Burdigala, Bour- 
deaux, that of the Vivisci. 

Bizya, a town on the Euxine, above 
Halmydessus, the residence of Tereus ; on 
account of whose crimes it was fabled by 
the poets to be shunned by swallows. 

Blandusia, more properly Bandusia, a 
fountain in the vicinity of Horace's Sabine 
farm, supposed to be Fonte BeVo. 

Blastophcenices, a people of Lusitania, 
supposed to be identical with the Bastuli 
Pceni. 

Blemmyes, a people of Africa, who lived 
south of Meroe, between the Nile and the 
Red Sea, who, as fabulously reported, had 
no heads, their eyes and mouth being placed 
in the breast. 

Boadigea. See Boudicea. 

Boagrius, a mountain torrent of the 
Locri Epicnemidii, watering the town of 
Thronium. 

Bocchus, king of Getulia, in alliance 
with Rome, who perfidiously delivered 
Jugurtha to Sylla, lieutenant of Marius, 
and obtained as his reward the Western part 
of Numidia, afterwards named Mauritania 
Caesariensis, now Fez. 



Boduagnatus, a leader of the Nervii, 
when Caesar made war against them. 

Boeoromia, a festival celebrated at 
Athens on the seventh day of the month 
Boedromion, in honour of Apollo, to com- 
memorate the assistance the Athenians, in 
the reign of Erechtheus, had received from 
Ion, son of Xanthus, when their country 
was attacked by Eumolpus, son of Neptune ; 
airb tov fioriSpofxav, coming to help. Plutarch 
mentions it as having been instituted in 
commemoration of the victory obtained by 
Theseus over the Amazons in the Athenian 
month Boedromion. 

Bceota RCHiE, the chief magistrates in 
Boeotia, regarding the precise nature of 
whose duties a variety of opinions is en- 
tertained. It is generally supposed that 
their chief functions were of a military 
character, though several instances are ad- 
duced in which they acted in a civil capa- 
city. Their number was originally fourteen, 
answering to the fourteen confederate states 
of Boeotia, but it was afterwards reduced, 
and underwent many variations. They 
were elected annually, and under pain of 
death restricted to that period. 

Bceotia, a country of Greece Proper, 
north-west of Attica, and shut in by the 
chains of Helicon, Cithaaro, Parnassus, and 
Ptous. It was perhaps the most thickly 
settled part of Greece ; for no other could 
show an equal number of important ci- 
ties. Boeotia was first occupied by several 
barbarous clans, under the various names 
of Aones, Ectenes, Temmices, and Hyantes. 
To these succeeded, according to the com- 
mon account, Cadmus and his followers, 
who, after expelling some of the indigenous 
tribes above mentioned, and conciliating 
others, founded a city, which became after- 
wards so celebrated under the name of 
Thebes, and to which he gave the name 
of Cadmea. The descendants of Cadmus 
were compelled, subsequently, to evacuate 
Boeotia, after the capture of Thebes by the 
Epigoni, and to seek refuge in the coun- 
try of the Illyrian Enchelees. They re- 
gained, however, possession of their former 
territory, but were once more expelled, as 
we learn from Strabo, by a numerous 
horde of Thracians and others. On this 
occasion, having withdrawn into Thessaly, 
they united themselves with the people of 
Arne, a district of that province, and for 
the first time assumed the name of Boeo- 
tians. After a lapse of some years, they 
were compelled to abandon Thessaly, when 
they once more succeeded in re-establish- 
ing themselves in their original abode, to 
which they now communicated the name 
of Boeotia. This event, according to Thu- 



120 



BOE 



BOO 



cydides, occurred about sixty years after 
the capture of Troy. The government 
of Boeotia remained under the monarchi- 
cal form till the death of Xanthus, who 
fell in single combat with Melanthus the 
Messenian, when it was determined to 
adopt a republican constitution. This, 
though imperfectly known to us, appears 
to have been a compound of aristocratic 
and democratic principles. (See Bceo- 
tarch^e.) The Boeotians were regarded by 
their neighbours, the Athenians, as natu- 
rally a stupid race. Much of this, how- 
ever, was wilful exaggeration, and must be 
ascribed to the national enmity, which 
seems to have existed from the earliest 
times between these two nations. Besides, 
this country produced, in fact, many illus- 
trious men, such as Hesiod, Pindar, Plu- 
tarch, Epaminondas, Pelopidas, &c. In 
Bceotia, too, Mount Helicon was sacred 
to the Muses, to whom also many of the 
fountains and rivers of the country were 
consecrated. The Boeotians were passion- 
ately fond of music, in which they ex- 
celled. — The modern name of Boeotia is 
Stramulipa, in Livadia, which last compre- 
hends within its limits the ancient Boeotia, 
as one of its component parts. 

Boethius, Anicius Manlius Torquatus 
Severinus, celebrated for his virtues, ser- 
vices, honours, and tragical end, was born 
about a. d. 470 in Rome or Milan, of a 
rich, ancient, and respectable family. Hav- 
ing finished his education at Rome, he 
proceeded to Athens, where he studied 
philosophy under Proclus and others. On 
his return to Rome he was kindly received 
by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, then 
master of Italy, who raised him to the 
first offices of the empire. He was long 
the oracle of his sovereign, and idol of the 
people; but Theodoric, as he grew old, 
became irritable and jealous ; and as the 
Goths indulged in oppression and extor- 
tion, the opposition of Boethius to their 
unjust measures was construed into a rebel- 
lious temper ; and he was soon accused -of a 
treasonable correspondence with the court 
of Constantinople, imprisoned, and exe- 
cuted, a. d. 524 or 526. His work " on 
the Consolation afforded by Philosophy " 
is far superior to any of the age. It has 
passed through numerous editions. 

Bon, a people of Celtic Gaul, who 
passed into Germany, and settled in the 
present Bohemia, Boierheim, i. e. the resi- 
dence of the Boii. Being subsequently 
expelled by the Marcomanni, they carried 
their name with them into Boiaria, Bay- 
aria, Bavaria. 

Bola, a town of the JEqui in Italy, 



corresponding to the modern Poli. It was 
a colony of Alba. 

Bolbe, Beshek, a lake of Macedonia, in 
the territory of Mygdonia, emptying itself 
into the sea near Aulon and Bormiscus. 
There was a city of the same name near the 
lake. 

BolbitInum, one of the mouths of the 
Nile, in the vicinity of Bosetta. 

Bolissus, a town in the island of Chios, 
situated on the coast, now Volisso. 

Bollanus, a person represented by 
Horace as most irascible and inimical to 
loquacity. 

Bomilcar, I., a Carthaginian general, 
son of Hamilcar, who attempted to seize 
the government, but was defeated and put 
to death. — II. A Carthaginian admiral, 
sent to relieve Syracuse when besieged by 
the Romans ; but he fled before the fleet 
of Marcellus, and the city fell. — III. An 
African, for some time the instrument of 
all Jugurtha's cruelties. He conspired 
with Nabdalsa against Jugurtha himself; 
but the plot was detected, and he was put 
to death. 

Bomonicje, youths whipped in honour 
of Diana Orthia at her altar in Sparta. 
See Diamastigosis. 

Bona Dea, a name given to Cybele, 
Ops, Rhea, Vesta, by the Greeks ; and 
by the Latins, to Fauna or Fatua. Her 
festival was celebrated on the first of May, 
the anniversary of the dedication of her 
temple on Mount Aventine ; but we 
possess little or no information respecting 
her, except that all male creatures were 
jealously excluded from her rites ; and so 
sacred was the rule, that Clodius (see 
Clodius), in the height of his popularity, 
was nearly ruined by infringing it. 

Bononia, I., a city of Pannonia, on the 
Danube, north of Sirmium, corresponding 
to the modern Illock. — II. A city of 
Italy. (See Felsina.) — III. A city of 
Gaul. See Gesoriacum. 

Bonus Eventus, a Roman rural deity, 
represented holding a cup in his right 
hand, and in his left ears of corn. 

Boosura (ox-tail), a town of Cyprus, 
on the south-western coast, where Venus 
had an ancient temple. 

Bootes, a northern constellation near 
the Ursa Major. The term signifies liter- 
ally oxen driver, Bootes, in this sense, being 
regarded as the driver of the Wain (a^.a|a), 
another appellation for the Ursa Major. 
Some suppose Bootes to be Icarus, father of 
Erigcne (see Icarus); hence Propertius 
calls the seven stars of the Greater Bear, 
Boves Icarii ; others that it is Areas, son of 
Callisto, whom Jupiter placed in heaven j 



BOR 



BRA 



121 



while Ovid calls it Lycaon on one occa- 
sion, after the father of Callisto. 

Boreas, the north wind, deified by the 
Greeks. He was son of the Strymon, or 
of Astraeus and Aurora; he loved Orithyia, 
daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens, 
and carried her off to Thrace, where she 
became mother of the winged youths Zetes 
and Calais, and two daughters Cleopatra 
and Chione. When Xerxes was meditating 
the invasion of Attica, Boreas is said to 
have sent a storm to destroy his fleet, 
upon which the Athenians erected a temple 
to his honour, and ever afterwards wor- 
shipped him with assiduity. . Numerous 
adventures are related of Boreas, one of 
the most curious of which will be found in 
the Iliad (20. 223.). He was usually re- 
presented with the feet of a serpent, his 
wings dripping with golden dew-drops, 
and the train of. his garment sweeping 
along -the ground. 

Boreasmi, a festival celebrated at Athens 
in honour of Boreas, who was supposed to 
be related to them on account of his mar- 
riage with Orithyia, daughter of one of 
their kings (see Orithyia) ; or, more 
probably, out of gratitude for the destruc- 
tion of the fleet of Xerxes by a storm, 
when he was meditating the invasion of 
Attica. Festivals in honour of Boreas 
were celebrated by the Thurians and the 
inhabitants of Megalopolis, out of gratitude 
for similar deliverances on like occasions. 

Borysthenes, I., Dnieper, a large river 
of Scythia, falling into the Euxine sea. 
It is mentioned by Herodotus as the 
largest of the Scythian rivers, next to the 
Ister, and as surpassing all others but the 
Nile ; but he does not appear to have been 
acquainted with much of its course. — II. 
A city on the borders of the river, built 
by a colony of Milesians, b. c. 655, also 
called Olba Salvia. — III. A favourite 
horse of the emperor Hadrian, who ho- 
noured it with a monument when it died. 

Bosphorus and Bosporus, L, a long 
and narrow sea, which it is supposed an 
ox, fiovs, may swim over. The name is 
chiefly confined to two straits, the Thracian 
and Cimmerian Bosporus ; the former now 
known as the Straits or Channel of Con- 
stantinople, the latter as the Straits of Caffa 
or Theodosia, or Straits of Zabache. By 
the Russians it is commonly called the 
Bosporus. — II. A city in the Chersonesus 
Taurica. See Panticap^eum. 

BoTTiiEA or Botti^eis, a name anciently 
given to a narrow space of country in Ma- 
cedonia, situated between the Haliacmon 
and the Lydias. 

Boudicea, or Boadice, queen of the 



Iceni, in Britain, during the reign of Nero. 
Treated in an ignominious manner by the 
Romans, she headed a general insurrection 
of the Britons, attacked the Roman set- 
tlements, reduced London to ashes, and 
put to the sword 70,000 strangers. Sue- 
tonius, the Roman general, subsequently 
defeated her ; and to avoid falling into the 
hands of her enemies, she put an end to 
her life by poison. 

Bovill^e, an ancient- town of Latium, 
on the Appian Way ; distinguished from 
another town of the same name in Novum 
Latium by the title of Suburbanae. It 
was one of the first towns conquered by 
the Romans ; but in the time of Cicero 
it was nearly deserted. 

Brach manes, Brahmans, the first or 
highest of the four castes of the Hindoos, 
said to have proceeded from the mouth of 
Brahm, the seat of wisdom. They form 
the learned or sacerdotal class ; and their 
chief privileges consist in reading the Veda, 
or sacred volume, in instituting sacrifices, 
in imparting religious instruction, in asking 
alms, and in exemption from capital punish- 
ment. The life of the Brahmans is divided 
into four periods. The first commences 
at the age of seven, when the duty of the 
novitiate consists in learning to read and 
write, studying the Veda, and in fa- 
miliarising himself with the privileges of 
his order. In the second stage of ■ the 
Brahman's life, he is allowed to marry and 
to engage in commercial speculations. In 
the third stage, his religious duties become 
more numerous, and must be rigidly per- 
formed ; but, in the fourth period, he is 
admitted to personal communication with 
the Deity, and attains to singular sanctity. 
The origin of the Brahmans is merged in 
obscurity ; but they are generally sup- 
posed to be a branch of the old Gymnoso- 
phists, though some have assigned them a 
much greater antiquity. See Gymnoso- 
phist^e. 

Braga, or Bragi, in northern mytho- 
logy, the son of Odin and Frigga, the god 
of wisdom, eloquence, and poetry. He 
married Idun or Iduna, the goddess of 
youth, who dispensed the golden apples of 
immortality ; and from him the poetry of 
the Scandinavian nations received the name 
of Bragur. 

Brahma, the name of a divinity in 
the Hindoo mythology, the fables con- 
cerning whom are so numerous that an 
accurate development of his character has 
been hitherto unattainable. As we learn 
from the Sanscrit lexicologists, the epithets 
applied to this divinity are very numerous : 
some of the most usual being " Swayambhu, 

G 



122 



BRA 



BRI 



the self-existent ; Parwneshti, who abides 
in the most exalted places ; Pitamaha, the 
great father ; Prajapati, the lord of crea- 
tures ; Lokesa, the ruler of the world," &c. 
But the most distinct account of his nature 
and attributes is to be found in Coleman's 
Mythology of the Hindoos, where he is re- 
presented as the grandfather of the gods, 
and equivalent to the Saturn of the Ro- 
mans. Brahm, the highest dignity of the 
Hindoos, to whose name so deep reverence 
is attached that it is considered criminal to 
pronounce it, is said to have given birth 
to Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, simulta- 
neously ; and to have allotted to the first 
the province of creating, to the second that 
of preserving, and to the third that of de- 
stroying. Accordingly, ever since the 
creation of the world Brahma has had 
little or nothing to do; and it will not be 
till the tenth avatar or incarnation that his 
services will be put in requisition, when 
this world is to undergo total annihilation. 
Meanwhile, however, the other deities, 
Vishnu and Siva, are constantly engaged 
in their respective duties of preservation 
and destruction ; and the Hindoos, with 
that recklessness of the future which is 
common to them with more civilised com- 
munities, lavish all their adoration upon 
fchose divinities from whom they expect, 
to derive immediate advantage. Hence, 
throughout all India, the worship of 
Brahma is neglected, his altars are over- 
turned, his temples destroyed ; in short, 
nothing has been left but his name, and 
even that none of the best. Brahma is 
usually represented with four heads and 
four hands, either reclining upon a lote 
tree (the emblem of creation among the 
Hindoos), or riding upon a swan, 

Branchiades, a surname of Apollo. 

Branchid^e, a family which held the 
priesthood of the temple of Apollo Didy- 
mseus at Didymi near Miletus, which they 
betrayed into the hands of Xerxes, by 
whom it was plundered and burnt. They 
afterwards settled on the Oxus, and grew 
up into a small state ; but were put to the 
sword by Alexander, in consequence of the 
sacrilege of their ancestors. 

Branchus, a youth of Miletus, beloved 
by Apollo, who gave him the power of 
prophecy. He gave oracles at Didymi. 
See Didymi. 

Brasidas, a famous general of Lacedce- 
mon, son of Tellis, who, after many vic- 
tories, died of a wound at Amphipolis, 
which Cleon, the Athenian, had besieged, 
b. c. 422. The inhabitants of Amphipolis 
erected statues to his honour. 

Brasidia, festivals at Lacedasmon in . 



honour of Brasidas, who after his death 
received the honour of a hero. They con- 
sisted of annual orations and contests, to 
which none but Spartans were admitted. 
An annual festival of the same name was 
also celebrated at Amphipolis in honour of 
Brasidas. 

Brauron, a town of Attica, where Iphi- 
genia first landed after her escape from 
Tauris with the statue of Diana. Hence 
the goddess was here held in veneration 
under the title of Brauronia ; and a quin- 
quennial festival, with the same name, was 
celebrated in her honour under the super- 
intendence of ten men, called lepoiroioi 
The chief solemnity consisted in the con- 
secration of the Attic maidens, between the 
age of five and ten years, to the goddess. 
During the ceremony a goat was sacrificed, 
and the maidens, dressed in crocus-coloured 
garments, performed a propitiatorv rite, in 
which they imitated bears, — a custom 
founded upon a curious tradition preserved 
in Suidas, which our limits prevent us 
from inserting. 

Brenni and Breuni, a people of Italy, 
to the east and north-east of the Lacus 
Verbanus, Lago Maggiore, who, together 
with the Genauni, were subdued by Drusus, 
whose victory Horace celebrates. Strabo 
calls them Brenci and Genavi ; others 
term the former Breuni. 

Brennus, I., a general of the Galli Se- 
nones, who defeated the Romans at the 
Allia, and entered Rome without op- 
position. The Romans fled into the Capi- 
tol. During the night the Gauls climbed 
the Tarpeian rock ; and the Capitol would 
have been taken, had not the Romans been 
awakened by the noise of the sacred geese 
in the temple of Juno, and immediately 
repelled the enemy. (See Manlius.) Ca- 
millus, then in banishment, marched to 
the relief of his country, and totally de- 
feated the Gauls. (See Camillus.) — II. 
Another Gallic leader, who made an irrup- 
tion into Greece with 152,000 men and 
20,000 horse, and endeavoured to plunder 
the temple of Apollo at Delphi ; but his 
army was seized with a panic terror dui'ing 
the night, and, being attacked in the 
morning by the Greeks, fled in precipita- 
tion ; while Brennus, dispirited by this 
unexpected overthrow, killed himself in a 
fit of intoxication, b. c. 278. 

Briareus, a famous giant, son of Ccelus 
and Terra ; called by men JEgeon, by the 
gods Briareus. He had 100 hands and 
50 heads. When Juno, Neptune, and 
Minerva conspired to dethrone Jupiter, he 
ascended the heavens, seated himself next 
to him, and so terrified the conspirators 



BRI 



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123 



by his threatening looks that they desisted. 
Briareus also appears in fable as one of the 
Cyclops, See Cyclopes. 

Brig antes, a people in the northern 
parts of Britain, regarded as the most 
powerful and ancient of the British tribes. 
They possessed the country from sea to 
sea, comprising the counties of York, 
Durham, Lancaster, Westmoreland, and Cum- 
berland. Their capital was Eboracum, 
York. They are supposed to have been of 
Thracian origin. 

Brigantinus Lacus, a lake of Vinde- 
licia, Lake of Constance, between the Alps, 
near the town called Brigantium, which 
was the station of a corps of observation 
in the time of the Antonines. 

Brilessus, a name given to the range 
of hills in Attica that united Mt. Penteli- 
cus with Mt. Anchesmus. The modern 
name is Turko vouni. 

Brimo, (Gr. Ppe/Liu, to roar,) a nam? 
given to Hecate, indicating the terrific ap- 
pearance she assumed when she was sum- 
moned by magic art. 

Briseis, a patronymic of Hippodamia, 
daughter of Brises, high-priest of Jupiter 
at Pedasus in Troas, remarkable for her 
beauty, and for being the cause of the 
misfortunes of the Greeks at Troy. After 
the death of her husband, Manes, king of 
Lyrnessus, she fell to the lot of Achilles, 
who became ardently attached to her; 
and, on the reconciliation between Aga- 
memnon and Achilles, Briseis, who had 
been forcibly taken from him, was honour- 
ably restored. See Achilles. 

Briseus, a surname of Bacchus, from 
the nymphs called Brisae, his nurses, or 
from a Syrian word signifying " a lake of 
honey," of which he first taught the use. 

Britanni, I., the inhabitants of Britain. 
(See Britannia.) — II. A nation in Gal- 
lia Belgica, now Bretagne. 

Britannia, called also Albion, an island 
in the Atlantic Ocean, and the largest in 
Europe. The Phoenicians and Cartha- 
ginians appear to have carried on a com- 
merce with Britain long before the Romans 
were acquainted with it ; but little was 
known of the island till the time of Caesar, 
who invaded and endeavoured, ineffectually, 
to conquer it. After a long interval, 
Ostorius, in the reign of Claudius, reduced 
the southern part of the island ; and Agri- 
cola, subsequently, in the reign of Domi- 
tian, extended the Roman dominion to the 
Frith of Forth and the Clyde. But the 
whole force of the empire, though exerted 
to the utmost under Severus, could not 
reduce the hardy Highlanders. Britain 
remained a Roman province until a. d. 



426, when the Romans evacuated the 
country, never to return. The various di- 
visions and subdivisions of Britain under 
the Romans, together with a description 
of their most important works, such as the 
walls of Agricola, Hadrian, and Severus, 
are so minutely detailed in Butler's Ancient 
and Modem Geography, a work in every 
body's hands, that we shall not attempt to 
describe them. A most interesting ac- 
count of the ancient inhabitants of Britain 
is to be found in the Life of Agricola by 
Tacitus. 

Britannicus, Tiberius Claudius Ger- 
manicus, (surnamed Britannicus, together 
with his father, after the return of the lat- 
ter from Britain.) son of Claudius Caesar 
and Messalina, was born a few days after 
his fatber's accession to the throne. As 
the eldest son of the emperor, Britannicus 
was the lawful heir to the throne ; but the 
ambitious Agrippina, the second wife of 
Claudius, induced him to set Britannicus 
aside, in favour of Domitius Nero, her son 
by a former marriage. To this arrange- 
ment the venal senate gave its consent ; 
and on the death of Claudius, whom 
Agrippina had cut off by poison, Nero 
mounted the throne. Meanwhile Britan- 
nicus was kept in close confinement ; but 
Agrippina having once in a dispute with 
Nero threatened to place him on the 
throne, the latter caused him to be poi- 
soned. His funeral took place on the 
Campus Martius the same night ; but a 
tremendous shower of rain, which the 
people ascribed to the anger of the gods, 
washed away the white paint which had 
been put over his face to conceal the effects 
of the poison, so that the murderous deed 
was betrayed to the world. 

Britomartis, a beautiful nymph of 
Crete, daughter of Jupiter and Charme, 
and a favourite of Diana. She was be- 
loved by Minos, to avoid whose importu- 
nities she threw herself into the sea, and 
was saved by the nets (Blktvov') of some 
fishermen ; hence she was worshipped at 
Crete under the name of Dictynna. Bri- 
tomartis then left Crete for iEgina; but 
the boatmen having offered violence to her 
on the way, she sprang into the sea, and, 
having reached the shore, became invisible : 
hence she was called Aphcea. She is some- 
times confounded with Diana. 

Brixellum, Bresello, a town of Italy, in 
Gallia Cispadana, north-east of Parma, 
where Otho slew himself when defeated. 

Brixia, a city of Gallia Cisalpina, west 
of the Lacus Benacus, and south-east of 
Bergomum ; capital of the Cenomanni. 

Bromius, a surname of Bacchus ; from 
g 2 



124 



BRO 



BUR 



(ipefxeiv, to roar, in allusion to the noise 
with which his festivals were celebrated. 

Brontes, one of the Cyclops. The 
name is derived from Pqoptti, thunder. 

Brundisium, or Brundusium, Brindisi, 
an ancient and celebrated city on the coast 
of Apulia, in the territory of the Calabri, 
Its admirable position and the excellence of 
its harbours soon raised it into importance ; 
and it ultimately became the port whence 
the intercourse between Italy and Greece 
and the East was carried on. It was colo- 
nised by the Romans, a. u. c. 50S. Be- 
sides being the chief naval station of Rome, 
Brundisium was signalised by being the 
scene of several important events in her 
history. Here Julius Caesar blockaded 
Pompey ; and here the convention was 
held for the purpose of arranging the 
differences between Augustus and Mark 
Antony. Among the commissioners was 
Maecenas, who was accompanied by Ho- 
race, whose journey to Brundisium is so 
familiar to the classical scholar. Here the 
Appian Way terminated. 

Brutii, a people of Magna Graecia, in 
Italy ; generally looked on as descended 
from some refugee slaves and shepherds of 
the Lucanians. Retaining the fierceness 
of their original character, they made war 
upon all the Greek settlements in Italy, 
and at last reduced to subjection the whole 
peninsula between the Laus and Crathis, 
except Crotona, Locri, and Rhegium. But 
the Romans at length put an end to their 
conquests and independence, a. u. c. 480. 
They afterwards lent their assistance to 
Hannibal in his protracted contests with 
Rome, and upon his ultimate defeat they 
were subjected to the most ignominious 
treatment, and declared incompetent to fill 
any but the most ignoble offices. 

Brutium, or Brutiorum Ager, the 
country occupied by the Brutii. See 
Brutii. 

Brutus, L. Junius, I., the author of 
the great revolution which drove Tarquin 
the Proud from the throne, was son of 
M. Junius and Tarquinia, second daugh- 
ter of Tarquin Priscus. While still young, 
he had seen his father and brother mur- 
dered by Tarquin the Proud ; and seeing 
himself unable to avenge them, he feigned 
a stupid air, to avoid exciting the tyrant's 
suspicions : hence he was surnamed Bru- 
tus. At length, however, when Lucretia 
had been outraged by Sextus Tarquinius, 
Brutus, amid the indignation of all orders, 
threw off the mask, and swore immortal 
hatred to the royal family. His example 
animated the Romans ; the Tarquins were 
proscribed by a decree of the senate ; and 



the royal authority vested in the hands of 
consuls chosen from patrician families, 
Brutus and the husband of Lucretia being 
the first that were elected. Their entrance 
into office was signalised by a solemn re- 
nunciation of the kingly office on the part 
of the people ; but the proscribed family 
had still adherents, who struggled for the 
overthrow of the new government and the 
restoration of the old. Among these were 
the sons of Brutus ; and, on the discovery 
of the conspiracy, the justice of the father 
was put to a severe test in trying, con- 
demning, and executing his own children. 
Meanwhile Brutus sunk under the blow 
inflicted on his paternal feelings ; and 
some time after, in a combat between the 
Romans and the troops of Tarquin, he 
encountered Aruns, son of the exiled king, 
with such impetuosity that they both fell 
dead on the spot, each pierced with the 
weapon of the other. The dead body was 
brought to Rome, and received as in tri- 
umph : a funeral oration was spoken over 
it ; and the Roman matrons showed their 
grief by mourning a year for the father of 
the republic. — II. £). Junius, master of 
the horse a. u. c. 418, and consul a. u. c. 
429. — III. D. Junius, consul a. u. c. 615, 
obtained a triumph for his successes in 
Spain. — IV. Marcus, followed the party 
of Marius, and was conquered by Pompey, 
by whose orders he was put to death. He 
married Servilia, Cato's sister, by whom 
he had a son, Marcus Junius, and two 
daughters. — V. Son of the preceding, and 
nephew of Cato Uticensis, was born b. c. 
86. He was lineally descended from J. 
Brutus, who expelled the Tarquins from 
Rome, and seemed to inherit the republican 
principles of his great progenitor; for 
he joined the party of Pompey, his 
father's murderer, only because he looked 
on his cause as the more just. After the 
battle of Pharsalia, Caesar not only spared 
the life of Brutus, but raised him to high 
favour, appointing him to the government 
of Cisalpine Gaul, pardoning, at his inter- 
cession, Cassius, and Deiotarus, tetrarch of 
Galilee, and, not long afterwards, appoint- 
ing him to the high office of praetor ur- 
banus, a. u. c. 709. But, notwithstand- 
ing these favours, Brutus was one of the 
chief conspirators against him on the Ides 
of March ; and it is said that he resisted 
the attack made on him in the senate- 
house, until he saw the dagger of Brutus 
raised to strike him, when he covered his 
head with his robe, and resigned himself 
to his fate. After the assassination of 
Caesar, Brutus and the other conspirators 
endeavoured to excite the people in favour 



BRY 



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125 



of liberty ; but Antony, by reading the 
will of the dictator, raised such a violent 
storm of odium against them, that they 
were obliged to flee from the city. Brutus 
retired into Greece, and was soon after 
pursued thither by Antony and Octavius. 
A battle was fought at Philippi, in which 
the republican army was defeated ; and 
soon afterwards, in a second engagement 
near the same place, Brutus, being sur- 
rounded by a detachment of the enemy, 
and seeing no hopes of escape, threw him- 
self on his sword, and expired, in the forty- 
third year of his age, b. c. 42. One of the 
most singular circumstances in the life of 
Brutus is that of the so-called apparition, 
which it is said on one occasion appeared 
to him in his tent at midnight. " Who 
art thou ? " enquired Brutus. " Thy evil 
genius," replied the phantom : " we will 
meet again at Philippi." And, as the 
story goes, so it happened. The spirit 
reappeared on the eve of the second battle 
of Philippi. Brutus was twice married. 
His first wife was Appia, daughter of 
Appius Claudius, whom he divorced to 
marry the famous Portia, daughter of 
Cato, who killed herself by swallowing 
burning coals, when she heard the fate of 
her husband. 

Bryges, a people of Thrace, who after- 
wards crossed into Asia Minor, where they 
were called Phryges. See Phrvges. 

Bubasticus, the name sometimes. given 
to the Pelusiac mouth of the Nile, from 
its flowing past the city Bubastis. 

Bubastis, I., a city of vEgypt, in the 
eastern part of the Delta, capital of the 
Bubastitic Nome. It was the Phi Beseth 
of Scripture, now changed into Basta, It 
was celebrated for being the chief seat of 
the worship of the Egyptian goddess of the 
same name. — II. An Egyptian goddess, 
daughter of Isis and Osiris, and supposed 
to be equivalent to the Diana of the Ro- 
mans, and the Artemis of the Greeks. 
Her worship was celebrated by an annual 
festival. The cat was sacred to her ; and 
she is sometimes represented with the 
figure of a young woman, and the head of 
a cat. 

Bucephala, a city of India, near the 
Hydaspes, built by Alexander in honour 
of his horse Bucephalus. 

Bucephalus, a horse of Alexander; so 
called because he had the mark of an ox's 
head (/Sobs KtcpaAri) on his flank, or a black 
mark on his head resembling that of an 
ox, the rest of his body being white. A 
Thessalianhad offered him for sale to Philip 
for an immense sum ; but none of the cour- 
tiers being able to manage him, the king 



was on the point of sending him away, 
when Alexander interposed, and was per- 
mitted to try his skill. The result is well 
known. Philip, overjoyed at his youthful 
son's skill and courage, exclaimed, " Go, 
my son, seek another kingdom, for Mace- 
donia cannot suffice for thee," and made 
him a present of the horse. Bucephalus 
became a great favourite of Alexander, 
accompanied him in all his campaigns, and 
at last died of the wounds he had received 
in the battle of Porus. But Arrian says 
that he died of age and fatigue, being 
thirty years old. Alexander was deeply 
affected at his death, and built a city, called 
Bucephala, in his honour, on the banks of 
the Hydaspes. 

Bucolica, a sort of poem, which treats 
of the care of flocks, and of the pleasures 
and occupations of rural life. It is nearly 
identical with ecloga and idyUium. 

Bucolicum, one of the mouth* of tne 
Nile, between the Sebennytic and Mende- 
sian mouths ; supposed to be the same 
with the Phatnetic. 

Buddhismus, Buddhism, a religion which 
prevails over a great part of Asia ; and, ac- 
cording to the estimates of some geographers, 
has a much greater number of worshippers 
than any other form of faith among mankind. 
China, the peninsula beyond the Gange* 
Japan, and various Indian islands, are 
chiefly peopled by Buddhists. The founder 
of this religion, according to tradition, was 
an Indian prince, to whom the title of 
Buddha, or " The Sage," is assigned by 
his worshippers. The period to which his 
life is assigned is variously estimated, ac- 
cording to a variety of oriental traditions ; 
but several of them coincide in referring 
it nearly to the tenth or eleventh century 
before Christ. Buddhism was expelled 
from India by the persecutions of the 
Brahmins, between the fifth and seventh 
centuries of our era. The doctrines of the 
Buddhists seem mainly to rest on the 
principle, that the world, and sensible 
objects contained in it, are manifestations 
of the Deity, but of a transient and delu- 
sive character ; that the human soul is ail 
emanation from the Deity ; that after 
death it will again be bound to matter, 
and subjected to the miseries and accidents 
of this life, unless the individual to whom 
it belongs by the attainment of wisdom 
through prayer and contemplation succeeds 
in liberating it from that necessity, and 
secures its absorption into that divine 
essence from which it sprang. 

Bulis, I., a town of Phocis, built by a 
colony from Doris. — II. A Spartan, given 
up to Xerxes, with his countryman Sper- 
G 3 



126 



BUL 



BYZ 



thias, to atone for the offence his country- 
men had committed in putting the king's 
messengers to death. The king refused 
to retaliate. 

Bullatius, a friend of Horace, to whom 
the poet addressed a well-known epistle. 

Bupalus. See Anthermus. 

Buprasium, one of the chief cities of 
the Epeans in Elis. 

Bur a, one of the twelve original Achaean 
cities. It stood at first close to the sea ; 
but having been destroyed by an earth- 
quake, the surviving inhabitants rebuilt it 
forty stadia from the coast. Hercules had 
a temple near Bura ; hence he was called 
Buraicus. 

Buugundi, one of the principal branches 
of the Vandal nation, whose origin can be 
traced back to the country between the 
Viadrus, Oder, and the Vistula. They 
were distinguished from the other Germans 
by living in villages, burgen ; hence their 
name. They were at last defeated by the 
Gepidae, and emigrated to the banks of the 
Upper Rhine, where they remained till 
about the beginning of the fifth century, 
when they passed into Gaul, and succeeded, 
by a contract with the Romans, in possess- 
ing themselves of part of Switzerland, and 
that part of France now known by the 
name of Burgundy. Lugdunum and 
.Geneva were their alternate capitals. 

Burrhus Afranius, a commander of 
the praetorian guards, associated with 
Seneca in the office of adviser to Nero. 
His great probity of character but little 
fitted him for the vicious court of the 
emperor ; and he is said to have been 
rut off by poison, a. d. 63. 

BusIris, king of iEgypt, son of Neptune 
and Lysianassa or Anippe, daughter of the 
Nile. Thrasus, a native of Cyprus, having 
predicted that a great dearth, with which 
Egypt had been afflicted for nine years, 
would cease, if a stranger were sacrificed 
every year, Busiris offered up the prophet 
first of all, and afterwards continued the 
practice. When Hercules visited Egypt, 
Busiris, following up the practice he had 
begun, seized him and dragged him to the 
altar ; but the hero burst his bonds, and 
sacrificed the tyrant and the ministers of his 
cruelty. There were several cities of this 
name in Egypt, the most celebrated of 
which was in the middle of the Delta. It 
had a large temple of Isis. 

Butes, I., a descendant of Amyous, king 
of the Bebryces, very expert in the cestus. 
He was one of the Argonauts, and leaped 
overboard, in order to swim to the island 
of the Sirens ; but Venus caught him up, 
and conveyed him to Lilybasum in Sicily, 



where she became by him the mother of 
Eryx. — II. Son of Pandion, king of Athens, 
and brother of Erechtheus. The father 
divided his offices between his sons, giving 
Erechtheus his kingdom, and Butes the 
priesthood of Minerva, and Neptune Erich- 
thonius. Butes married Chthonia, daughter 
of Erechtheus, and the sacerdotal order of 
the Butadae deduced their lineage from him. 
— III. An armour-bearer of Anchises, and 
afterwards of Ascanius. Apollo assumed 
his shape, when he encouraged Ascanius 
to fight. Butes was killed by Turnus. 

Buthrotum, a town of Epirus, opposite 
Corcyra, visited by iEneas in his way to 
Italy from Troy. It was originally a 
small place, but was subsequently fortified 
by the Romans. 

Buto, one of the most ancient deities- of 
the Egyptians, to whom Isis, when perse- 
cuted by Typhon, entrusted her two 
children, Horus and Bubastis. She was 
worshipped chiefly in Butos, whither she 
had fled with the children above mentioned, 
and she is sometimes regarded as identical 
with Latona. 

Butos. a town of iEgypt, at the Seben- 
nytic mouth of the Nile, famous for its 
temples of Apollo and Diana, and an oracle 
of Latona or Buto. 

Btblus, a maritime town of Phoenicia, 
where Adonis had a temple. The modern 
name is Esbile. 

Bvrsa, a citadel of Carthage, on which 
was the temple of iEsculapius. It is said 
that when Dido came to Africa, she bought 
of the inhabitants as much land as could 
be encompassed by a bull's hide. She 
then cut the hide in small thongs, and in- 
closed a large territory, on which she built 
a citadel called Byrsa (Pvpcra, a hide) ; but 
the name is more probably derived from 
the Punic word Basra, a fortification. 

Byzacium, a district of Africa Propria, 
above the Syrtis Minor, in possession of 
the Carthaginians. The limits of this dis- 
trict were afterwards extended by - being 
united to that called Emporiae, which lay 
below it. 

Bvzaktium, a celebrated city on the 
Thracian Bosphorus, founded by a colony 
from Megara, under the conduct of Byzas, 
a Thracian prince, b. c. 658. Its ad- 
mirable position raised it, at a very early 
period, to commercial prosperity; though 
it was frequently exposed to attacks from 
the Thracians, Bithynians, Gauls, and, 
subsequently, the Greeks and Romans. It 
would be impossible within our limits to 
give even an outline of its varied history. It 
was destroyed by the Roman emperor Se- 
verus, and rebuilt by Constantine a. d. 328, 



BYZ 



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127 



who transferred thither the seat of empire 
from Rome, and called the city after his 
own name Constantinopolis. The ancient 
city had possessed a circuit of forty stadia ; 
but the new city was nearly thrice as large. 
Every effort was made to embellish it ; an 
imperial palace, numerous residences for 
the chief officers of the court, churches, 
baths, &c. were erected; inhabitants were 
procured from every quarter ; and the 
rapid increase of the population called for 
a corresponding enlargement of the city, 
until, in the reign of Theodosius II., it 
attained its present circumference. The 
Turks call Constantinople Stamboul, or 
Istambol, a corruption of the modern 
Gr. phrase is rau irdXiv. A number of Gr. 
writers, who have obtained the name of 
Byzantine Historians, flourished at Byzan- 
tium, after the seat of the empire had been 
translated thither from Rome. 

Byzas, king of Thrace, from whom 
Byzantium received its name. He was 
styled son of Neptune, i. e. a famous navi- 
gator. 

C. 

Cabalaca, Kablasvar, a town of Al- 
bania, on the south-eastern declivity of 
Caucasus, near the Caspian sea. 

Caballinum, a town of the iEdui in 
Gallia Lugdunensis, now Chalons-sur- 
Sadne. 

Cabira, I., one of the Oceanides, and 
a wife of Vulcan. Her offspring, ac- 
cording to some mythologists, were the 
deities called Cabiri. — II. A town of 
Pontus, in Asia Minor, at the foot of Mt. 
Paryadres. It was the favourite residence 
of Mithridates, on whose second defeat it 
fell into the hands of Lucullus. The name 
of the city was subsequently changed into 
Diopolis by Pompey ; and, at a still later 
period, Pythodorus fixed his residence there, 
and gave it the name of Sebaste. 

Cabiri, deities held in great veneration 
at Thebes and Lemnos, but more particu- 
larly in the islands of Samothrace and Im- 
bros. They were supposed to have been 
the offspring of Vulcan and Cabira, from 
whom they derived their name, and, having 
taught men the art of working the metals, 
to have been deified by a grateful posterity. 
Their number is variously given ; and all 
the circumstances of their origin and his- 
tory are covered with an impenetrable veil 
of obscurity. The festivals called Cabiria 
were annually celebrated with great so- 
lemnity, and lasted nine days. 

Caca, a goddess among the Romans, 



sister of Cacus, who, according to one ver- 
sion of the story, discovered to Hercules 
where her brother had concealed his oxen. 
The Vestals offered sacrifices in her tem- 
ple. 

Cacus, a famous robber, son of Vulcan 
and Medusa, and represented as 

" Monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens, cui 
lumen ademptum." 

He dwelt in the gloomy recesses of 
the Aventine Hill ; and the avenues of 
his cave were covered with human bones. 
When Hercules returned from the con- 
quest of Geryon, Cacus stole some of 
his oxen, and dragged them backwards 
into his cave to prevent discovery. Her- 
cules, after partaking of Evander's hos- 
pitality, was on the eve of departure with- 
out perceiving the theft ; but his oxen 
having lowed, were answered by those in 
the cave of Cacus, and the hero thus be- 
came acquainted with his loss. He there- 
upon attacked Cacus ; and having, after a 
desperate conflict, during which Cacus vo- 
mited forth fire and smoke, strangled him 
in his arms, erected the Ara Maxima to 
Jupiter Servator, in commemoration of his 
victory. An annual festival was instituted 
by Evander and his infant colony in honour 
of the hei-o who had delivered them from 
such a calamity. 

Cacuthis, a river of India, flowing into 
the Ganges, to the north of Benares. 

Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes, founded 
by Cadmus, and, as in the case of the Acro- 
polis of Athens, forming the kernel round 
which the city of Thebes was afterwards 
built. 

Cadmeis, an ancient name of Boeotia. 

Cadmus, I., son of Agenor, king of Phoe- 
nicia and Telephassa or Agriope, and bro- 
ther of Europa. The latter having been 
carried off by Jupiter, Agenor commanded 
his sons, Cadmus, Phoenix, and Cilix, to 
go forth, and not to return till they had 
recovered their sister. The search proving 
fruitless, Cadmus consulted the oracle of 
Apollo, and was ordered to build a city 
where he should see a young heifer stop 
in the grass. Leaving the temple, he 
found a heifer belonging to Pelagon, which 
he purchased, and followed till she came 
to the* site of Thebes in Boeotia, where 
she lay down. Thereupon, desirous of 
sacrificing to the gods, he sent his com- 
panions to fetch water from a neighbour- 
ing fountain sacred to Mars. But the 
waters were guarded by a dragon, which 
devoured all the Phoenician's attendants. 
Cadmus then attacked the dragon in person, 
overcame it by the assistance of Minerva, 
g 4 



128 



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CiEL 



and sowed its teeth in a plain, on which 
armed men suddenly rose up, and, turning 
their arms one against the other, fought 
till all perished except five, who assisted 
him in building his city. After spending 
a year in servitude to Mars for having 
killed the sacred dragon, he was so fa- 
voured of Minerva that she procured for 
him in marriage Hermione, daughter of- 
Mars and Venus ; and all the gods even 
descended. from Olympus to be present at 
the celebration of their nuptials. The dis- 
astrous fate of all his children, Semele, 
Ino, Autonoe, Agave, and Polydorus, will 
be told in another place. Their well- 
known misfortunes so distracted Cadmus 
and Hermione, that they retired to Illyri- 
cum, which received him as its sovereign, 
and shortly afterwards entreated the gods 
to remove them from life, and were changed 
into serpents. Cadmus is said to have 
first introduced the use of letters into 
Greece ; but others maintain that the al- 
phabet brought from Phoenicia was only 
different from that used by the ancient in- 
habitants of Greece. This alphabet con- 
sisted only of sixteen letters, to which 
Simonides of Ceos added |, 77, ip, w, and 
Epicharmus the Sicilian 0, £ <p, x- Cad- 
mus is supposed to have come into Greece 
b. c. 1493, and died sixty-one years after. 
It must be remarked that modern philolo- 
gists in general reject the story of the 
Thebans being of Phoenician origin ; and, 
considering that Homer and Hesiod de- 
signate the Thebans by the name of Cad- 
mseans, and the country itself the Cad- 
masan Land, are inclined to look upon 
Cadmus in the same light as Pelasgus, 
Ion, Thessalus, and others, who are now 
regarded as personifications of the name of 
a people. — II. A native of Miletus, who 
lived b. c. 520, considered by Pliny as the 
oldest of the logographi, and as the first 
prose writer. He was also the first that 
bore the title of aocpicrrris, which after- 
wards became so famous. His work on 
the antiquities of his native city was 
abridged by Bion of Proconnesus. 

Caduceus, the wand of the god Mer- 
cury, with which he conducted the 
souls of the dead to the infernal regions. 
It was said to have been presented to 
Mercury by Apollo, in return for his 
invention of the lyre. It was of gold ; 
but at a later period, when the cadu- 
ceus was used as a staff or mace carried 
by heralds in time of war, it was only 
an olive branch, entwined at one end by a 
representation of two serpents. The ori- 
gin of its use among the Greeks and Ro- 
mans is ascribed to Mercury, who, it is 



said, having once found two serpents fight- 
ing, separated them with his wand, which 
became, from this circumstance, the emblem 
of peace. 

Cadurci, a people of Gallia Celtics, 
living near the two northern branches of the 
Garomna. Their capital was Divona, 
afterwards called Cadurci from themselves, 
now Cahors. 

Cadytis, a town of Syria, supposed by 
some to be identical with Gath, and by 
others with Jerusalem. It is supposed 
to be a corruption of the Hebrew " Ke- 
dosha," signifying holy city. 

C^ea. See Ceos. 

GasciAS, a wind blowing from the north- 
east. 

Cjecilia (Gens*), a distinguished ple- 
beian family at Rome, descended from 
Caucus, one of the companions of ^Eneas, 
or Caeculus, son of Vulcan. The prin- 
cipal branch of this family were the Me- 
telli. 

CmciiIvs, I., Metellus. (See Metel- 
lus.) — II. Statius, a Comic poet, origin- 
ally a Gallic slave, whose productions 
were placed by the Romans on an equality 
with those of Terence and Plautus. Frag- 
ments of nearly thirty of his pieces remain. 
He died one year after Ennius. 

C^cina Alienus, a celebrated general, 
born in Gaul, who served and deserted 
alternately and in succession the emperors 
Galba, Vitellius, and Vespasian. He had 
even formed a conspiracy against the last, 
when Titus discovered it, and ordered 
him to be slain at a banquet. 

C^cubus Ager, a district near Formia? 
and Caieta in Latium, famous for its 
wines. 

Caeculus, so called because his eyes 
were small, a son of Vulcan, begotten 
by a spark of fire which fell into his mo- 
ther's bosom. After a life spent in rapine, 
he built Prameste. Virgil says that he 
was found in the fire by shepherds, and 
on that account called son of Vulcan, god 
of fire. 

C^eles Vibexna. See C^elius, IV. 

C^elius, L, a young Roman of consi- 
derable acquirements, who was entrusted 
to Cicero to be instructed in the law. He 
engaged in an intrigue with Clodia, sister 
of Clodius ; and having afterwards deserted 
her, he was accused by Clodius, at her 
instigation, of an attempt to poison her, 
and of a design to assassinate Dio, the 
Alexandrian ambassador. Cicero de- 
fended his cause in an oration still extant. 
— II. Aurelianus, a medical writer. (See 
Aureliands.) — III. Sabinus, a writer in 
the age of Vespasian, who composed a trea- 



CiES 



129 



tise on the edicts of the Curule iEdiles. 
— IV. One of the seven hills on which 
Rome was built. Romulus surrounded 
it with a ditch and ramparts; and the 
succeeding kings enclosed it with walls. 
It is supposed to have received its name 
from Caeles Vibenna, king of Etruria, who 
assisted Romulus against the Sabines. 

C-ene, or C^enepolis, I., a town of 
JEgypt, in the Panopolitan Nome, sup- 
posed to be Ghenne or Kenne.— • II. See 

TjSSNARUS. 

C^eneus. See C^nis. 

C^enides, a patronymic of Eetion, as 
descended from Caeneus. 

C^nina, a town of Latium near Rome. 
The inhabitants, Caeninenses, made war 
against the Romans, after the rape of the 
Sabines ; but were conquered, and received 
a Roman colony. 

CLenis, a Thessalian woman, who ob- 
tained from Neptune the power to change 
her sex and become invulnerable. Having 
changed her name into Caeneus, she ob- 
tained great celebrity in the wars of the 
Lapithae against the Centaurs ; but having 
offended Jupiter, was overwhelmed with 
a huge pile of wood, and changed into a 
bird. Virgil represents-her under a female 
form in the lower world. 

C^enys, a promontory of Italy, in 
the country of the Brutti, north of Rhe- 
gium. 

one of the most considerable 
cities of Etruria, founded by the Tyr- 
rhenian Pelasgi. The more ancient name 
was Agylla, which, indeed, is always used 
by the Greek writers. The earliest no- 
tice of Caere represents her as seeking, in 
conjunction with the Carthaginians, to 
dispossess the Phocians of their settle- 
ments in Corsica; and, on her success, 
treating the vanquished with unparalleled 
cruelty. But, at a subsequent period, her 
inhabitants had a great reputation for jus- 
tice. The Romans were first engaged in 
hostilities with Caere in the reign of Tar- 
quinius Priscus. Under Servius Tullius 
a treaty was concluded between the two 
states ; and long afterwards, when Rome 
was captured by the Gauls, the inhabit- 
ants of Caere rendered her the most vital 
aid, for which the Romans admitted them 
to the privileges of Roman citizens, though 
without the right of voting. Upon this 
subject the reader will find some interest- 
ing remarks in Niebuhr's Roman History, 
vol. i. 

Cesar, a surname originally given to 
the Julian family at Rome, but assumed 
as a mark of dignity by the emperors after 
Nero ; and subsequently became the title 



of the heir presumptive of the empire, and 
the next title of dignity after Augustus. 
The Twelve Caesars, as they are styled in 
history, reigned in the following order •. 
Jul. Caesar, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, 
Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, 
Vespasian, Titus, Domitian. In Do- 
mitian, or rather in Nero, the family of 
Jul. Caesar was extinguished. Suetonius 
has written an account of these twelve 
characters. — I., C. Jul. Caesar, dictator 
of Rome, son of L. Caesar and Au- 
relia, daughter of Cotta, and said to 
have been descended from lulus, son of 
iEneas, was born July 10. b. c. 100. When 
in his 15th year he lost his father; the 
year after he was made priest of Jupiter ; 
and in his 1 7th year he married Cornelia, 
daughter of Cinna : an alliance which ren- 
dered him so obnoxious to Sylla, that, 
failing to effect a divorce, he took mea- 
sures to have him assassinated, but after- 
wards restored him to favour. He then 
sojourned some time at the court of Nico- 
medes, in Bithynia, whence he proceeded 
to take the command of the fleet that was 
to blockade Mitylene ; and afterwards 
went to Rhodes, where he studied, elo- 
quence under Apollonius Molo, contem- 
poraneously with Cicero. After the death 
of Sylla he returned to Rome. Though he 
at first did not take any active part in 
public affairs, he became soon successively 
military tribune, quaestor, and aedile, and 
gained golden opinions among the people 
by his splendid shows and entertainments. 
Soon afterwards he was appointed pon- 
tifex maximus ; and the year following 
obtained the government of Spain. On 
his return to Rome, he paid off his nu- 
merous and heavy debts from the spoils 
he had wrung from the poor barbarians of 
Spain ; obtained the consulship, which he 
rendered famous and popular by passing 
an agrarian law ; and, by effecting a re- 
conciliation between the two great rivals 
Crassus and Pompey, led to the formation 
of what has been called the First Tri- 
umvirate. With Pompey he formed a 
still more intimate connection, by giving 
him his daughter Julia in marriage. When 
the year of his consulship had expired, 
Caesar obtained the government of Cisalpine 
Gaul and Illyricum, for a period of five 
years, with three legions at his disposal. 
Having married Calpurnia (his second 
wife Pompeia, whom he had married on 
the death of Cornelia, had been divorced on 
the affair of Clodius), he then set out for his 
command, and in the course of nine years, 
with incredible skill and bravery, reduced 
the whole country ; crossed the Rhine 
g 5 



130 



C^ES 



CiES 



twice, and subjected a great portion of 
Britain to the Roman sway. Meanwhile 
the death of Crassus, in his unfortunate 
campaign against the Parthians, dissolved 
the triumvirate. The death of Caesar's 
daughter Julia, which happened about 
this time, greatly weakened his bond of 
connection with Pompey, who had long 
been jealous of his colleague's brilliant suc- 
cess. It would be useless to detail the 
events that led to a complete rupture 
between the rival generals ; suffice it to 
say that Caesar, on the ground of the 
senate's having acted illegally, crossed the 
Rubicon, the boundary of his province, 
and marched directly to Rome, Pompey 
and his adherents fleeing before him. 
Having provided himself with money from 
the public treasury, he went to Spain, 
where he conquered the partisans of Pom- 
pey under Petreius, Afranius, and Varro ; 
stormed Marseilles, and was appointed 
dictator on his return to Rome. Mean- 
while Pompey had collected an army in 
the East, whither Caesar went in pursuit 
of him. Both armies met on the plains 
of Pharsalia in Thessaly. The fortune of 
Caesar prevailed. Pompey fled into Egypt, 
where he was murdered. Ca\sar, without 
loss of time, followed him ; and having 
with some difficulty reduced Egypt, de- 
livered it to Cleopatra. He then marched 
into Pontus against Pharnaces, son of 
Mithridates, and finished the war so 
rapidly that he framed his despatch 
only of the well-known words " Veni, 
vidi, vici. " After several other con- 
quests in Africa, the defeat of Cato, 
Scipio, and Juba, at Thapsus, and of 
Pompey's sons in Spain, he entered Rome 
in triumph, and was created perpetual 
dictator. But now his glory was at an 
end ; for though he treated his enemies 
with the greatest clemency, and regulated 
the affairs of state with the greatest wis- 
dom, a conspiracy was formed against him 
by sixty senators, the chief of whom were 
Brutus and Cassius, and he was murdered 
in the senate-house on the Ides of March, 
b. c. 44, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. 
It is said that he at first attempted to 
resist ; but when he saw Brutus among the 
conspirators, he muffled up his mantle, 
and exclaiming " Tu quoque, Brute" sub- 
mitted to his fate. He received, as he 
went to the senate-house, a paper from 
Artemidorus, relating the whole conspi- 
racy ; but neglected reading what might 
have saved his life. The learning of 
Caesar deserves commendation, as well as 
his military character. He reformed the 
calendar ; and his Commentaries on the 



Gallic Wars, written on the spot where 
he fought his battles, are models of ele- 
gance and perspicuity. It is said that he 
conquered 300 nations, took 800 cities, 
and defeated 3,000,000 men, 1,000,000 of 
whom fell in the field of battle. — II. Oc- 
tavius. See Augustus. 

G<esaraugusta, Saragossa, a town of 
Hispania Tarraconensis, built by Aug. 
Caesar, on the banks of the Iberus, on the 
site of the city Subduba. It was the 
birthplace of the poet Prudentius. 

Caesarea, the name of several cities 
built in honour of the Caesars, of which 
the chief were : — L, Kaisarieh, the prin- 
cipal city of Samaria, on the coast, an- 
ciently called Turris Stratonis, " Strata's 
Tower." The first inhabitants were Sy- 
rians and Greeks. It was subsequently 
made a magnificent city and port by 
Herod, who called it Caesarea in honour 
of Augustus. Caesarea is frequently men- 
tioned in the New Testament. Under Ves- 
pasian it became a colony, and received 
the name of Flavia. Eusebius was born 
there. — II. The capital of Mauritania 
Caesariensis, originally called Iol, but af- 
terwards Caesarea, by Juba, by whom it 
was greatly adorned. — III. Ad Argae- 
um, Kaisarieh, the capital of Cappadocia, 
at the foot of Mt. Argaeus, previously 
called Mazaca. — IV. Philippi, Banias, a 
town of Palestine, in the district Tra- 
chonitis. It was called Philippi to dis- 
tinguish it from the city of the same name 
in Samaria, having been repaired by Philip 
the Tetrarch ; and was afterwards named 
Neronias by Agrippa, in honour of Nero. 
In Scripture it is designated by the names 
Leshem, Laish, Dan, and Paneas. 

C^esarion, the reputed son of J. Caesar, 
by Cleopatra. At the age of thirteen he 
was proclaimed by Antony and his mother 
king of Cyprus, iEgypt, and Ccele- Syria, 
but was put to death five years afterwards 
by Augustus. 

C^esaris Ar^;, near the Tanais, in the 
country of the Don Cossacks ; supposed to 
have been erected in honour of one of the 
Roman emperors. 

C^esarodunum, Tours, capital of the 
Turones. 

C^esaromagus, I., Beauvais, capital of 
the Bellovaci. — II. A city of the Trino- 
bantes in Britain ; answering, it is sup- 
posed, to Chelmsford. The Peutinger 
Table calls it Baromacus. 

C^esia, Sylva, a wood in Germany, in 
the territory of the Istaevones and Si- 
cambri ; corresponding, it is supposed, to 
the present forest of Heserwald. 

Cjesius Bassus. See Aufimus. 



c^s 



CAL 



131 



Cmso, a Roman praenomen peculiar to 
the Fabian family. In ancient inscrip- 
tions it is usually contracted into K. 

Caicinus, a river of Italy in Bruttium, 
separating the territories of the Locri and 
Rhegium. It was said that the eicadae 
on the Locrian side of the river were al- 
ways chirping, while those on the other 
were always silent. 

Caicus, I., a companion of iEneas. — 
II. A river of Mysia, falling into the 
JEgean sea, opposite Lesbos. On its banks 
stood the city Pergamus, and at is mouth 
the port of Elaea. 

Caieta, Gaeta, a town and harbour of 
Latium, south-east of the promontory of 
Circeii. Various derivations have been 
assigned to the word, but none are satis- 
factory. The harbour was considered one 
of the best and most commodious in Italy. 

Caius and Caia, a prasnomen very 
common at Rome to both sexes. At an 
early period of Roman history, C in its 
natural position denoted the male, and 
when reversed the female ; thus C was 
equivalent to Caius, and 3 to Caia: but 
this custom soon fell into desuetude. 

Calaber. See Quintus, II. 

Calabria, the part of Italy occupied by 
the ancient Calabri, comprising that por- 
tion of the Iapygian peninsula extending 
from Brundisium to Hydruntum, and cor- 
responding nearly to what is now called 
Terra di Lecce. It was also called Mes- 
sapia and Iapygia. The country was fer- 
tile, producing a great variety of fruits, 
cattle, and honey. This district gave birth 
to the poet Ennius ; hence Horace, in 
allusion to Ennius, speaks of the Calabras 
Pierides. 

Calagurris, the name of two cities of 
ancient Spain, in the territory of the Vas- 
cones ; viz. C. Fibularensis, answering to 
Culahorra, and C. Nascica, corresponding 
to Loharre. 

Calais and Zethes. See Zethes. 

Calamis, an ancient statuary and en- 
graver in silver, whose epoch and birth- 
place are unknown, though the former is 
generally referred to that of Phidias. 
Cicero and Quintilian speak of his per- 
formances in bronze, marble, and several 
other substances. 

Calamus, a celebrated gymnosophist, 
who followed Alexander from India, and 
becoming unwell when he reached Persia 
caused a funeral pile to be erected, and 
ascended it unmoved in his eighty-third 
year. Plutarch relates, that on taking 
leave of the Macedonians, he desired them 
to spend the day in merriment with their 
sovereign ; " For," said he, " I shall see him 



in a little while at Babylon. " Three months 
afterwards Alexander died at Babylon. 

Calaurea, an island in the Sinus Sa- 
ronicus, opposite the harbour of Trcezene 
in Argolis. It was famous for the temple 
of Neptune, who was regarded here with 
such veneration that seven confederate 
cities used to hold assemblies for the pur- 
pose of joining in his worship. The 
temple, which was looked upon as an m< 
violable sanctuary, was rendered doubly 
celebrated for being the spot where De- 
mosthenes took refuge when pursued by 
the satellites of the Macedonians, and 
where he subsequently terminated his ex- 
istence by poison. The Calaureans raised 
a monument to his memory, and paid him 
divine honours. It is now called Poro. 

Calchas, a soothsayer, son of Thestor, 
who, having received the power of divina- 
tion from Apollo, accompanied the Greeks 
to Troy in the office of soothsayer and 
high priest. He foretold the duration of the 
siege of Troy, and many of the most re- 
markable occurrences that took place 
during the Trojan war. After the capture 
of Troy, he retired to Colophon in Ionia, 
where he died of grief at being foiled in a 
trial of prophetic skill by Mopsus, thus 
fulfilling the prediction mentioned by- 
Sophocles, that Calchas should not die 
until he had met a prophet more expert 
than himself. 

Caledonia, the name given by the 
Roman writers to that part of Britain 
which lay north of the friths of Clyde 
and Forth, which formed the permanent 
boundaries of the Roman province. Agri- 
cola was the first Roman general that 
came in contact with the Caledonians ; 
and a graphic account of his advance, vic- 
tories, and retreat has been given by Ta- 
citus in his Life of Agricola. The reddish 
colour of their hair and the size of their 
limbs induced Tacitus to believe the Cale- 
donians of German extraction. The name 
Caledonia has been long applied to the 
whole of Scotland. 

Calentum, a city of Hispania Ba?tica, 
corresponding to Cazalla, famous for the 
manufacture of bricks of such lightness 
that they could float. 

Cales, Calvi, a city of Campania, south 
of Teanum, celebrated for its vineyards. 
It belonged originally to the Ausones, but 
was conquered by the Romans, and colo- 
nised a. u. c. 421. 

Caletes, a Belgic tribe in Gaul, inha- 
biting the peninsula which the Sequana 
makes with the sea, now Le Pays de Caux. 
Their capital was Juliobona, now Lille- 
bonne. 

g 6 



132 



CAL 



CAL 



Caligula, Caius Cms. Aug. Germani- 
cns, third Roman emperor, son of Ger- 
manicus and Agrippina, and adopted son 
of Tiberius, whom he succeeded, was born 
a. d. 1 2, in the camp, probably in Ger- 
many, and received the surname of Cali- 
gula, from his being arrayed, when young, 
like a soldier, and wearing a little pair of 
caliycB, a military covering for the feet. 
His accession to the throne was hailed 
with acclamation ; and the benevolence, 
and even magnanimity of the first few 
months of the new reign, formed a pleas- 
ing contrast to the tyranny and cruelty of 
his predecessor. But a disease, caused, it 
is said, by an abortive attempt on the part 
of his mother to poison him, ensued ; and 
the remainder of his reign, subsequent to 
his recovery, was marked by such excesses 
of prodigality, impiety, lust, and cruelty, 
that, for the honour of mankind, he must 
be believed to have been insane. It is 
painful to enter into details respecting the 
acts of a madman ; and we shall, there- 
fore, only add, that a conspiracy having 
been formed against him by a number of 
senators, he was assassinated by Chasrea, 
a tribune of the praetorian cohorts, in the 
twenty-ninth year of his age, and the 
fourth of his reign, a. d. 41. 

Calitpus of Cyzicus, lived about b. c. 
320. He is said to have been a pupil of 
Plato ; but nothing certain is known re- 
specting him, except that he made the 
correction of the Metonic cycle, which is 
known by the name of the Calippic pe- 
riod. 

Calixtus, succeeded Zephirines in 
the papal chair a. d. 219, and died 222. 
He is said, but on insufficient authority, 
to have died a martyr. The famous ce- 
metery in Rome derived its name from 
him. 

Callaici, or Call^ci, a people in the 
north-west of the Spanish peninsula, in- 
habiting Gallicia, and the Portugese pro- 
vinces Entre-Douro-y-Minho and Tras los 
Montes. 

Calle, Oporto, a sea-port town of the 
Callaici, at the mouth of the Durius. 
From Portus Calles is derived the modern 
name Portugal. 

Callias, a rich Athenian, who offered 
to release Cimon, son of Miltiades, from 
prison, into which he had been thrown 
through inability to pay his father's fine, 
if he would give him the hand of Elpinice, 
Cimon's sister and wife. Cimon consented, 
but with great reluctance. This custom 
of marrying sisters at Athens extended 
only to sisters by the same father, and was 
forbidden in the case of sisters by the same 



mother. Elpinice was taken in marriage 
by Cimon, because, in consequence of his 
extreme poverty, he was unable to provide 
a suitable match for her. 

Callicolone, a hill of Troas, on the 
banks of the Simois, about 40 stadia north- 
west of Troy. It derived its name from 
the pleasing regularity of its form (/caArj 
tcoXoovr)), and the groves with which it was 
adorned. 

Callicrates, I., an Athenian, who 
caused Dion to be assassinated. (See 
Dion. ) — II. An officer intrusted by Alex- 
ander with the care of the treasures of 
Susa. — III. An architect, who, in con- 
junction with Ictinus, built the Parthenon 
of Athens, and undertook to complete the 
long walls called cr^eArj. He appears to 
have lived about Olymp. 80-85. — IV. A 
sculptor of Lacedaemon, whose age is un- 
certain, distinguished for the minuteness 
of his performances. Thus he is said to 
have inscribed some verses of Homer on 
a grain of sesamum. 

Callicratidas, a Spartan, who having 
succeeded Lysander in the command of 
the fleet, took Methymna, and routed 
the Athenian fleet under Conon ; but was 
defeated and killed near the Arginusas in 
a naval battle, b. c. 406. 

Callidromus, the highest summit of 
Mt. QEta, famous for the defeat of An- 
tiochus by Cato and Acilius Glabrio. 

Callimachus, I., a celebrated poet, de- 
scended of an illustrious family, was born at 
Cyrene b. c. 256. He established himself at 
Alexandria, where he gave instruction in 
grammar or belles-lettres, and enjoyed in 
an eminent degree the favour of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus. A voluminous author both 
in prose and verse, he was chiefly cele- 
brated as a writer of elegies, and was the 
model chosen by Catullus and Propertius 
in this species of composition. Some idea 
of his style may be formed from the little 
poem " De Coma Berenices," which Ca- 
tullus is supposed to have translated from 
the Greek of Callimachus. Of his nu- 
merous writings only six hymns, addressed 
to different deities, a collection of epi- 
grams, and a few disjointed fragments 
have reached our times. — II. A celebrated 
statuary, engraver, and painter, whose ex- 
cellence procured for him from the Athe- 
nians the epithet Kardrexvos. 

Calliope, daughter of Jupiter and 
Mnemosyne, the Muse who presided over 
eloquence and heroic poetry ; represented 
with books, and sometimes with a trumpet, 
in her hand. She was the mother of Or- 
pheus and of Linus, and derived her name 
from her beautiful voice (/caAos oty). 



CAL 



CAL 



Callipatira, daughter of Diagoras, and 
wife of Callianax the athlete, who accom- 
panied her son Pisidorus to the Olympic 
games, disguised in man's clothes, women 
not being permitted to be present. When 
Pisidorus was declared victor, she be- 
trayed her sex through excess of joy, and 
was arrested. The victory of her son 
obtained her release ; but a law was in- 
stantly made, which forbade any wrestlers 
to appear but naked. 

Calliphon, I., a painter of Samos, whose 
pictures decorated the temple of Diana at 
Ephesus. His subjects were taken from 
the Mad. — II. A philosopher, mentioned 
by Cicero, who made the summum bonum 
consist in pleasure, joined to the love of 
honesty. 

Callipolis, I., a city of Thrace, near 
JEgos-potamos ; the modern Gallipoli. It 
is supposed to have derived its name either 
from Callias, an Athenian general, or from 
the beauty of its site (/caA^ tt6\is). — II. 
Gallipoli, a town of Sicily. — III. A city of 
Calabria, on the Sinus Tarentinus, founded 
by Leucippus of Lacedsemon. It is now 
Gallipoli. 

Callirrhoe, the name of several women 
and fountains celebrated in antiquity. The 
chief of these were : — I. , a daughter of the 
Scamander, who married Tros, and became 
the mother of Ilus, Ganymede, and Assa- 
racus. — II. A young lady of Calydon, 
distractedly beloved by Coresus, priest of 
Bacchus. Unable to gain her affections, 
he implored Bacchus to revenge her in- 
sensibility ; and the Calydonians being in 
consequence afflicted with phrensy, the 
oracle commanded the immolation of Cal- 
lirrhoe, or of a substitute. The nymph 
was led to the altar ; but Coresus, who 
was about to perform the sacrifice, re- 
lented, and turned the knife against him- 
self ; and Callirrhoe, moved with compas- 
sion, sacrificed herself to appease his 
Manes. — III. Daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, and mother of Echidna, Geryon, 
Cerberus, and other monsters; by Chrysaor. 
— IV. Daughter of the Achelous, and se- 
cond wife of Alcmaeon, whose death she in- 
nocently caused by her desire to procure the 
famous necklace and collar which her hus- 
band had given to his former wife Arsinoe. 
On his death, Jupiter fulfilled her re- 
quest that her sons might be miracu- 
lously endowed with premature strength 
to avenge their father's murderers. See 
Alcmaeon. 

Calliste. See Thera. 
Callisthenes, I., a philosopher of 
Olynthus, and nephew of Aristotle, who 
placed him about the person of Alexander 



the Great as his instructor, or rather com- 
panion, during the expedition to India, 
He gave offence, however, by his rudeness 
and boldness of speech ; and being even- 
tually charged with being involved in a 
conspiracy against the king, he was put to 
such excruciating tortures that he took 
poison and died. Other accounts repre- 
sent him as having been first tortured, and 
then hanged, by order of Alexander. 

Callistia, "beauty's rewards;" part of 
a festival at Lesbos, at which all the 
women presented themselves in the temple 
of Juno, and a prize was assigned to the 
fairest. An institution of the same kind 
existed among the Parrhasians. The 
Eleans had one also, in which men only 
were allowed to compete ; and the victor 
received as a prize a suit of armour, which 
he dedicated to Minerva. 

Calhsto and Calisto, called also 
Helice, daughter of Lycaon, king of Ar- 
cadia, and one of Diana's attendants. She 
was deceived and betrayed by Jupiter, and 
moreover transformed by the god into a 
bear, to screen her from the jealousy of 
Juno. After many years' wanderings in 
this shape, she was met, and nearly slain, 
by her son Areas, who was hunting in the 
woods ; but Jupiter arrested the arrow he 
had aimed at her, and, in recompense for 
her sufferings, planted her, together with 
her son, as a constellation in the heavens. 
Juno, however, still burning with jealousy, 
begged as a boon from Tethys that her 
rival might never be permitted to cool 
herself in the ocean. Various versions of 
this story were given by the ancients. 

Callistratus, an Athenian, whose elo- 
quence is said to have first inspired De- 
mosthenes with a love of oratory. He 
was employed on several occasions, both as 
a general and a statesman, but ultimately 
met the usual fate of the leaders of that 
" fierce democratie," and was banished into 
Thrace, where he founded the city Datum. 

Calor, a river of Italy, which rose in 
the mountains of the Hirpini, passed Bene- 
ventum, and joined the Vulturnus. 

Calpe, a lofty mountain of Spain, op- 
posite Mount Abila on the African coast. 
These two mountains were called the Pillars 
of Hercules. Calpe is now called Gibraltar, 
from the Arabic " Gibel Tarik," The Moun- 
tain of Tarik, a Moorish general who first 
led the Moors into Spain, a. d. 710. 

Calpurnia, called also Calphurnia on 
some inscriptions, the name of a Roman 
family, which, although plebeian, traced 
its descent to Calpus, a son of Numa. 
The first member of this family that at- 
tained to the consulship, a. u. c. 573, was 



134 



CAL 



CAM 



C. Calpurnius, surnamed Piso, an appel- 
lation thenceforth adopted by all the mem- 
bers of the family. ( See Piso. ) The other 
two great branches of this family were 
those of Bestia and of Bibulus. There 
were several distinguished women of this 
name among the Romans. Of these 
the most distinguished were — Calpurnia, 
daughter of L. Piso, fourth and last wife 
of Julius Caesar. The night previous to 
his murder, having dreamed that the roof 
of her house had fallen, and that he had 
been stabbed in her arms, she attempted 
unsuccessfully to detain him at home. 
After Cassar's death, she intrusted Antony 
with his private treasures and papers, and 
thus contributed in some degree to his 
elevation. 

Calpurnius, I., Flaccus, a Latin orator, 
who lived in the reigns of Hadrian and An- 
toninus Pius. He is the author of a col- 
lection of rhetorical exercises, fifty-one of 
which have reached our times. — II. Titus 
Julius, a Latin pastoral poet of Sicily, who 
lived in the third century of our era, and 
enjoyed the favour of Nemesianus. Little 
can be said with certainty either as to the 
incidents of his life or the number and 
title of his works. Eleven of his eclogues 
have often been edited ; the best edition 
is to be found in Burman's Poctce Latini 
Minor es. 

Calvus, Corn. Licinius, a Roman, dis- 
tinguished as an orator and poet. As an 
orator he is spoken of by Cicero with great 
respect ; but little is known of his poetical 
merits, except that he is usually classed 
along with Catullus. He was also noted 
for his satirical effusions. 

Calycadnus, a large and rapid river of 
Cilicia Trachea, which rises in the central 
chain of Taurus, and, after receiving nu- 
merous tributary streams, falls into the sea 
between the Capes Zephyrium and Sar- 
pedon. It is now the Giuk-sou. 

Calvdn^;, a group of islands lying off 
the coast of Caria, south-east of'Leros, one 
of which was called Calymna, Calimno. 

Calydon, a city of JEtolia, famed in 
Greek story for the boar-hunt in its neigh- 
bourhood. (See Meleager.) Calydon was 
situated on a rocky height, in the centre 
of a large and fruitful district. Shortly 
after the Peloponnesian war, it was invested 
by an Achasan garrison, Avhich was driven 
out by Epaminondas after the battle of 
Leuctra. It was a place of importance as 
late as the time of Caesar; but Augustus 
completed its destruction by removing its 
inhabitants to Nicopolis. 

Calydonis, a name of Dejanira, a native 
of Calydon. 



CALYDONius,a surname of Bacchus, from 
the worship paid him in Calydon. " Caly- 
donius heros" was an epithet applied to 
Meleager. 

Calymna. See Calydn^. 

Calypso, a daughter of Atlas, or, ac- 
cording to others, one of the Oceanides, 
was queen of the island Ogygia, on which 
Ulysses suffered shipwreck. By the united, 
influence of her love and spells, Caiypso 
detained the hero seven years, and intended 
to confer on him the gift of immortality, 
to induce him to remain with her for ever ; 
but the command of Jove at length com- 
pelled her to consent to his departure, after 
which she became inconsolable. 

Camalodunum, the first Roman colony 
in Britain, supposed to be Maiden. 

Camaracum, a city of the Nervii in 
Belgic Gaul, now Cambray. 

Camarina, a city of Sicily, on the 
Hipparis ; founded by a colony from Syra- 
cuse, b. c. 600. The situation was un- 
healthy, owing to the exhalations that 
arose from a large marsh formed by the 
river in its vicinity ; but the marsh was con- 
sidered such an admirable barrier against 
invasion that it was long before an attempt 
was made to remove it. Hence the pro- 
verb fj.y KLuei Ka/j-apipav, " move not Cama- 
rina," implying that although the marsh was 
an evil, the removal of it would only lead 
to a greater. Camarina underwent many 
revolutions, having been destroyed and 
rebuilt three different times from its first 
foundation down to the first Punic war, 
when it sank entirely into insignificance. 
The name Camarina is still apjnied to the 
ruins that mark the site of the ancient 
town. 

Cambunii, a chain of mountains of Ma- 
cedonia, forming its southern boundary, and 
separating it from Thessaly. 

Cambyses, the name of two distinguished 
Persians, one the father, the other the son 
of Cyrus the Great, — I. Historians differ as 
to the origin of the elder Cambyses, some 
making him of obscure origin, others 
maintaining that he was "a prince of the 
line of the Achaemenides ; but it is pro- 
bable that there were two persons of this 
name, whose lives have been confounded 
by subsequent writers. Be this as it may, 
it is certain that the Cambyses who after- 
wards became father of Cyrus the Great 
could not have made any pretensions to 
kingly origin at the time when Astyages, 
king of Media, was induced to give him 
his daughter Mandane in marriage. — II. 
Son and successor of Cyrus the Great, as- 
cended the throne of Persia 529 b. c. 
Pursuing the ambitious projects of his 



CAM 



CAM 



135 



father, he invaded Egypt, and reduced it 
to a Persian province. He then directed 
his march against the ^Ethiopians; but 
his army being overwhelmed in the desert, 
he returned to Egypt, where he planned an 
invasion of Carthage, but without success. 
In Thebes, which he caused to be plun- 
dered, he appears to have become insane. 
At all events, the numberless acts of im- 
piety, ferocity, and cruelty, with which the 
last years of bis life were characterised, can 
only be ascribed to insanity. His sub- 
jects at length rose in rebellion ; and 
while he was preparing to crush it, he 
died of an accidental wound which he 
received from his own sword in descending 
from his horse at Ecbatana, a small town 
of Syria, b. c. 521. Some authors re- 
cognise in Cambyses the Ahasuerus of 
Scripture. He left no issue, and his 
throne was usurped by the Magi, and soon 
afterwards ascended by Darius. — III. A 
river of Asia, which rises at the base of 
Mons Coraxicus, a branch of Caucasus, 
and afterwards, joining the Cyrus, flows 
into the Hyrcanian sea. Modern geogra- 
phers have been unable to identify this 
stream. 

Camerinum, Camerino, a town of Um- 
bria, on the borders of Picenum. It was 
a Roman colony, and must not be con- 
founded with Camerte, also in Umbria. 

Camertes, a friend of Turnus, killed by 
iEneas. 

Camilla, queen of the Volsci, and daugh- 
ter of Metabus and Casmilla, was educated 
in the woods, and trained to the exercise of 
arms. Her father had dedicated her to the 
service of Diana ; but when she was de- 
clared queen she led the Volscians to bat- 
tle against iEneas. Many chiefs perished 
by her hand ; but she at last herself fell 
by the javelin of Aruns. Virgil gives a 
beautiful description of this heroine in the 
Seventh Book of the JEneid, representing 
her as so swift of foot as to outstrip the 
winds, skim over standing corn without 
bending the stalks, ■ and glide along the 
water without wetting her feet. 

Camilli and Camilla, boys and girls 
of free parents, who ministered in the sa- 
crifices of the gods. 

Camillus, M. Furius, a celebrated 
Roman, called a second Romulus, from 
his services to his country. After filling 
various important situations, and, among 
other achievements, taking the city of Yeii, 
which for ten years had resisted the Roman 
arms, and subduing the Faliscans, he was 
accused of embezzling some of the spoils 
taken at Veii, and, to prevent the disgrace 
of condemnation, went into voluntary 



exile. During his exile, Rome, with the 
exception of the Capitol, was taken by the 
Gauls under Brennus ; and in the midst 
of their misfortunes the Romans unani- 
mously revoked the sentence of exile, and 
elected him dictator. The noble-minded 
Roman marched to the relief of his coun- 
try, and after two battles, one fought in 
the city, the other on the road to Gabii, 
he completely exterminated the invaders. 
He performed another equally important 
service to his countrymen, in prevailing 
upon them to rebuild Rome, against the 
wish of the tribunes, who were anxious to 
remove the capital to Veii. After gaining 
victories over the iEqui, Volsci, Etrurians, 
and Latins, he died of the plague in his 
89th year, b.c. 365, after he had been 
five times dictator, once censor, thrice in- 
terrex, twice military tribune, and having 
obtained four triumphs. The main facts 
of the story of Camillus are said by modern 
writers to be destitute of historical truth ; 
the narrative of Livy being founded, in all 
probability, upon traditionary ballads. 

Camircs, Camiro, a town on the western 
coast of Rhodes ; so named from a son of 
Cercaphus, one of the Heliada?. 

Camcen^e, a name given to the Muses ; 
a cantu amceno, or, according to Varro, 
from car me n. 

Campania, a celebrated district of Italy, 
below Latium, from which it was origin- 
ally separated by the Liris ; but at a later 
period part of Latium was included in its 
limits. It now forms the territory Of the 
kingdom of Naples, called Terra di La- 
voro. This district has been celebrated in 
all ages for its extraordinary fertility and 
its genial climate ; and in ancient times 
it was studded with numerous cities, many 
of which, such as Capua, Nola, Baia?, Atella, 
Abella, Teanum, Cuma?, and Parthenope or 
Neapolis, Naples, have attained historical 
importance. It was originally peopled by 
the Osci. At a later period it was taken 
possession of by the Tuscans, who built 
Capua, the capital of the district ; but they, 
in their turn, yielded to the Samnites, who 
were finally driven out by the Romans, 
a. u. c. 411. During the brilliant suc- 
cesses of Hannibal, the inhabitants faltered 
for a season in their allegiance to Rome ; 
an offence which was visited with a rigour 
unexampled in history. See Capua. 

Campaspe, a lady of great beauty whom 
Alexander bestowed upon Apelles. 

Campi, I., Canini, a plain of Cisalpine 
Gaul, in the country of the Mesiates. cor- 
responding to the modern Vol di Misocco. 
— II. Diomedis, a plain of Apulia, on 
which the battle of Cannae was fought. — 



136 



CAM 



CAN 



III. Laborini, now the Terra di Lavoro, 
in Naples. 

Campsa, a town near Pallene. 

Campus Martius (so called, because 
dedicated to Mars), a large plain at Rome, 
inclosed by a bend of the Tiber, and bounded 
by the Capitoline and Quirinal hills, origi- 
nally used as a place of exercise, and for 
the meetings of the people. Towards 
the end of the republic, it began to be oc- 
cupied with buildings, and it was inclosed 
by the Emperor Aurelian within the walls. 
Amongst those buildings were : The Mau- 
soleum of Augustus ; the Antonine Pillar ; 
Septa Julia, or Ovilia, enclosures for the 
people to vote in ; Temple of Minerva, 
built by Pompey ; Pantheon, Rotonda ; 
Circus Agonalis; Pompey's Theatre. 

Canaria, the largest of the cluster of 
islands called by the ancients Fortunatae 
Insula?, Canary Islands. Its name was de- 
rived from a peculiar race of large dogs 
(canis) with which it abounded. See For- 
tunate Insula. 

Candace, the name of several queens 
distinguished in the history of iEthiopia ; 
but, according to a more probable conjec- 
ture, it was a name given to the queen- 
mothers of that country governing during 
the minority of their sons. Of these the 
most distinguished was Candace, who was 
blind of an eye, and made an irruption 
into Egypt during the reign of Augustus, 
b.c. 20. After having captured several 
cities, she was at last obliged to sue for 
peace from Petronius, who had invaded 
her dominions for the purpose of retalia- 
tion. It is, in all probability, the successor 
of this Candace who is mentioned in the 
Acts of the Apostles (viii. 27.) as the Queen 
of all the iEthiopias. 

Candavia, a district of Macedonia, 
bounded on the east by the Candavian 
Mountains ; supposed to be the same with 
the Carbunii Montes of Livy, and the 
Canaluvii Montes of Ptolemy. 

Candaules, or Mvrsilus, son of Myr- 
sus, the last of the Heraclidas who sat on 
the throne of Lydia. He was dethroned by 
Gyges, at the instigation of his own queen, 
whose feelings he had outraged. (Herod. 

Canephori, the virgins of honourable 
birth who carried on their heads a basket 
filled with the materials of sacrifice in the 
Panathenasa, Dionysia, and other public 
festivals. 

Caniculares Dies, certain days in the 
summer in which the star Canicula is 
said to influence the season, and to make 
the days more warm during its appearance. 
This idea originated with the Egyptians, 



from whom it was borrowed by the 
Greeks. The Romans sacrificed annually 
a dog to Canicula at its rising, to appease 
its rage. 

Canidia, a reputed sorceress at Rome, 
ridiculed by Horace. 

Caninefates, a people of Germania 
Superior, inhabiting the western part of 
the Insula Batavorum. 

Caninius Reeilus, C, consul with 
J. Caesar after the death of Trebonius. 
He enjoyed the dignity only seven hours ; 
for his predecessor having died on the last 
day of the year, he was chosen only for the 
remainder of the day. 

Cannes, a small village of Apulia, near 
the Aufidus ; celebrated for the defeat of 
the Romans by Hannibal, b. c. 217. The 
army of Hannibal was very inferior in 
numbers to that of his enemies ; but with 
a loss of only 4,000 men he put 50,000 
Romans to the sword, and took 10,000 
prisoners. The city of Cannas was de- 
stroyed the year before the battle, with the 
exception of its citadel ; but it was after- 
wards rebuilt, and became a bishop's see 
in the infancy of Christianity. 

Canopicum Ostium, the westernmost 
mouth of the Nile, 12 miles from Alex- 
andria. 

Canopus, a city of iEgypt, 12 miles 
from Alexandria, said to have derived its 
name from Canopus, pilot of the vessel of 
Menelaus, who was buried there. Virgil 
bestows on it the epithet of Pellcens, in al- 
lusion to the Macedonian conquest of the 
country, Canopus was a very ancient 
city, and previously to the foundation of 
Alexandria must have been of great im- 
portance, forming as it did the chief centre 
of communication between the interior of 
Egypt and the countries lying to the north. 
It was famous for the temple and oracle of 
Serapis, whose festivals were here cele- 
brated with great pomp. 

CantXbri, a ferocious people of Spain, 
who for more than 200 years resisted the 
Roman power. They were finally reduced 
by Agrippa, a. u. c, 734. Their country 
answers to Biscay, and part of Asturias. 

Cantium, Kent, a district of Britain. 
The name is derived from an old British 
word, signifying " angle," in allusion to 
the position of the district. 

Canuleia Lex, a law proposed by C. 
Canuleius, tribune of the people, a. u. c. 
310, permitting intermarriages between 
the patricians and plebeians. 

Canusium, a town of Apulia, on the 
right bank of the Aufidus, about twelve 
miles from its mouth. It was said to have 
been built by Diomede, or in a period ante- 



CAP 



CAP 



137 



cedent to the records of Roman history, 
and was one of the most considerable cities 
in Italy for extent, population, and mag- 
nificence. The Trails had a circumference 
of 16 miles ; and various ruins still remain 
to attest its former grandeur. Great num- 
bers of fictile vases have been found here, 
surpassing in size and beauty those dis- 
covered in the tombs of any other ancient 
eitv, not even excepting Xola. Canusium 
was the place to which the wreck of the 
Roman army retreated after the battle of 
Canna?. The city was colonised by Ha- 
drian, and it seems to have been at the 
acme of its prosperity under Trajan. The 
modern town of Canosa occupies the site 
of the ancient city. 

Capaseus, a noble Argive, son of Hip- 
ponous, one of the seven leaders in the 
war against Thebes, and noted for his 
daring and impiety. Having declared 
that he would take the Theban city, even 
in spite of Jupiter, he was struck with a 
thunderbolt : and when his body was being 
consumed on the funeral pile, his wife 
Evadne threw herself upon it, and perished 
in the flames. iEsculapius restored him 
to life. 

Capena, I., a gate of Rome, now the 
Gate of St. Sebastian. — II. A city of 
Etruria, south-east of Mount Soracte, 
which in the early period of its history 
opposed, though unsuccessfully, the en- 
croachments of the Roman power. Its 
site has not been accurately determined. 

Capeni, a people of Etruria, in whose 
territory Feronia had a grove and temple. 

CaphIreus, Capo a" Oro, a lofty moun- 
tain and promontory of Euboea, where 
Nauplius, king of the country, to revenge 
the death of his son Palamedes, slain by 
Ulysses, set a burning torch in the darkness 
of night to mislead the Grecian fleet. 

Capito, I., uncle of Paterculus, who 
joined Agrippa against Cassius. — II. Fon- 
teius, a Roman nobleman, a friend of Ho- 
race, sent by Antony to Brundisium to 
settle his disputes with Augustus. 

Capitoliki Ludi, games yearly cele- 
brated at Rome in honour of Jupiter, who 
preserved the Capitol from the Gauls. 

Capitolixus, I., a surname of Jupiter 
from his temple on Mt. Capitolinus. — II. 
A surname of M. Manlius, who, for his 
ambition, was thrown from the Tarpeian 
rock, which he had nobly defended. — III. 
Mons, one of the seven hills on which 
Rome was built, containing the citadel 
and fortress of the Capitol. It was called 
also Mons Saturnius and Mons Tarpeius. 
—IV. An appellation given to Petilius, go- 
vernor of the Capitol, who was accused 



of having stolen a golden crown conse- 
crated to Jupiter ; but he was acquitted by 
the judges, to gratify Augustus. — V. Ju- 
lius, one of those later Roman historians, 
whose works form what has been termed 
" The Augustan History." He lived in 
the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, 
and wrote several lives of the most distin- 
guished persons of his own age and that 
immediately preceding. 

Cafitolioi, a celebrated temple and 
citadel at Rome on the Tarpeian rock. 
The foundations were laid by Tarq. Pris- 
cus, b. c. 615 ; the walls were raised by 
his successor Sen-. Tullius ; Tarq. . Super- 
bus finished it, b. c. 533 ; and it was con- 
secrated by the consul Horatius, the third 
year after the expulsion of the kings. The 
ascent to it was by 100 steps. All the con- 
suls successively made donations to the 
Capitol, and Augustus bestowed on it at 
one time 2000 pounds weight of gold. 
The gilding of the arch of the temple of 
Jupiter cost 21,000 talents. The gates of 
the temple were of brass, covered with 
large plates of gold ; the inside wall was 
all of marble, adorned with vessels and 
shields of solid silver, with gilded chariots, 
&c. After it had been destroyed three 
times, Domitian raised it to greater gran- 
deur than it had been under any of his 
predecessors, and spent 12,000 talents in 
gilding it. This temple was the prin- 
cipal sanctuary of Rome. The consuls and 
magistrates offered sacrifices there when 
they first entered on their offices, and the 
procession in triumphs was also conducted 
to the Capitol. In process of time, nu- 
merous other temples were successively 
raised on the Capitoline Hill. It also 
contained a library, and various other 
public buildings. Various derivations have 
been assigned for the origin of the term, 
but none of them are satisfactory. 

Cappadocia, a country of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by Galatia and 
Pontus ; west by Phrygia ; east by the 
Euphrates; and south by Cilicia. Its 
eastern part was called Armenia Minor. 
Under the Persians the term Cappadocia 
had a more extended meaning than in 
later geography. It comprised two great 
divisions ; Cappadocia the Great (whose 
boundaries have been given above), often 
called simply Cappadocia, and Cappadocia 
bordering on the Pontus, often called only 
Pontus. (See Pontus.) It is said to have 
been first divided into two separate king- 
doms, or rather satrapies, by Darius Hys- 
taspes, whose sovereigns were at first vas- 
sals of the Persian empire, but subse- 
' quently established their independence. 



138 



CAP 



CAR 



Anaphus, one of the conspirators who 
slew the false Smerdis, was the founder of 
the new Cappadocian dynasty ; but his 
grandson, Datames, was the first who as- 
sumed the kingly title, and after him and 
his son Ariamnes there was a long list of 
princes, all bearing the title of Ariarathes. 
(See Ariarathes.) On the death of the 
last member of this dynasty, the Cappa- 
docians were offered their liberty by the 
Romans, but they refused to accept it. 
Three princes of a new dynasty, called 
Ariobarzanes, then followed, and these 
were succeeded by Archelaus ; on whose 
death Cappadocia was reduced to a Ro- 
man province, which it continued till it 
was invaded by the Turks. It receives 
its name from the river Cappadox, which 
separates it from Galatia, or from Cappa- 
docus, the founder. Traversed by the 
mountain chains of Argacus and Taurus, 
Cappadocia was rich in pasturage, and pro- 
duced large herds of cattle and an excel- 
lent breed of horses. The inhabitants were 
completely addicted to a pastoral life; but, 
unlike the shepherds of the other moun- 
tainous countries, were of a peaceful and 
slothful disposition. They bore the cha- 
racter of being unprincipled and faithless ; 
and on this account Cappadocia was consi- 
dered one of the three bad Kappas, or 
names beginning with the letters K or C, 
the Cilicians and Cretans being the other 
two. The inhabitants are called white 
Syrians (see Leuco-Strii) by Herodotus, 
to distinguish them from the more swarthy 
tribes beyond Mount Taurus. 

Cappadox, a river of Cappadocia, bound- 
ing it on the side of Galatia, and falling 
into the Halys. 

Capraria, Cabrera, I., a mountainous 
island, south of Balearis Major, Majorca, 
famous for goats. — II. One of the In- 
sula? Fortunatae, or Canaries, now Gomera. 

CAPREiE, Capri, an island off the coast 
of Campania, famous for being the abode 
of Tiberius, and the scene of his de- 
bauchery. 

Capricornus, a sign of the Zodiac, con- 
sisting of twenty-eight stars in the form of 
a goat. Some suppose it to be the goat 
Amaltha?a, which fed Jupiter with her 
milk ; while others maintained that Pan, 
assuming this form, when terrified at the 
giant Typhon, was transferred by Jupiter 
to the heavens, where he formed "this con- 
stellation. The Greek form of the word 
is iEgoceros. 

Capri pedes, a surname of Pan, the 
Fauni, and Satyrs, from their having goats' 
feet. 

Capsa, Cafsa, a town of Libya, in the 



district of Byzacium, surrounded by vast 
deserts. It was surprised by Marius, de- 
stroyed in the war of Caesar and Metellus 
Scipio, and afterwards rebuilt. Attempts 
have been made to identify this city with 
Hecatonpylos, a large city of Libya, 
founded by Hercules. 

Capua, a rich and flourishing city, the 
capital of Campania, situated in the centre 
of a beautiful plain not far from the Vul- 
turnus. It was founded about fifty years 
before Rome by the Tuscans, and was 
originally called Vulturnum ; but received 
the name of Capua about 400 years after- 
wards, when the Samnites took possession 
of it, either from Capys, the leader of 
the invaders, or from its situation in the 
plain. During the Punic war it vied in 
magnificence with Rome and Carthage. 
The citizens of Capua opened their gates 
to Hannibal after the battle of Canna? ; 
but five years afterwards it fell into the 
hands of the Romans, who inflicted on it 
a terrible retribution, by putting to the 
sword all the senators, imprisoning 300 
nobles, and condemning to slavery the 
great bulk of its inhabitants. From this 
period it fell into decay. The modern Ca- 
pua is built about 2\ miles from the ancient 
city, and has nothing in common with it, ex- 
cept that it is built of the ruins of the latter. 
(See Casilinum.) Various ruins, among 
which those of its splendid amphitheatre 
and its tombs, still exist to attest the splen- 
dour and magnificence of ancient Capua. 

Capys, I., a Trojan, who is fabled to 
have come with iEneas into Italy, and to 
have given its name to Capua, till that pe- 
riod called Vulturnum. — II. A son of 
Assaracus, by Hieromneme, daughter of 
the Simois ; father of Anchises by Themis, 
and grandfather of iEneas. 

Car, I., son of Phoroneus, king of Me- 
gara. — II. Son of Manes, who married 
Callirrhoe, daughter of the Meander. Caria 
received its name from him. 

Caracalla, Antoninus Bassianus, 
eldest son of the emperor Sever us, was born 
at Lugdunum (Lyons), a.d. 1 88. His name 
Caracalla was derived from a species of Gal- 
lic cassock which he introduced into Rome. 
In conjunction with his brother Geta he 
succeeded to the throne a. d. 211, by the 
will of his father ; but he soon afterwards 
caused Geta to be assassinated, under cir- 
cumstances of revolting barbarity, and 
got himself proclaimed sole emperor. Ca- 
racalla surpassed all his predecessors in 
effeminacy and debauchery, and equalled 
the worst of them in cruelty. His whole 
career, indeed, was a series of revolting 
crimes, relieved only by intervals of extra- 



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139 



vagant folly. Even when a boy he had 
attempted the life of his father ; and the 
murder of his brother was followed up by 
the massacre of 20,000 Roman citizens, 
whom he supposed to disapprove of his 
conduct. His largesses to the soldiers 
secured their services. Under his auspices 
the Roman arms were carried into every 
part of the world, but in almost every in- 
stance either sullied with defeat or obliged 
to accept humiliating terms of peace. But 
amidst all these humiliations the folly of 
Caracalla sustained no diminution, and his 
vanity satisfied itself with the assumption 
of titles and dignities ; thus, after a trea- 
cherous butchery of the flower of the Ale- 
manni, he assumed the epithet Alemannicus, 
and, subsequently, that of Parthias, from a 
victory over the Parthians which he never 
won. His vanity found exercise in de- 
corating the city with magnificent thermaa 
which bore his name, and other splendid 
structures, among which was a beautiful 
arch inscribed with the triumphs of his 
father. At length a conspiracy was formed 
against him at Edessa by Macrinus, a 
praetorian prasfect, in the sixth year of his 
reign, a. d. 217. It has been remarked of 
Caracalla that Alexander and Achilles were 
his heroes, but Tiberius and Nero his 
models. 

Caracates, a people of Germania 
Prima, in Belgic Gaul, whose territory 
corresponded to Mayence. 

Caractacus, king of the ancient British 
people, called Silures, inhabiting South 
Wales. After withstanding for the space 
of nine years the Roman arms, he was de- 
feated in a pitched battle by Ostorius Sca- 
pula, his forces put to the rout, and him- 
self betrayed into the hands of the Ro- 
mans by Cartismandua, queen of the Bri- 
gantes, with whom he had taken refuge. 
Great importance was attached to his cap- 
ture, which was compared to those of 
Syphax by Scipio, and of Perses by Paulus 
iEmilius. Claudius, who was emperor 
at the time, augmented the territories 
of Cartismandua, and triumphal honours 
were decreed to Ostorius. The manly 
and independent bearing, however, of the 
British prince, when brought into the pre- 
sence of the Roman emperor, excited so 
much admiration that his fetters were re- 
moved, and freedom was granted him, to- 
gether with his wife and children, who had 
shared his captivity. Some time after 
Claudius sent him back with rich presents 
to his native island, where he reigned two 
years a firm friend to the Romans. 

Caralis, or Carallis , a city of Sar- 
dinia, founded by the Carthaginians, and 



soon made the capital of the island. Its 
site is supposed to correspond to the mo- 
dern Cagliari. 

Carambis, a city and promontory ot 
Paphlagonia, now Karempi. 

Caranus, one of the Heraclidae, who 
first laid the foundation of the Macedonian 
empire, b. c. 814. He took Edessa; and 
having reigned twenty-eight years, was 
succeeded by Perdiccas. 

Carausius, a native of Gaul, whose abi-* 
lities induced Maximian to give him the 
command of a squadron against the pi- 
rates. Proving unfaithful to his trust, 
Maximian gave orders to put him to death ; 
but Carausius, apprised in season, retired 
with his fleet to Britain ; succeeded in in- 
timidating the only Roman legion in the 
island ; and, having finally proclaimed him- 
self emperor, forced Maximian to acknow- 
ledge his authority, which he maintained 
for seven years. He was ultimately assas- 
sinated by Allectus. 

Carbo, the surname of a branch of the 
Papirian family at Rome. Several dis- 
tinguished persons bore this title, among 
whom were — I., Caius, a Roman orator, 
contemporary and friend of Tiberius 
Gracchus, who committed suicide on being 
accused of sedition by L. Crassus. — II. 
Cneius, son of the preceding, espoused the 
party of Marius, and attained to the high- 
est offices in the state. He was joint 
colleague of Cinna in the consulship, 
a. u, c. 669, and the province of Gaul fell 
to his administration ; but on the death of 
Cinna he became sole consul, and carried 
on the war with Sylla. He was after- 
wards defeated by Pompey, taken prisoner 
in Sicily, and put to death a. u. c. 671. 

Carchedon, the Greek name of Car- 
thage. 

Carbia, a town in the Thracian Cher- 
sonesus, so called from being built in the 
shape of a heart. It was also called Hex- 
amilium, because the isthmus is here six 
miles across, and was destroyed by Ly- 
simachus when he founded Lysimachia ; 
but was afterwards rebuilt. It is now 
Hexamili. 

Carduchi, a warlike nation in Gor- 
dyene, a district of Armenia Major, in- 
habiting the mountains. The modern Kurds 
are said to be their descendants. 

Caria, a country in the south-west 
angle of Asia Minor, so named from Car, 
one of its ancient kings ; bounded on the 
west by the iEgean sea, on the south by 
the Mediterranean, on the north by the 
Menander, which separates it from Lydia, 
I and on the east by Phrygia and Lycia. 
Prior to the Trojan war, the Carians, who 



140 



CAR 



CAR 



are generally considered as one of the pri- 
mitive nations of Asia Minor, had acquired 
some celebrity at sea. Minos, king of 
Crete, established some colonies in that 
country, and their naval power was thence- 
forth shared with the Rhodians, Lesbians, 
and Thracians ; but they long retained the 
reputation of being addicted to piracy. 
Their history is little known. Caria ap- 
pears to have been divided into a number 
of independent states, each governed by 
its own sovereign ; but, at a subsequent 
period, Halicarnassus became the capital 
of the country, under one sovereign. 
Cafia fell successively under the Lydian, 
Persian, and Macedonian sway. It was 
taken by Scipio from Alexander's succes- 
sors, and given to the Rhodians ; but was 
finally annexed by the Romans to the pro- 
consular province of Asia. Caria was a 
fruitful country, producing wheat, oil, and 
wine in abundance. It is now called 
Muntesha. 

Carina, a street of Rome, where 
Cicero, Pompey, and others of the prin- 
cipal Romans dwelt. 

Carinus, M. Aureltus, eldest son of 
the emperor Carus, succeeded his father 
conjointly with his brother Numerianus, 
a. d. 284. Having been sent to Gaul 
during the life of his father, he gave him- 
self up to every kind of vice and de- 
bauchery, which were only increased when 
he was informed of his father's death. 
Meanwhile, Numerianus having been put 
to death by Afer, Diocletian proclaimed 
himself emperor ; and, after several doubt- 
ful engagements in Mcesia between the 
two rival armies, a decisive battle took 
place near Margum, in which Carinus 
was on the point of gaining a complete 
victory, when he was slain by a tribune of 
his own army, a^d. 285. 

Carmania, a country of Asia, between 
Persia and Gedrosia, now Kerman. Its 
capital was Carmania. 

Carmelus, a god of the Syrians, wor- 
shipped on Mount Carmel. 

Carmenta and Carmentis, mother of 
Evander, a prophetess of Arcadia, in 
whose honour the Romans erected a tem- 
ple near the Porta Carmentalis, and insti- 
tuted an annual festival on the 11th of 
January. Carmenta derived her name 
from her prophetic character, carmens 
being synonymous with vates. The Greek 
equivalent was Themis. Carmenta was 
also one of the fates who presided over the 
birth of men. 

Carmentalis Porta, one of the gates 
of Rome, near the Capitol. It was after- 
wards called Scelerata, because the Fabii 



passed through it in going on their fatal 
expedition. 

Carneades, a' philosopher of Cyrene, 
in Africa, founder of a sect called the 
Third or New Academy. Having re- 
paired to Athens to prosecute his studies, 
he first attached himself to the Stoics, at 
the head of whom were Diogenes and 
Chrysippus, a'nd subsequently joined the 
Academy, at that time under Egesinus, 
whom he succeeded. To his philosophical 
attainments he added a rare eloquence, 
which induced the Athenians to associate 
him with Diogenes the Stoic, and Critolaus 
the Peripatetic, in an embassy to Rome, b. c. 
1 55. There he opened a school of philo- 
sophy, which was frequented by vast num- 
bers of the Roman youth ; though some 
of the more severe of the senators, and 
particularly Cato, could not conceal their 
dislike to the skill with which, in his 
dialectical exercises, he " made the worse 
appear the better reason." Carneades is 
frequently mentioned by Cicero and other 
Roman writers with eulogy. He died at 
the age of ninety, b. c. 124. It is difficult 
to give a precise view of the doctrines of 
Carneades ; for his mind appears to have 
been of so disputative a character that he 
often propounded opinions, however para- 
doxical, merely to have the pleasure of 
defending them in argument, and without 
any regard to their intrinsic value. 

Carnia, a festival observed in most 
Grecian cities, but more particularly at 
Sparta, in honour of Apollo, surnamed 
Carneus. It was a species of warlike fes- 
tival, somewhat similar to the Boedromia 
of the Athenians, and was held in the 
month of August or September for nine 
days ; during which, besides the solemnities 
peculiar to itself, musical numbers, called 
Kapveioi v6p.oi, were sung by musicians who 
contended for victory. The origin of its 
institution is unknown ; though it is often 
maintained that the Dorians, having mur- 
dered a youth named Carnus, whom Apollo 
had instructed in divination, sought to 
conciliate the favour of the god by esta- 
blishing this festival. 

Carnutes, a people of Gaul, south-west 
of the Parisii ; one of the tribes that 
crossed the Alps in the time of Tarquinius 
Priscus. Autricum, Chartres, was their 
chief city. 

Carnutum, or Carnuntum, a city of 
Pannonia Superior, on the Danube. It 
became a place of importance in the war 
with the Marcomanni ; and the emperor 
M. Aurelius made it the central point 
from which he directed his operations 
against the Marcomanni and Quadri. 



CAR 



CAR 



141 



The barbarians destroyed it in the fourth 
century ; but it was afterwards rebuilt, 
and its ruins are now visible between 
Petronel and Altenburg, on the Danube. 

CarpXtes, a long chain of mountains in 
Dacia, called also Alpes Bastarnicae ; now 
Mt. Krapack. 

Carpathus, Scarpanto, and Carpatho, 
an island in the Mediterranean, between 
Rhodes and Crete, which gave the name 
of Mare Carpathium to part of the neigh- 
bouring sea. It was originally peopled by 
Minos, king of Crete, and an Argive co- 
lony. The chief town was Nisyrus. 

Carrie and Carrhje, a town of Meso- 
potamia, south-east, of Edessa, near which 
Crassus was killed. It is supposed to be 
identical with the Charran of Scripture, 
whence Abraham departed for the land of 
Canaan. 

Carseoli, Carsoli, a town of the iEqui 
on the Via Valeria, after whose final sub- 
jugation it became a Roman colony. It 
was sometimes selected by the senate as a 
residence for illustrious captives and host- 
ages. 

Carteia, a town of Hispania Bcetica, 
whose position has not been identified. 

Carthjea, Poles, a town in the island of 
Ceos; hence the epithet Cartheius. 

Carthago, a famous maritime city, long 
the rival of Rome. Carthage was princi- 
pally built along the coast of the peninsula 
to the north-east of Tunis, from a little 
north of the goletta or entrance to the 
lagoon of Tunis to Cape Carthage, and 
then round to Cape Quamart. It was 
defended on the land side, where it was 
most open to attack, by a triple line of 
walls of great height and thickness, flanked 
by towers that stretched across the penin- 
sula from the lagoon of Tunis to the sea on 
the north. The harbour lay to the south of 
Cape Carthage, and was entered from what 
is now the Gulf of Tunis. Having less 
to fear from attacks by sea than by land, 
the city had on that side only a single wall. 
At the period of its greatest splendour 
Carthage must have been one of the richest 
and finest cities of the ancient world. It 
consisted of three principal divisions ; viz. 
the Bi/rsa, or citadel, built on an emi- 
nence, the summit of which was occupied 
by a magnificent temple in honour of JEs- 
culapius ; and it also contained the famous 
temple of the Phoenician Astarte, the Juno 
of Virgil : the Megara, or town so called, 
lay to the west of the Byrsa, along the 
triple wall, and was of great extent, com- 
prising extensive squares and gardens. The 
third division was called the Cothon, or 
port : this, as its name implies, was arti- 



ficially excavated, and consisted of two 
great basins, an outer and an inner; the 
first for merchantmen, and the latter for 
ships of war. The access to both basins 
was by a common entrance, which was shut 
up by a chain ; and each was supplied with 
quays, warehouses, stores, &c., suitable to 
its destination. It was in this quarter that 
the seamen, shipwrights, merchants, and 
others connected with the warlike and mer- 
cantile marine of the republic, principally re- 
sided. Besides the public buildings already 
alluded to, Carthage had a famous temple 
in honour of its tutelar deity, Melcarthus, 
or Saturn, whose altars were sometimes 
stained with the blood of human victims ; 
with temples to Ceres, Jupiter, &c. It 
had also all the usual places of public re- 
sort and amusement, including a mag- 
nificent forum, a circus, and a theatre. 
The water within the precincts of the city 
seems to have been at once scarce and bad ; 
and to obviate the inconvenience thence 
arising vast cisterns, of which the ruins 
still exist, were constructed for the saving 
and preservation of rain-water. The 
streets were all paved ; and this essential 
improvement in the construction of streets 
is said to have been originally introduced 
by the Carthaginians. Strabo states that 
the population of Carthage amounted to 
700,000 ; but the best modern authorities 
maintain that no reliance can be placed on 
this statement, and that the population, 
previously to the destruction of Carthage 
by the Romans, cannot safely be estimated 
at above 250,000 persons, slaves included. 
The early history of Carthage is involved 
in the greatest obscurity. All that is cer- 
tainly known with respect to it is that it 
was founded by a body of emigrants from 
Tyre ; but of the occasion and epoch of 
their emigration we have no certain know- 
ledge. The common opinion is that Utica, 
also a Tyrian colony, was founded before 
Carthage ; and that the foundation of the 
! latter took place anno 1259 b. c. It is 
■ probable that the colony subsequently 
received fresh accessions of immigrants 
from the mother country ; and it is sup- 
posed that one of these was headed by 
I Elisa or Dido, to whom Virgil has as- 
I cribed the foundation of the city. The 
j Carthaginians appear to have inherit- 
ed in its fullest extent the enterprising 
I character of their ancestors ; and, like 
j them, were principally addicted to navi- 
| gation and commerce. After extending 
their sway over a considerable part of 
! Africa, they began to make settlements in, 
| and to endeavour to subjugate, more dis- 
I tant countries. The fine and fertile island 



142 



CAR 



CAS 



of Sicily seems to have early excited the 
ambitious views of the Carthaginians ; 
but though they had several valuable set- 
tlements in it, they were uniformly thwart- 
ed in their efforts to effect its complete 
subjugation. After the destruction of 
Tyre, Carthage inherited the possessions 
of the former in Spain, to which she 
afterwards made large additions ; and she 
also subjugated the island of Sardinia. 
Of the long-continued struggle between 
Carthage and Rome it would be useless, 
even if our limits permitted, to say any 
thing. It is a favourite subject of every 
classical reader, and has been ably treated 
of in many modern works ; but it is much 
to be regretted that we have no Cartha- 
ginian history of this memorable contest, 
and that we are constrained to depend 
wholly on the one-sided, prejudiced ac- 
counts of the Latin historians and the 
Sicilian Greeks. The reader will do well 
to bear this in mind, and to modify most 
of their statements unfavourable to the Car- 
thaginians. The last struggle of Carthage 
was not unworthy of her ancient reputation, 
and of the great men she had produced. 
The conduct of the Romans on this occasion 
was most treacherous and base. They now 
practised that bad faith (Punica Jides) and 
contempt of engagements, of which they 
had gratuitously accused the Cartha- 
ginians, to an extent and with a shame- 
lessness of which history has happily but 
few examples. But though betrayed on 
all hands, deceived, without allies, and all 
but defenceless, Carthage made a brave 
defence ; and all that she had that was 
brave and really illustrious fell with her fall. 
The Romans having glutted their ven- 
geance and quieted their fears by the total 
destruction of Carthage (e. c. 1 46), it re- 
mained for a while in ruins. But about 
thirty years after its fall, Caius Gracchus, 
by order of the senate, carried a colony to 
Carthage, the first that was founded be- 
yond the limits of Italy. Julius Caesar, 
on his return from Africa, settled in it 
some of his troops and a number of colo- 
nists collected from the adjoining country. 
During the early ages of the Christian 
aera it was regarded as the capital of Afri- 
ca. It fell under the dominion of the 
Vandals, a. d. 419; and under that of the 
Saracens in 698. Under the latter its de- 
struction was again effected ; and so com- 
pletely that it is now propriis non agno- 
scenda minis. 

Carthago Nova, Carthagena, a well- 
known city of Hispania Tarraeonensis, on 
the coast of the Mediterranean, founded 
by Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar, 



and the capital of the Carthaginian pos- 
sessions in Spain. Scipio Afric. gained 
this city for the Romans during the second 
Punic war, and founded a Roman colony 
in it, with the title Colonia Victrix Julia 
Nova Carthago. 

Carvilius, I., one of the four kings of 
Cantium, Kent, who, at the command of 
Cassivelaunus, made an attack on Caesar's 
naval camp, in which they were repulsed 
with great loss. — II. The first Roman 
who divorced his wife during 600 years, 
b.c. 231 (Val. Max. 2. 1. 4.).— III. A 
grammarian, who introduced G into the 
Roman alphabet, a. u. c. 500, C having 
been previously used for it. 

Carus, a praetorian praefect, who suc- 
ceeded Probus on the imperial throne, 
after the latter had been murdered by his 
soldiers, a. d. 282. He invaded and con- 
quered the Sarmatians, and, marching 
against the Persians, made himself master 
of Mesopotamia ; but died suddenly in the 
midst of his successes, after a reign of six- 
teen months, leaving the throne to his 
sons, Carinus and Numerianus, as a joint 
inheritance. He was deified after death. 

Cary^e, I., a village of Arcadia, near 
the sources of the Aroanius. — II. A small 
town of Laconia. Here an annual festival 
was observed in honour of Diana Caryatis 
by the Lacedaemonian maidens, with na- 
tional dances and solemn hymns. The 
Caryatides of ancient architecture are said 
by Vitruvius to have derived their origin 
from this town ; but his opinion has found 
no supporters among the learned in mo- 
dern times. It was usual for virgins to 
meet at the celebration, and join in a 
dance. 

Carystus, I., Castel- Rosso, a city of 
Euboea, at the foot of Mt. Oche, founded 
by the Dryopes, and celebrated for its 
marble. — II. A town of Laconia, in the 
territory of iEgys, celebrated for its wine. 

Casca, P. Servilius, one of Caesar's 
assassins, who gave him the first blow. He 
had been attached to the party of Pompey, 
but had submitted, and been pardoned by 
Caesar. 

Cascellius Auxus, a distinguished 
lawyer in the Augustan age. 

Casilinum, a city of Campania, cele- 
brated for its obstinate resistance to Han- 
nibal after the battle of Cannae. The mo- 
dern Capua is supposed to occupy its site, 

Casinum, the last town of Latium on 
the Latin Way. It was a large and po- 
pulous city. San Germano occupies its 
site. 

Casius, L, a mountain on the coast of 
Africa, on which reposed the remains of 



CAS 



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143 



Pompey, and where Jupiter, surnamed 
Casius, had a temple. — II. A very lofty 
mountain in Syria, below Antioehia. 

Caspi.£ Port^e, or Pte.^:, the Caspian 
gates or pass ; a name belonging properly 
to a defile near Teheran, in ancient Me- 
dia. Morier names it the pass of Charvar. 
It is vaguely applied by some writers to 
different passes of Mt. Caucasus, 

Caspii, a Scytbian nation near the Cas- 
pian sea, to which they have given name. 
They occupied the country answering to 
Ghilan and Derbend, and appear to have 
been a powerful commercial people. Such 
as had lived beyond their seventieth year 
were starved to death. 

CaspIuxi Mare, a celebrated inland sea 
of Upper Asia, deriving its name from the 
Caspii, who dwelt on its southern shores ; 
or from the Caucasian word Casp, signi- 
fying a mountain, in allusion to its vicinity 
to Caucasus. Its length is estimated at 
760 miles. Its smallest width is 113, its 
greatest -75 miles. The precise situation 
of this sea was not ascertained ICO years 
ago. With the exception of Herodotus, the 
ancients believed that it was a gulf of the 
Northern Ocean; and this mistake was not 
corrected in the maps till the second cen 
tury of our era. An endless variety of names 
has been given to this sea ; but the M Cas- 
pian" is one of the most ancient, and is 
not only common to the Latin and Greek 
languages, but enters into the Georgian, 
the Armenian, and the Syriac. The Jewish 
rabbis and Peritsol call it the Dead Sea ; 
the Turks Khoosghoon Denchizi: the By- 
zantine and Arabian writers the Sea of 
Khozares, after a powerful nation. 

Cassander. was the son of Antipater, 
whom Alexander had appointed regent of 
Macedonia during the minority of his son. 
On the death of his father, b. c. 316, being 
unjustly, as he thought, excluded from the 
regency, he applied to Antigonus and 
Ptolemy to aid him in his pretensions; 
and being furnished with 4000 men, he 
attacked the Athenians, who had favoured 
his rival Polysperchon, and drove the 
latter into Macedonia. Thither he then 
marched, where he found many adherents ; 
and having placed Aridarus (see Ari- 
d-ecs) and Eurydice on the throne, re- 
turned to the Peloponnesus, where he drew 
many cities over to his cause. Meanwhile 
Olympias, mother of Alexander, by in- 
triguing among the Macedonian soldiery, 
found means to procure the assassination 
of Eurydice and Aridseus ; upon which 
Cassander flew to Pydna, where Olympias 
had shut herself up. and after a despe- 
rate resistance reduced it, and put her to 



death. He then married Thessalonica. 
sister of Alexander the Great; and, aspiring 
to the throne, joined in an alliance with 
Ptolemy and Seleucus against Antigonus, 
which resulted in a treaty, b. c. 311. by 
which Cassander was appointed military 
governor of Europe during the minority 
of Alexander's sori. But this treaty was 
soon rendered a dead letter by the murder 
of Alexander, one of the young princes; 
while Polysperchon. who had been pro- 
mised the government of Peloponnesus, 
put the other prince, Hercules, to death, 
without, however, procuring the stipulated 
reward. The race of Alexander being now 
extinct, Cassander, like the rest of Alex- 
ander's generals, assumed the title of king ; 
but a new attempt having been made by 
Antigonus to consolidate into one mo- 
narchy, of which he should be the sole 
head, all the kingdoms of Alexander, Cas- 
sander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus reunited 
their forces : and the battle of Ipsus, b. c. 
301, left Cassander in tranquil possession 
of Macedonia. He did not, however, long 
enjoy the crown; for he died, b. c. 295, of 
dropsy, leaving his throne as an inherit- 
ance to his son Philip, who died the same 
year. See Antipater. 

Cassandra, daughter of Priam and 
Hecuba, and the most celebrated pro- 
phetess of antiquity. She received the 
gift of prophecy, with her brother Helenus, 
by being placed one night in the temple of 
Apollo, where serpents were found wreath- 
ed round their bodies, and licking their 
ears. On attaining to womanhood she 
became priestess in the temple of Apollo, 
who promised to increase her prophetic 
powers if she responded to his love ; but 
no sooner did she obtain the gift than she 
refused to fulfil the conditions, upon which 
the god added the curse, that her predic- 
tions should never be believed. Hence 
her warnings respecting the downfai of 
Troy and the subsequent misfortunes of 
her race were disregarded, and she herself 
was looked on by the Trojans as insane. 
When Troy was taken, she fled to the 
temple of Minerva ; but was exposed there 
to the brutality of Ajax, son of Oileus. 
In the division of the spoils of Troy. Cas- 
sandra fell to the share of Agamemnon, 
and, agreeably to her predictions, was 
assassinated with him on his return to 
Mycenae. 

Cassaxdria, a town of the peninsula of 
Pallene in Macedonia ; so called from its 
founder, Cassander, who transferred to it 
the inhabitants of several neighbouring 
towns, particularly Potidaea, and raised it 
to be one of the most considerable cities of 



144 



CAS 



CAS 



the country. It was the principal naval 
arsenal of Philip, son of Demetrius ; but 
it afterwards became a Roman colony, and 
ultimately fell a prey to the Huns. 

Cassia Lex, enacted by Cassius Lon- 
ginus, b. c. 1 37, to introduce vote by bal- 
lot into certain assemblies of the people. 
Scipio Africanus the younger was censured 
by the aristocratical party for the support 
he gave to this law. 

Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius, an 
eminent statesman, orator, historian, and 
divine, who flourished under Theodoric and 
four of his successors. He was born at Scyl- 
lacium in Magna Graecia, about b. c. 470, 
and descended from a noble family, his fa- 
ther having held a high office under the 
emperor Odoacer. Theodoric and his suc- 
cessors conferred on him some of the most 
exalted offices of the state ; but at the age 
of seventy he retired to Calabria, where he 
founded the monastery of Viviers, and 
passed the remainder of his life in study 
and refined amusements. He died in his 
100th year. Of his writings which are 
extant, the most valuable are his twelve 
books of Public Epistles, consisting of va- 
rious ordinances and documents drawn up 
by him from time to time for the Ostra- 
gothic kings. His " History of the 
Goths," in twelve books, is known to us 
only through the abridgment of " Jor- 
nandes." The best edition of his works 
is that of Muratori, Verona, 1 736, fol. 

Cassiope and Cassiepea, L, wife of 
Cepheus, king of ^Ethiopia, and mother 
of Andromeda. Boasting that she was fairer 
than the Nereids, she excited the indigna- 
tion of Neptune, who laid waste her hus- 
band's dominions with an inundation, and a 
sea monster, to which her daughter An- 
dromeda was exposed. ( See Andromeda. ) 
After her death, Cassiope was made a 
southern constellation. — II. A town and 
harbour of Corey ra, probably named from 
a temple sacred to Jupiter Casius or Cas- 
sius.^ In a voyage which Nero made to 
this island, he is said to have sung in 
public at the altar of the god. Cassiope was 
also the name of a harbour of Corcyra. 

Cassiterides, islands in the Western 
Ocean, where tin was found ; supposed to 
be the Scilly islands, together with a part 
of Cornwall. The term is derived from 
Kaaa-'iTepos, tin. They are first mentioned 
by Herodotus, who, however, professes to 
know nothing about them ; but Strabo 
says that the Phoenicians used to trade 
with them for tin, and sought to keep 
their existence a secret from all the world. 
They were subsequent!)'' well known to 
the Romans. 



Cassius, a name common to numerous 
ancient Romans, of whom the most dis- 
tinguished were, — I. Longinus, one of 
the conspirators against Julius Caesar. 
He first distinguished himself as quaestor 
to Crassus in the Parthian expedition, after 
whose death he made an admirable retreat 
with the wreck of the Roman army into 
Syria. He followed the interest of Pom- 
pey ; and when Caesar had obtained the 
victory in the plains of Pharsalia, he was 
one of those who owed their lives to the 
mercy of the conqueror. But notwith- 
standing these and numerous other favours 
he received at the hands of Caesar, he is 
said to have been the originator of the 
conspiracy against him, and to have 
gained over Brutus by means of his sister 
Junia, to whom he was married. After 
the assassination of Caesar, Cassius fol- 
lowed the fortunes of Brutus. At the 
battle of Philippi, the 'right wing, which 
he commanded, being defeated, he gave 
up all for lost, and threw himself upon his 
sword and expired, b, c. 42. Brutus 
honoured him with a magnificent funeral, 
and declared over him with tears that he 

was the last of the Romans II. Par- 

mensis, so called from his being a native 
of Parma, a Latin poet of considerable 
talent. He sided with Brutus and Cas- 
sius in the civil wars, and obtained the 
office of military tribune. After their 
defeat he returned to Athens, where he 
was murdeied by Varius at the instigation 
of Octavius. He must not be confounded 
with Cassius the Etrurian, whose poetry 
was of a very different stamp. — III. L. 
Hemina, the most ancient writer of annals 
at Rome, a. u. c. 608. — IV. Lucius, a 
Roman lawyer, whose strictness in dis- 
pensing justice has rendered the words 
Cassiani judices applicable to rigid judges. 
— V. T. Severus, a Roman, distinguished 
for his eloquence and satirical effusions. 
He was banished by Augustus to the 
island Seriphus, where he died wretchedly 
in his twenty-fifth year. 

Cassivelaunus, a British prince, to 
whom was entrusted the command of the 
confederate tribes against Julius Caesar. 
His territories were separated from the 
maritime states by the Thames ; but there 
is great difficulty in ascertaining their pre r 
cise position. 

Castabala, a city of Cappadocia, cele- 
brated for the temple and worship of Diana 
Perasia. See Perasia. 

Castalius Fons, or Castalia, I., a ce- 
lebrated fountain on Mt. Parnassus, sa- 
cred to the Muses. It poured down the 
cleft between the two famous summits of 



CAS 



CAT 



145 



the mountain, and was fed by its snows. — 
II. Another in Syria, near Daphne, the 
waters of which were believed to give a 
knowledge of futurity to those who drank 
them. 

Castellum:, a term of frequent occur- 
rence in ancient geography, indicating 
some fortified post or castle which sub- 
sequently became the site of a city. 

Casthan\ea, a town of Thessaly, off 
the promontory Sepias, near which the 
fleet of Xerxes encountered a tremendous 
storm. 

Castor and Pollux, twin brothers, the 
former the son of Leda and Tyndarus, the 
latter of Leda and Jupiter. (See Leda. ) 
They were born at Amycla? in Laconia ; 
and their first exploit was to rescue their 
sister Helena from the hands of Theseus, 
whose mother JEthra they dragged into 
captivity. They took part in all the great 
undertakings of their time; were at the 
Calydonian Hunt, accompanied Hercules 
against the Amazons, sailed on the Ar- 
gonautic expedition, and aided Peleus to 
storm Ioleos. Castor was the most skil- 
ful charioteer, and Pollux the most dis- 
tinguished pugilist. From Juno they re- 
ceived the swift steeds Xanthus and 
Cyllarus ; and from Mercury, Phlagius 
and Harpagus, the offspring of the Harpy 
Podarge. Being invited to a feast, when 
Lynceus and Idas, sons of Aphareus, were 
going to celebrate their marriage with 
Phcebe and Talaira, daughters of Leucip- 
pus, brother of Tyndarus. they became ena- 
moured of the brides, and carried them off. 
Idas and his brother pursued them ; and 
in the conflict which ensued Castor fell by 
the spear of Idas ; but Pollux, aided by 
the kindred of his father, laid prostrate the 
two sons of Aphareus. The story of the 
quarrel between the twin brothers and the 
sons of Aphareus has been differently re- 
lated ; but all accounts agree that Pollux, 
being inconsolable for the loss of his bro- 
ther, implored Jupiter to allow him to 
divide his immortality with his brother, 
which was granted, and they consequently 
passed day and day alternately in heaven 
and under the earth. They were called 
Dioscuri, or sons of Jupiter, and Anaces 
or princes, and were frequently identified 
with the Cabiri. They were regarded as 
the protectors of ships in tempests ; the 
meteor known by their name was as- 
cribed to them ; and it was also said, to 
reward their paternal affection, Jupiter 
had transformed them into the constella- 
tion the Gemini, Twins. They were 
generally represented as two youths on 
horseback, each holding a spear in his 



hand, and their heads surmounted by a 
circular cap. 

Castra, a term employed to indicate 
the site of some Roman or other en- 
campment. The towns in England which 
end in Chester, or Cester, are all sup- 
posed to have derived their names from 
having been the winter quarters of the 
Romans. 

Castrum Novum. I.. Santa Marhiella, a 
town of Etruria, on the east coast, south 
of Centum Cellas. — II. Inui, a place on 
the coast of Latium, between Antium and 
Ardea. According to Livy, Inuus was 
the same with Pan. — III. Lucii, now 
Chains, in France, in the department of 
Upper Vienne, where Richard I. died. — 
IV. Sedunum, now Sion, in Switzerland : 
also called Civitas Sedunorum. 

Castllo, Cazhna. a town of Hispania 
Ba?tica, on the Bastis, west of Corduba. 

Catasathmos, a great declivity, whence 
its name, KaraSaB^s, separating Cyre- 
naica from .Egypt, which the Arabs call 
Alalitassc-hm. It was sometimes con- 
sidered as the point of separation between 
Asia and Africa. 

Catadupa, the smaller cataract of the 
Nile, situated in the Thebais, at Dodeca- 
schoenus. It derived its name from the 
loud noise occasioned by the fall of the 
waters (/card and Sodiros, a heavy crushing 
sound). 

CAiAMEyiELrs, king of the Sequani, in 
alliance with Rome. 

Cataka, Catania, a celebrated city of 
Sicily, at the foot of Mt. .Etna, founded by a 
colony from Chalcis. b. c. 753, five years after 
the settlement of Syracuse. Like all the 
other colonies of Grecian origin, Catania soon 
emancipated itself from foreign control ; 
but was successively invaded by the Athe- 
nians and Syracusans, and at last fell under 
the power of the Romans during the first 
Punic war. Under the Romans it was 
the residence of a pra?tor, and was adorned 
with many noble buildings. Owing, how- 
ever, to the repeated occurrence of earth- 
quakes, and the irruption of lava from 
Alount .Etna, its ancient monuments have 
been mostly destroyed ; but the remains of 
its noble amphitheatre, temples, baths, 
aqueducts, &c, attest its ancient extent 
and magnificence. Ceres had here a tem- 
ple, in which none but women were per- 
mitted to appear. 

Cataonxa, a tract of country in the 
southern part of Cappadocia, correspond- 
\ ing to AladetdL 

Cataractes, now Dodensoui, I., a river 
of Pamphylia, falling into the sea near 
Attilia. It derived its name from its im- 

H 



146 



CAT 



CAT 



petuosity. — II. A river of Asia Minor, 
the same with the Marsyas. 

Cath^a, a country of Asia, the precise 
situation of which is doubtful. The 
modern tribe Kuttry or Rajpoots are sup- 
posed to be the descendants of the ancient 
inhabitants. 

Catilina, L. Sergius, a Roman of a 
noble family, was born b. c. 109. During 
the civil wars he embraced the party of 
Sylla; as quaestor (b. c. 77), supported him 
in his proscriptions ; and, having dis- 
charged the functions of prastor (b. c, 67), 
became governor of the African pro- 
vinces, where he rendered himself in- 
famous for his extortions. Polluted with 
crime and excesses of every kind, suspected 
of having murdered his first wife and son, 
accused by Clodius of having even violated 
a vestal virgin, he braved the opinion of 
his countrymen, and became the chief of a 
conspiracy, the objects of which were the 
proscription of the rich, the extirpation of 
the senate, and a revolution in the govern- 
ment. This conspiracy was timely dis- 
covered by the consul Cicero, whom he 
had resolved to murder ; and Catiline, 
whose insolent appearance in the full 
senate, notwithstanding the notoriety of 
his guilt, called forth from Cicero the 
well-known anathema, " Quousque tan- 
dem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra," 
departed from Rome further to develop 
his plans, leaving Lentulus, Cethegus, 
Sura, ana the other principal conspira- 
tors, to forward his views secretly in 
the city. Meanwhile Cicero having ob- 
tained conclusive evidence of their guilt, 
the conspirators were arrested and con- 
demned to death. This intelligence struck 
terror into Catiline, who, giving up all 
for lost, made a desperate attack on the 
troops of Petreius, and fell among the 
thickest of the enemy, fighting bravely .to 
the last, b. c. 62. 

Catillus, or Catilus, son of Amphi- 
araus, and brother of Coras and Tibur- 
tus, to whose memory he built Tibur in 
Italy. 

Cat! us, M., a fictitious name, under 
which Horace alludes to persons who 
abused the genuine doctrines of Epi- 
curus. 

Cato, a surname given to Marcus Por- 
tius Priscus, called also Major and Cen- 
sorius, who was born b. c. 232 at Tusculum, 
and passed his earliest years on a little 
farm which he inherited from his father. 
At the age of seventeen he served his first 
campaign against Hannibal, who was then 
laying waste the north of Italy ; five years 
later he fought at the siege of Tarentum, 



and after the capture of that city he de- 
voted himself to the study of philosophy, 
under the guidance of Nearchus the Py- 
thagorean. Returning to his farm, where 
his practical sagacity gained him the sur- 
name of Cato or " The Wise " from the 
neighbouring peasantry, he was induced 
to remove to Rome, at the instance of 
Valerius Flaccus, a noble proprietor of the 
neighbourhood, in conjunction with whom 
he afterwards attained the highest offices 
in the state. Having passed with eclat 
through the various offices of military 
tribune, aedile, and quaestor, in which ca- 
pacity he came into violent collision with 
Scipio Africanus, he became prastor, and 
was sent into Calabria, where his austere 
self-control, integrity, and justice con- 
trasted most favourably with the rapacious 
conduct of his predecessors. Here too he 
became acquainted with the poet Ennius, 
who taught him the Greek language, and 
accompanied him to Rome. Being elected 
consul b. c. 193, he set out for Spain, 
where the vigour of his conduct and the 
policy of his councils added greatly to the 
Roman influence, and procured him the 
honour of a triumph on his return to 
Rome. But hardly had he descended 
from the triumphal chariot and laid aside 
the consular robe, than, assuming the garb 
of a lieutenant, he accompanied the new 
consul Sempronius into Thrace ; and after 
distinguishing himself by securing the 
fidelity of several of the Grecian states, he 
crowned his military achievements by de- 
feating Antiochus at the pass of Ther- 
mopylae, b. c. 191. Seven years later, he 
was elected to the censorship, and fulfilled 
its duties with such inflexible rigour that 
his name has passed into a proverb. On 
the expiration of his term of office he was 
honoured with a public statue. As might 
have been expected, the severity of his 
manners and the whole tenour of his cha- 
racter embroiled Cato with many of his 
contemporaries. His political career was 
one continued warfare, and he was con- 
tinually accusing others, or was himself an 
object of accusation. The banishment of 
Scipio Africanus, the trial of Scipio Asia- 
ticus, the expulsion of Carneades and the 
other ambassadors from Greece, originated 
at his instance ; while he himself was fifty 
times prosecuted, and as often acquitted. 
Even in his eighty-first year, he was not 
exempt from a malicious accusation. The 
last act of his public life was his embassy 
to Carthage, to settle the disputes between 
the Carthaginians and king Massinissa; 
and to his envy at witnessing the flou- 
rishing state of that city is to be ascribed 



CAT 



CAT 



147 



that hatred towards it which he ever after- 
wards inculcated upon the Romans, and 
which finally led to its destruction. He 
died in the eighty-fifth year of his age, 
B. c. 147, about a year after his return to 
Rome, leaving one son, who was termed 
Saloninus from his mother Salonia, and 
the grandfather of Cato Uticensis. Of 
his numerous and highly-praised writ- 
ings, his treatise " De Re Rustica" is 
the only one that has reached our times 
in a tolerably perfect state. Fragments 
of his historical writings have been col- 
lected and published at different times. — 
II. Marcus, son of the censor by his 
first wife. He distinguished himself 
greatly in the battle of Pydna against 
Perses, king of Macedonia. He after- 
wards married the daughter of P. JEmi- 
lius, the Roman commander on that 
occasion, and died while filling the office 
of praetor. — III. Valerius, a Gallic freed- 
man, who, being despoiled of his pro- 
perty by Sylla, came to Rome, where he 
taught rhetoric and grammar with great 
success. A satirical poem entitled " Dirae 
in Battarum" is attributed to him. — IV. 
Dionysius, supposed to have lived in the 
age of Commodus and Septimius Severus, 
and regarded as the author of the " Dis- 
ticha de Moribus." — V. Marcus, sur- 
named Uticensis, from his death at Utica, 
was great-grandson to the censor of the 
same name, and born b. c. 93. In his 
childhood he was remarkable for the firm- 
ness of character which he displayed in 
after life ; and it is said that when at the 
age of fourteen he witnessed the scenes 
of blood then enacted by Sylla, he ear- 
nestly asked his preceptor for a sword to 
stab the tyrant. When priest of Apollo, 
the first public office he obtained, he be- 
came a strict adherent of the Stoic sect ; and 
the principles which he then imbibed ex- 
ercised a powerful influence on his subse- 
quent career. His first campaign was 
made in the Servile War ; he then served 
as military tribune in Macedonia; subse- 
quently he was elected quaestor; and on the 
expiration of his term of office he received 
the congratulations of the senate for his 
strict impartiality. He took an active 
part in denouncing the conspiracy of Cati- 
line, and was the first who bestowed on 
Cicero the title of Pater Patrias. Vehe- 
mently opposed to the union of Pompey, 
Caesar, and Crassus in the first triumvirate, 
he was removed to Cyprus in a kind of 
honourable banishment ; but on his return 
he was elected praetor, and subsequently, 
on the rupture between Pompey and 
Caesar, took part with the latter, consider- 



ing his cause to be the more just ; hence 
Lucian has nobly said, 

" Victrix causa diis placuit, sed victa Catoni." 

After the battle of Pharsalia, Cato took 
the command of the Corcyrean fleet ; but 
when he heard of Pompey's death, he tra- 
versed the deserts of Libya with his forces, 
and resigned the command to Scipio greatly 
against the inclination of the army. The 
result is well known. Scipio having, in 
opposition to Cato's instructions, hazarded 
an engagement at Thapsus, was com- 
pletely defeated, and Africa submitted to 
the victor. The cause of liberty was now 
lost ; and Cato, after furnishing his friends 
with every means in his power to effect 
their escape, and too proud himself to ac- 
cept a pardon at the hands of the con- 
queror, retired to his chamber, when, after 
reading a portion of Plato's Phcedon, a dia- 
logue which turns on the immortality of 
the soul, he stabbed himself in the breast, 
and died the same night in his fifty-ninth 
year, b. c. 46. His son, M. Porcius Cato, 
was spared, but followed the fortunes of 
Brutus, and died gloriously at Philippi. 

Catti, or Chatti, a powerful nation of 
Germany, whose territory lay in the coun- 
tries of Hesse, Nassau, &c. They main- 
tained a long and desperate struggle with 
the Romans. They formed one of the 
tribes that slaughtered the legions of 
Varus ; and though Germanicus afterwards 
inflicted upon them ample vengeance, they 
never appear to have entirely succumbed. 
They were ultimately exterminated by their 
neighbours the Hermunduri. Their ca- 
pital was Mattium, now Marburg. 

Catullus, Caius Valerius, a celebrated 
poet, descended from an ancient and ho- 
nourable family, was born in the neighbour- 
hood of Verona, on the Lacus Benacus, 
b. c. 87. His father appears to have been 
allied by ties of hospitality to Julius Caesar; 
hence, notwithstanding many provocations, 
the dictator to the last manifested strong 
feelings of attachment towards Catullus. 
In consequence of an invitation from Man- 
lius Torquatus, he proceeded to Rome ; and, 
with a view of improving his pecuniary 
circumstances, he accompanied Caius Mem- 
mius to Bithynia, where he was appointed 
praetor. But his situation was but little 
ameliorated by this expedition, and in the 
course of it he lost a beloved brother who 
had accompanied him. On his return to 
Rome he mingled in the most dissipated 
society of the metropolis ; but the levity 
of his conduct did not deprive him of the 
friendship of Rome's most distinguished 
citizens. The period of his death is un- 
h 2 



148 



CAT 



CEB 



certain. A collection of his poems has 
been preserved, consisting of upwards of 
100 pieces, written in every variety of 
style and metre, lyrical, descriptive, ele- 
giac, and dithyrambic, and excellent in all. 
The epithet " Doctus," so frequently ap- 
plied to him, refers to his familiarity with 
Greek literature, and the Grecian spirit 
which pervades his compositions. Nu- 
merous editions of his works have been 
published. 

Catulus, Q, Lutatius, I., a Roman, 
consul a.u.c. 510, famous for his victory 
(off the Argates Insula?) over the fleet 
of the Carthaginians, consisting of 400 
sail, which put an end to the first Punic 
war. — II. The colleague of Marius in 
the consulship, a.u.c. 650, and joint con- 
queror with him over the Cimbri. Be- 
ing subsequently condemned to death 
by Marius, he put an end to his life 
by suffocation. — III. Quintus, son of 
the preceding, elected consul a.u.c. 672, 
distinguished himself by his zeal in behalf 
of the republic. He opposed his former 
colleague, Lepidus ; and nobly seconded the 
efforts of Cicero in detecting and putting 
down the Catilinian conspiracy. He ac- 
quired great celebrity as princeps senatus, 
was appointed censor, and died a.u.c. 692, 
before the storms that ended in the over- 
throw of the republic had burst out. 

Caturiges, a Gallic nation, whom some 
have placed on the Alpes Cottia?, others 
on the Alpes Graiae. 

Caucasus, the highest and most exten- 
sive range of mountains in Northern Asia. 
According to Strabo, it extended from the 
Euxine to the Caspian sea, and divided 
Albania and Iberia towards the south from 
the level country of the Sarmatas on the 
north. The inhabitants of these moun- 
tains formed, according to some, 70, ac- 
cording to others, 300 different nations, 
who spoke various languages, and lived 
in a savage state. The highest, summit is 
5900 feet above the level of the Black Sea. 
The two principal passages of Caucasus 
are mentioned by the ancients under the 
name of the Caucasian and Albanian gates. 

Caucones, a people of Paphlagonia, 
who occupied the coast of the Euxine 
from the Maryandynes as far as the Par- 
thenius. They were either of Arcadian 
or Scythian origin. A portion passed into 
Greece, and occupied a territory in the 
division of Elis, called Coele, " the Hol- 
low." Another part settled in Triphylian 
Elis ; and it is of the latter that Herodotus 
speaks. 

Caudium, a city of Samnium ; near 
which was the famous defile, Furcce Cau- 



dincB, where the Roman army was com- 
pelled by the Samnites to pass under the 
yoke. The present valley of Arpaia is 
thought to answer to this pass. 

Caulonia, or Caulon, a town of Italy, 
near the country of the Brutii, founded 
by a colony of Achaeans, and destroyed 
in the wars between Pyrrhus and the Ro- 
mans. Alaro and Castro Vetere have both 
been said to occupy its site. 

Caunus, Kaiguez, a city of Caria, at 
the foot of Mt. Tarbelus, west of the Sinus 
Glaucus, whose inhabitants do not appear 
to have been of the same origin as the 
Carians. Under the Byzantine emperors, 
Caunus formed part of Lycia. It was 
famous for its figs. (See Cicero, De Div. 
2. 4.) 

Cayster, or Cavstrus, a rapid river of 
Asia, rising in Lydia, and, after a mean- 
dering course, falling into the iEgean sea 
near Ephesus. In its course it flowed 
through a marsh, called the Asian Marsh, 
much frequented by swans and other water- 
fowl. The Cayster is now called Kitchik- 
Minder, " LittleMaeander,"from its winding 
course. 

Cebenna Mons, Cevennes, a range of 
mountains in Gaul, extending from the 
Garonne to the Rhone. These mountains 
are also called variously Cevenna, Cebenna, 
and Ke/u-fispov bpos, by ancient writers. 
Cassar, on crossing them in his war with the 
Averni, to whom they afforded an admir- 
able protection, had to make a road through 
snow six feet deep. 

Cebes, I., a Greek philosopher, and 
disciple of Socrates, introduced into the 
Phcedon of Plato as one of the interlocutors. 
He was a native of Thebes ; but nothing 
is known of his history, except that he 
attended Socrates in his last moments, and 
was the author of the famous dialogue 
called flii/a|, or the Picture, than which 
no work of antiquity is better known. 
Unsuccessful attempts have been made to 
throw doubt upon its authenticity. — II. 
A philosopher of Cyzicus, in the time of 
Marcus Aurelius, to whom some critics 
assign the authorship of the " Picture." 

Cebrenia, Regio, a small district and 
town of Troas, called after the river Cebren 
or Cebrenus, in the neighbourhood. The 
capital of this district was Cebrene, near 
the sources of the Scamander, or of the Si- 
mois of Homer, in Mount Ida. Extensive 
ruins mark the spot. GSnone, daughter of 
the Cebrenus, receives the patronymic of 
Cebrenis. 

Cebrus, Zibriz, a river dividing Lower 
from Upper Moesia, and falling into the 
Danube. 



CEC 



CEN 



149 



Cecropia, the original name of Athens, 
in honour of Cecrops, its founder. The 
ancients often use this word for Attica. 

Cecropid^, a name given to the Athe- 
nians, as the fabled descendants of Ce- 
crops ; but the title was often conferred as 
a reward for some action in the field of 
battle. 

Cecrops, one of those personages in 
antiquity who hold a middle place between 
history and fable, is said to have been a 
native of Sais in Egypt, whence, about 
b. c. 1556, he led a colony to Attica, and 
reigned over part of the country, called 
from him Cecropia. He married Agrau- 
los, daughter of Actaus, by whom he 
became the father of three daughters, 
Aglauros, Herse, and Pandrosos; and 
after a long reign spent in introducing 
among his subjects the blessings of civil- 
isation, he died, leaving the kingdom to 
Cranaus, whose history is no less enve- 
loped in fable. As a mythological person, 
Cecrops was described as half man and half 
serpent, indicating, no doubt, his superior 
wisdom, the attribute of the serpent. In 
the contest between Neptune and Minerva 
for the sovereignty of Attica, he is said 
to have decided in favour of Minerva, who 
thenceforward became the tutelary deity 
of Athens. Various ingenious interpre- 
tations have been given to the history of 
Cecrops by modern antiquaries, who have 
succeeded in stripping it of every vestige of 
reality, and reduced it to a mere mythical 
fable. It is curious to remark, that neither 
Homer, nor any of the oldest Greek poets, 
make mention of Cecrops. — II. Son and 
successor of Erechtheus, sixth king of 
Athens. He married Metiadusa, sister of 
Daedalus, by whom he had Pandion; reign- 
ed 40 years, and died e. c. 1307. 

Cel^n^e, or Celene, a city of Phry- 
gia, where Cyrus the Younger had a pa- 
lace, with a park filled with wild beasts. 
Within the enclosure rose the Maeander, 
and flowed through the park. The in- 
habitants were carried off by Antiochus 
Soter to people Apamea. 

Cel^eno, one of the Harpies, daugh- 
ter of Neptune and Terra. 

CELENDRiE, Celendris, and Celen- 
i>eris, a city on the coast of Cilicia Tra- 
chea, founded by the Phoenicians, and 
afterwards colonised by the Lamians. The 
modem name is corrupted into Clielin- 
dreh. 

Celeres. See Equites. 

Celeus, king of Eleusis, fat'her of Trip- 
tolemus by Metanira. 

Celsus, Aulus or Aurelius Corn., L, 
a celebrated physician, whose age and 



history are entirely unknown ; though it 
is now generally believed that he lived 
under Augustus and Tiberius, but wrote 
under the latter. He composed a large 
work on the plan of an encyclopaedia, en- 
titled " De Artibus," in which he treated 
of philosophy, jurisprudence, agriculture, 
and medicine ; but only that part which 
treats of medicine has reached our times ; 
and for elegance, terseness, learning, good 
sense, and practical information, it stands 
unrivalled. It has passed through nu- 
merous, it might also be said innumerable 
editions ; and is still used as a handbook 
by medical students in all parts of the 
world. — II. A Platonic philosopher, who 
lived in the reign of Hadrian, famous for 
being one of the most virulent enemies to 
Christianity. His work, entitled 'AXrjd^s 
A6yos, is lost ; but Origen, who refuted 
it, has preserved such a number of extracts 
that the reader can easily get a view of its 
chief arguments. — III. Albinovanus. See 
Albinovanus. 

Celt^e, a general name applied by the 
Greeks to all nations of the remote west, 
from the Viadrus, Oder, to the mouth of 
the Tagus ; but in a special sense it is 
applied to the most indigenous and exten- 
sive of the three great tribes that occupied 
Gaul in the time of Caesar. See Gal- 
lia. 

Celtiberi, a people of Spain, supposed 
to have been descended from Celtae, who 
in remote times emigrated from Gaul, and 
afterwards became so identified with the 
native Iberi as to render it impossible to 
distinguish them. The Celtiberians made 
strong head against the Romans and Car- 
thaginians when they invaded their coun- 
try ; and though they submitted to Rome 
in the second Punic war, they repeatedly 
resumed the contest, and were not finally 
subdued till after the destruction of Nu- 
mantia by Scipio iEmilianus. The country 
of the Celtiberi formed part of the Roman 
province Hispania Tarraconensis. Their 
country, Celtiberia, is now known by the 
name of Arragon. 

Celtici, a people of Celtic origin in the 
south of Lusitania, answering now to 
Alontejos. Their chief town was Pax 
Julia, now Beja. 

Cen^eum, Lithada, a promontory in 
the north-west of Euboea, where Jupiter 
Cenasus had an altar raised by Hercules. 

Cenchre^e, I., Kenchres, a harbour of 
Corinth, on the Saronic Gulf, about 70 
stadia from the city itself, and the port 
whence its commerce was carried on with 
Asia, the Cyclades, and the Euxine. — II. 
A village of Argolis, near the frontiers of 
h 3 



150 



CEN 



CEN 



Arcadia, where a tumulus was erected in 
memory of some Argives who had fallen 
in an engagement with the Spartans. 

Cenchreis, a small island off the Spi- 
raeum Promontorium of Argolis. 

Cenchrics, a river of Ionia, near Ephe- 
sus and Mt. Solmissus, where Latona found 
protection from the rage of Juno after her 
delivery. 

Cenimagni, a people of Britain, on the 
eastern coast, forming part of the Iceni. 
Various interpretations and readings of 
this word have been given. See Iceni. 

Cenomani, a people of Gaul, belonging 
to the Aulerci. See Aulerci. 

Censores, the title of two Roman ma- 
gistrates, originally created a u. c. 312, 
for the purpose of taking the census, or 
register of the number and property of 
citizens. But their powers were much 
increased subsequently, when they had the 
inspection of the morals of the citizens 
committed to them, with authority to de- 
grade senators and knights from their re- 
spective orders, and remove other citizens 
from their tribes, depriving them of all their 
privileges except liberty ; which was term- 
ed making them iErarians. They had 
also the power of making contracts for 
public buildings and the supply of victims 
for sacrifices. The office of censor was 
not a permanent one, but was renewed from 
time to time, as its functions were felt to be 
needed in the state. It was always filled 
by consulars of the highest merit, and was 
esteemed an honour even greater than that 
of the consulate itself: no person might 
be twice invested with it ; and if one of 
the censors died, another was not substi- 
tuted in his room, but his surviving col- 
league was obliged to resign. The office of 
censor was abolished under the emperors, 
who, however, exercised the greater part 
of its functions. It was attempted to be 
revived in the person of Valerian by De- 
cius, but he was cut off before he could 
accomplish his purpose. 

Censorinus, Ap. Cl., L, a Roman, who, 
after having filled some of the highest 
offices in the state, retired into private 
life ; but was again dragged into notice, 
and compelled to assume the imperial 
purple by the soldiers, who murdered him 
some days after, a. d. 270. — II. A gram- 
marian and philosopher, who lived under 
the emperors Maximus and Gordianus, 
a. d. 238, and wrote a small work, " De 
Die Natali," which has reached our times. 

Centauri, a people of Thessaly, fabled 
to have been half men and half horses. 
By some writers they are said to have been 
the offspring of Centaurus, son of Apollo, 



by Stilbia, daughter of the Peneus. Others 
allege that they were the fruit of Ixion's 
adventure with the cloud ; while others 
say that they sprang from the union of 
Centaurus with the mares of Magnesia. 
The battle of the Centaurs with the La- 
pithae, so famous in history, originated as 
follows : — At the marriage of Hippo- 
damia with Pirithous, the Centaurs, who 
had been invited, being intoxicated with 
wine, offered violence to the women. Upon 
this, the Lapithae, roused to indignation, 
attacked the Centaurs, and, after a dread- 
ful conflict, defeated them, and obliged 
them to retire to Arcadia. The battle of 
the Centaurs and Lapitbse forms the sub- 
ject of the famous Elgin Marbles, now in 
the British Museum. The insolence of 
the Centaurs was a second time punished 
by Hercules, who, on his way to hunt the 
boar Erymanthus, was kindly entertained 
by the Centaur Pholus ; but the rest of 
the Centaurs, enraged at the havoc the 
hero had made on their wine, attacked 
him, and in the conflict which ensued they 
were almost entirely extirpated. The 
most celebrated of the Centaurs were 
Amycus, Arneus, Caumas, Chiron, Eu- 
rytus, Gryneus, Lycidas, Medon, Merme- 
ros, Pisenor, Pholus, Rhcetus. It is gene- 
rally believed that the Centaurs and La- 
pithae are two purely poetic names, used to 
distinguish two opposite races of men ; the 
former, the rude horse-riding tribes, which 
tradition records to have been spread over 
the north of Greece ; the latter, the more 
civilized race, which founded towns, and 
gradually drove their wild neighbours back 
into the mountains. 

Centritis, Kabouhr, a river of Armenia 
Major, separating Armenia from the coun- 
try of Carduchi, and flowing into the Eu- 
phrates. It was called by the Greeks 
Nicephorius, " which brings victory," on 
account of some battle gained in its vicinity 
during the time of the Syrian kings. 

Centrones, a people of Gaul, among 
the Alpes Graiae, defeated by Caesar in 
several engagements. 

Centum Cele^:, Civita Vecchia, a sea- 
port town of Etruria, better known as 
Trajani Portus, the emperor Trajan having 
caused a magnificent harbour to be con- 
structed there. It was formed precisely 
in a similar manner as the breakwater at 
Plymouth, by sinking immense blocks of 
stone, which became fixed and consolidated 
by their own weight till the structure was 
raised above the waves. 

Centumviri, members of a court of 
justice at Rome, whose chief duty appears 
to have been to decide concerning testa- 



CEN 



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151 



ments and inheritances. They were ori- ] 
ginally chosen three from the 35 tribes of 
the people ; and though they amounted to 
105, and were afterwards increased to 180, 
they were always called by a round number 
Centumviri. In the time of Augustus, 
they formed the council of the praetor, 
and judged in the most important cases. 
They were generally summoned by the 
decemviri, who consisted of five senators 
and five equites, and who presided among 
them in the absence of the praetor. 

Centuria, a division of the people con- 
sisting of 100. At first a century contained 
100, but not so afterwards. The Roman 
people were originally divided into three 
tribes, and each tribe into ten curiae. 
The tribes afterwards increased to thirty- 
five, and were divided into Rusticae and 
Urbanae ; the number of curiae was always 
thirty. Serv. Tullius made a census j and 
when the return gave 80,000 men able to 
bear arms, he divided them into six classes, 
each class into several centuries. In the 
public assemblies in the Campus Martius, 
at the election of public magistrates, or at 
the trial of capital crimes, the people 
gave their vote by centuries, whence the 
assembly was called comitia centuriata. 
The whole number of centuries was 191. 
(See Comitia.) The word Centuria is 
also applied to a subdivision of one of the 
Roman legions. See Legio. 

Centuripa (es, or ce, arum), Centorbi, 
an ancient town of Sicily, near Catana. 

Ceos, or CEA,Zea, an island of the iEgean, 
one of the Cyclades, opposite the pro- 
montory of Sunium in Attica, and famous 
for its fertility and rich pastures. It is 
said to have been an Ionian colony peopled 
from Africa. The two chief towns were 
Iulis and Carthaea, the former of which 
was the birthplace of Simonides. 

Cephalion, a Greek writer, whose na- 
tive country is unknown. He lived during 
the reign of Hadrian, who banished him 
to Sicily, where he wrote an Abridgment 
of Universal History, now lost. He is not 
to be confounded with Cephalon, a native 
of Gergitha in Troas, who lived prior to 
Alexander the Great, and wrote an his- 
torical work called Tpaitcd, also lost. 

Cephaixenia, Cefalonia^ one of the se- 
' ven Ionian islands, so called from Cepha- 
lus, who settled here after his expedition 
against the Teleboae ; but it was known 
by a variety of appellations : thus Homer 
calls it Samos, and Thucydides Tetrapolis, 
from its four towns, Same, Pale, Cranii, 
and Proni, the ruins of some of which still 
remain. It was subjugated by the Athe- 
nians at the commencement of the Pelo- 



ponnesian war ; and fell under the power 
of the Romans b. c. 187. 

Cephalus, I., son of Deioneus, king of 
Thessaly, by Diomede, daughter of Xu- 
thus, and husband of Procris, daughter of 
Erechtheus, king of Athens. Aurora fell 
in love with him, and carried him away ; 
but he refused to listen to her addresses, 
and the goddess sent him back, predicting 
that he would never be happy with his 
wife. Jealousy having soon sprung up in 
his mind, he feigned a long journey ; but 
disguising himself as a merchant, he re- 
turned to Procris, and offered her a splen- 
did jewel upon dishonourable terms. After 
much hesitation Procris at length yielded, 
when her husband discovered himself, and 
reproached her with her conduct. She 
then fled from him in shame ; but they were 
soon afterwards reconciled (see Pkocris), 
and loved one another with more tender- 
ness than before. Cephalus, who was fond 
of hunting, every morning repaired to the 
woods, and after much fatigue laid himself 
down in the shade, and called for Aura, or 
the refreshing breeze. It was then whis- 
pered to Procris that Cephalus daily paid 
a visit to a mistress, whose name was 
Aura, upon which she secretly followed her 
husband into the woods ; and when Cepha- 
lus retired to the cool shade, and called upon 
Aura, she rushed forwards towards her 
husband, who, alarmed at the rustling of 
the leaves, threw his dart and unwittingly 
killed her. After this event Cephalus 
fled to Amphitryon, whom he aided against 
the Teleboans ; and on their conquest he 
settled in the island, named from him Ce- 
phallenia. — II. An Athenian orator, who 
lived towards the end of the Peloponnesian 
war, and greatly contributed by his elo- 
quence to the overthrow of the Thirty 
Tyrants. He must not be confounded 
with Cephalus, father of Lysias, who came 
from Syracuse and settled at Athens. 

Cepheis, a name given to Andromeda, 
as daughter of Cepheus. 

Cephenes, I., an ancient name of the 
Persians. — II. A name of the ^Ethiopians, 
from Cepheus, one of their kings. 

Cepheus, I., king of ^Ethiopia, father 
of Andromeda, by Cassiope. He was one 
of the Argonauts, and changed into a con- 
stellation after death. See Andromeda. 

Cephisia, Kissia, a borough of Attica, 
at the foot of Mt. Brilessus, and near the 
source of the Cephissus. It was the fa- 
vourite residence of Herodes Atticus. 

Cephisiades, a patronymic of Eteocles, 
son of Andreus and Evippe, from the sup- 
position of his being son of the Cephisus. 

Cephisodotus, an Athenian statuary, 
H 4 



152 



CEP 



CER 



born about b. c. 350. Two Of his works 
are mentioned by Pliny. He is not to be 
confounded with another statuary of the 
same name, who lived about Olymp.120. 

Cephisus and Cephissus, I., Mauro 
Potamo, a celebrated river of Greece, rising 
at the foot of Parnassus, close to Lilasa in 
Phocis, and flowing into the lake Copais 
in Boeotia. The Graces were fond of this 
river, whence they are called the goddesses of 
the Cephisus. — 1 1. A river of Attica, which 
rises on Mt. Brilessus, and after flowing 
through the Athenian plains, and passing 
under the celebrated long walls, falls into 
the sea near Phalerum. In the CEdi- 
pus Coloneus, it is described as a peren- 
nial stream ; but it has been for ages nearly 
'dry. — This was also the name of a river 
in Eleusis, Argolis, and Salamis. 

Ceramicus, I., Keramo, a bay of Caria, 
named from the city of Ceramus in its vi- 
cinity. — II. One of the most considerable 
parts of the city of Athens, named either 
from the hero Ceramus, or more probably 
from some potteries formerly situated there. 
It lay on the south side of the Acropolis, 
and included the Agora, Stoa Basileios, 
Pcecile, and other public buildings. 

Ceramus, Keramo, a small town and 
fortress of Caria, east of Halicarnassus. 

Cerasus, (Gen. untis,) Kerasoun, a city 
of Pontus, south-west of Trapezus, found- 
ed by a colony from Sinope in Paphlagonia, 
to which it paid an annual tribute. From 
this place Lucullus first brought cherries 
into Italy, a. u. c. 680. Hence the Latin 
cerasus, " a cherry tree.' 

Ceraunii, Montes, a chain of moun- 
tains of Epirus, forming the boundary 
between it and Ulyricum. That portion 
extending beyond Oricum formed a bold 
promontory, Acroceraunia, from its sum- 
mits (&Kpa) being often struck by light- 
ning (Kepa.vv6s). The modern name is 
Monte KIrimarra ; that of the Acrocerau- 
nian promontory Cape Linguetta. This 
cape was much dreaded by the ancient 
mariners, from the belief that the moun- 
tains attracted storms ; and the Greek and 
Latin poets teem with allusions to its 
dangers. 

Cerberus, a monster regarded as the 
watch-dog of the infernal regions, and 
represented with three, fifty, or even a 
hundred heads. He was the fruit of 
Echidna's union with Typhon. Orpheus 
lulled him to sleep with his lyre, and Her- 
cules dragged him from Hades, in the 
performance of his twelfth and last la- 
bour. 

Cercasorum, Eksas or Al Achsas, a town 
of iEgypt, near the spot where the Nile 



divides itself into the Pelusian and Caflopie 
mouths. 

Cercina and Cercinna, Kerkene, a 
small island of the coast of Byzacium, 
in Africa, north-west of the mouth of the 
Syrtis Minor. 

Cercinium, a town of Macedonia, at 
the mouth of the Pontus, on a lake called 
Cercinitis Palus. 

Cekcopes, a predatory race infesting 
Lydia during the reign of Omphale. They 
were overcome by Hercules. See Mt- 

LAMPYGES. 

Cercvon and CfiRcroNES, a king of 
Eleusis, son of Neptune, or, according to 
others, of Vulcan. His dexterity as a wrest- 
ler induced him to compel all strangers to 
compete with him; but he never found his 
match, till, after innumerable cruelties, he 
challenged Theseus, who overcame him 
and put him to death. 

Cercvra. See Corcyra. 

Cerealia, an annual festival celebrated at 
Rome in honour of Ceres, whose wailings 
in search of her lost daughter were repre- 
sented by women clothed in white running 
about with lighted torches. It was held 
on the 7th or 13th of April, and during 
its continuance games were celebrated in 
the Circus Maximus. On occasions of 
public mourning both games and festival 
were omitted. 

Ceres, the Roman goddess of corn, equi- 
valent to the Demeter of the Greeks, was 
the daughter of Saturn and Vesta, or 
Rhea, and the mother of Proserpine by 
Jupiter. The most celebrated event in 
the history of Ceres is her search after 
her daughter, who had been carried away 
by Pluto, throughout the world. Nine 
days she wandered over the earth with 
flaming torches in her hands ; at length 
the god Helios, or, according to others, 
the Nymph Arethusa, informed her that 
Pluto, by the permission of her sire, had 
carried away her daughter. Incensed at 
the conduct of Jupiter, Ceres thereupon 
abandoned the gods, came down among 
men, and, disguising herself as an aged 
woman, was employed by Metanira, queen 
of Eleusis, as a nurse for her son Demo, 
phoon. (See Demophoox.) Meanwhile, in 
consequence of the anger of Ceres, the 
earth yielded no produce, and Jupiter 
sent all the gods to entreat her to return 
to Olympus : but she refused until she had 
permission to see her daughter, which was 
granted. Being reunited to her daughter, 
though only for a portion of the year, she 
again became benignant to mankind, and 
fertility once more prevailed over the earth. 
She thereupon taught mankind the mode 



CER 



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153 



of performing her rites, and returned to I 
Olympus. The chief seats of the worship 
of Ceres were Attica, Arcadia, Sicily, 
and Thebes. The worship of Demeter, or 
Ceres, as the Romans rendered the name, 
was introduced at an early period into 
Rome, where a temple was erected in the 
Circus Maximus, and an annual festival 
celebrated to her honour. (See Cerealia. ) 
She was represented with a garland of ears 
of corn on her head, holding in one hand 
alighted torch, in the other a poppy, which 
was sacred to her. 

Ceretaxi, a people of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees. 
Answers to Cerdagne in Catalonia. 

Ceriaos Petilius, a distinguished ge- 
neral in the reign of Vespasian, long con- 
fronted with Civilis. 

Cerinthus, Geronda, a town of Euboea, 
near a small river called Budorus. 

Cerne, Arguin or Fedala, an island 
without the Pillars of Hercules, on the 
African coast, where Hanno established a 
Carthaginian colony. 

Cestrine, Philates, a district of Epirus, 
separated from Thesprotia by the Thy- 
amis. It was originally called Cammania, 
but changed its name in honour of Cestri- 
nus, son of Helenus. 

Cethegus, I., a consul in the second 
Punic war, a.u.c. 421, who was obliged to 
lay down his office on account of some in- 
formality in his election. — II. A tribune 
at Rome of corrupt morals. He joined Ca- 
tiline, and was commissioned to murder 
Cicero ; but was apprehended, and put to 
death. — III. M. Cornelius, a distin- 
guished Roman orator, who, being sent as 
prajtor into Sicily, quelled a sedition of 
the soldiers. He obtained the censorship 
six years previously to the consulship, b. c. 
204, — a most unusual occurrence ; and 
subsequently defeated Mago, who was 
bringing succour to Hannibal. — IV. C. 
Cornelius, was proconsul in Spain a.u.c. 
552, and defeated a large force of the 
Sudetani. Being elected consul four years 
afterwards, he gained a victory over the 
Insubres, and on his return to Rome was 
honoured with a triumph. He was sub- 
sequently made censor, and assigned to 
the senators distinct places at the public 
games. — V. C. Cornelius, a powerful 
Reman, who sided with Marius against 
Sylla. 

Ceto, a daughter of Pontus and Terra, 
and wife of Phorcys, by whom she had 
the three Gorgons, the Grsea?, Echidna, 
and the Dragon that guarded the golden 
apples. 

Ceyx, king of Trachinia, husband of 



Halcyone. He was drowned as he went 
to consult the oracle of Claros ; and his 
wife, apprised of his misfortune in a dream, 
found his corpse on the shore. They were 
both changed into elcyons. See Halcyone. 

Chaboras, Khabour, a river of Me- 
sopotamia, springing from Mt. Masius, 
west of Nisibis, or, according to other au- 
thorities, east of Charra?. By Xenophon 
it is called Araxes, apparently an appella- 
tive term for many Persian rivers. 

Chabrias, an Athenian general and 
philosopher. He chiefly signalised him- 
self when he assisted the Boeotians against 
Agesilaus ; and for his skill and address in 
this engagement, a statue was erected to 
his honour. He afterwards aided Nec- 
tanebis, king of Egypt, conquered the 
island of Cyprus, and ultimately fell a sacri- 
fice to his courage, b. c. 355. According to 
Demosthenes, he took in the course of his 
life seventeen cities and seventy vessels, 
made three thousand prisoners, and en- 
riched the public treasury with upwards of 
a hundred talents. 

Chjsremox, a philosopher and his- 
torian of Alexandria, who accompanied 
iElius Gallus in his journey through 
Egypt, and was subsequently appointed 
librarian to the Serapeum. He was after- 
wards called to Rome to preside over the 
education of Nero. None of his works 
have come down to our times, though 
fragments are to be met with. 

Ch^eroxea, an ancient city of Boeotia, 
on the borders of Phocis, north-east of 
Lebadrea, remarkable for the important 
military events which occurred in its terri- 
tory, and for being the birthplace of Plu- 
tarch. It was supposed to occupy the 
site of the more ancient Arne. Here was 
fought the celebrated battle between Philip 
of Macedon and the Greeks, b. c. 338, 
which ended in the entire subjugation of 
the latter ; and two centuries and a half 
later, Cha?ronea witnessed another bloody 
engagement between the Romans under 
Sylla and the troops of Mithridates, in 
which the Romans gained a decisive vic- 
tory, b. c 86. It is now called Caprena. 

Chalcedon, an ancient city of Bithynia, 
opposite Constantinople; founded by a 
colony from Megara, and called by the 
Persian satrap Megabyzus, " the city of the 
blind," because the inhabitants had over- 
looked the superior position on the oppo- 
site side of the straits, where Byzantium 
was subsequently founded. Chalcedon was 
first conquered by Darius ; but after the 
defeat of Xerxes it became tributary to 
the Athenians, and after having obtained 
its independence after the battle of JEgos 
H 5 



154 



CHA 



CHA 



Potamos, entered into a confederation with 
Byzantium and other neighbouring cities. 
It was famous, in later times, for being the 
seat of the fourth general council of the 
Church, a. d. 451; and at that period it 
was one of the first cities of the Roman 
province called Pontica Prima. The vil- 
lage Kadikevi occupies its site. 

Chalcidice, I., a district of Macedo- 
nia, between the Sinus Thermaicus and 
Strymonicus. The town of Chalcis gave 
name to the district. — II. Another in 
Syria, adjacent to the town of Chalcis. 

Chalcldicus {of Chalcis), an epithet 
applied to Cumas in Italy, as built by a 
colony from Chalcis. 

Chalcicecus, an epithet applied to Mi- 
nerva at Sparta, from her having a brazen 
temple. 

Chalcis, I., the most celebrated city of 
Euboea, situated on the narrowest point 
of the Euripus. It was built by an Io- 
nian colony prior to the Trojan war ; and 
that it attained great importance at an 
early period is attested by numerous colo- 
nies in Italy and Sicily. From the ad- 
vantages of its situation, and the strength 
of its works, Chalcis was always considered 
as one of the greatest fortresses of Greece, 
and hence, in all the attacks made upon 
Euboea, its possession was eagerly coveted. 
(See Eubcea.) It is now called Negro- 
pont. — II. Galata, a town of iEtolia, at 
the foot of a cognominal mountain. It 
is sometimes called Hypochalcis, in allu- 
sion^ to its position. — III. A small mari- 
time town of the Corinthians, situated to- 
wards Sicyon. — IV. A city of Mace- 
donia, in Chalcidice, to which it gave name. 
It was founded by a colony from Chalcis 
in Euboea. — V. A city of Syria, capital 
of the district of Chalcidice, founded by a 
colony from Macedonia. It is represented 
by Kinnesrin or Chinserin. 

Chald^ea, a country of Asia at the 
head of the Persian Gulf. Some writers 
make Babylonia a part of it. The Chal- 
daaans are highly commended for their 
skill in the sciences, especially astronomy. 
See Babylonia. 

Chalybes and Calybes, a people of 
Asia Minor, south-east of Pontus, cele- 
brated for the great iron mines which ex- 
isted in their country. They were partly 
conquered by Croesus, king of Lydia, but 
ultimately gained their liberty. Strabo calls 
them Chaldan, or Chaldi. Their country 
is still called Keldir. 

Chalybon, a famous city of Syria, ca- 
pital of the district called Chalybonitis, 
corresponding to the Helbon of Scrip- 
ture, and the modern Aleppo. It ap- 



pears to have risen into importance 
on the destruction of Palmyra. Like 
the latter, it was a convenient emporium 
for the trade between Europe and the 
East, so long as it was carried on over- 
land. The productions of Persia and India 
came to it in caravans from Bagdad and 
Bussora, to be shipped at Iskenderoun 
and Latakia for the different ports of Eu- 
rope. Chalybon communicated also with 
Arabia and Egypt, by way of Damascus ; 
with Asia Minor, by Tarsus; and with 
Armenia, by Diarbekir. It rose to great 
wealth and consequence under the Greek 
sovereigns of Syria, and into still greater 
under the early Roman emperors. In 
a. d. 638, it resisted the arms of the Arabs 
for several months; but being finally taken, 
it became of as much importance under 
the Saracens, as it had before been under 
the Romans or Greeks. In the tenth cen- 
tury, it was reunited to the empire of Con- 
stantinople by the arms of Zimisces ; but 
it soon after fell into the hands of the Sel- 
jukian Turks, under whose sway it re- 
mained during the time of the Crusades. 
It suffered considerably during the irrup- 
tions of the Mongols in the thirteenth 
century, and again by the wars of Tamer- 
lane, or Timur Bee, in the fifteenth. Se- 
lim I. annexed it, in 1516, to the Turkish 
empire, of which it continued a part till 
1832, when it opened its gates to Ibrahim 
Pacha without a summons. Its political 
revolutions, with the exception of its two 
captures by the Tartars, affected its pros- 
perity only temporarily and in a slight de- 
gree ; but the discovery of a passage to 
India by the Cape of Good Hope struck a 
deadly blow at its greatness. Since that 
event it has continued to decline; and the 
earthquake of 1822, together with the 
wars which have distracted Syria, by 
causing extensive emigrations, have re- 
duced it to comparative insignificance. 

Chalybs, Queiles, a river of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, in the country of the Cel- 
tiberi, and one of the tributaries of the 
Iberus. Its waters were famous for harden- 
ing steel : hence its name. 

Chaones, a people of Epirus : who in- 
habited 

Chaonia, a region of Epirus, compre- 
hending the north-western part of that 
country ; but even in the time of Strabo its 
limits could not be precisely ascertained. 
The Chaonians were long the most powerful 
and warlike tribe of Epirus ; but the Mo. 
lossi ultimately acquired the preponde- 
rance. Tradition ascribed the origin of 
their name to Chaon, brother of Helenus, 
who married Andromache after the death 



CHA 



CHA 



155 



of Pyrrhus. It may be inferred from the 
name of Pelasgis given to Chaonia by 
some writers, that it was formerly occu- 
pied by the Pelasgi. Virgil uses the epi- 
thet Ckaonius for Dodonceus, in referring 
to the acorns of Dodona. 

Chaos, a rude and shapeless mass of 
matter, from which the universe was 
formed by the power of a Superior Being. 
Chaos was deemed one of the oldest of the 
gods. 

Charadra, a town of Phocis, about 
twenty stadia from Lilasa, and near the 
Charadrus which flowed into the Cephis- 
sus. It was destroyed by Xerxes. 

Charax, the name of several cities of 
antiquity, of which the chief was a con- 
siderable emporium of Bithynia, on the 
bay of Nicomedia, 

Charaxes and Charaxus, brother of 
Sappho. 

Chares, L, an Athenian general, who 
succeeded to the command after the con- 
demnation and death of Leosthenes. He 
was sent by the Athenians against Alex- 
ander, tyrant of Pheras ; but, instead of 
coming to action with the enemy, he so 
harassed the Athenian allies by extortions, 
that the social war was the result, b. c. 338. 
But, notwithstanding his delinquencies, he 
was appointed commander-in-chief not 
only in this war, but in a subsequent ex- 
pedition in aid of Byzantium against Philip 
of Macedon ; and though recalled in favour 
of Phocion, he was again appointed to the 
command at the battle of Chasronea, when 
his incapacity greatly contributed to the 
loss of the day. He was delivered up to 
Alexander after the destruction of Thebes, 
but succeeded in mollifying the conqueror, 
and was permitted to live at Athens. — II. 
A statuary of Lindus, disciple of Lysippus, 
and celebrated as the maker of the Colossus 
of Rhodes, on which he was employed 
twelve years. 

Charicles, I., one of the thirty tyrants 
set over Athens by the Lacedaemonians. — 
II. A famous physician under Tiberius, 
of whom a curious story is related by Ta- 
citus. (AnnaL 6. 50.) 

Charila, a festival observed once in 
nine years by the Delphians. In a great 
famine, the people of Delphi having ap- 
plied to their king to relieve their wants, 
he distributed the little corn he had among 
the noblest ; but as a poor little girl, named 
Charila, begged the king, he beat her with 
his shoe, upon which the girl hanged her- 
self. The famine increased ; and the oracle 
declared, that, to relieve his people, he 
must atone for the murder of Charila. On 
this a festival was instituted. The king 



presided, and distributed corn to such as 
attended. Charila's image was brought 
before the king, who struck it with his 
shoe ; after which it was carried to a de- 
solate place, where they put a halter round 
its neck, and buried it where Charila was 
interred. 

Charilaus, or Charillus, son of Po- 
lydectes, king of Sparta. He was edu- 
cated by his uncle Lycurgus ; made war 
against Argos, and attacked Tegea ; but 
was taken prisoner, and released on pro- 
mising that he would cease from war, an 
engagement which he soon broke. He 
died in his 64th year. 

Charis, a name applied in the Iliad to 
the wife of Vulcan, who in the Odyssey 
is said to be Venus. The attributes of 
Venus were grace and beauty, which may 
with equal propriety be averred of the 
results of Vulcan's labours. 

Charisia, a festival in honour of the 
Graces, with dances which continued all 
night. 

Charistia, a festival celebrated at Rome 
on the 19th February by relations or 
friends, to make up disagreements, and to 
effect reconciliations. 

Charites and Gratis, the Graces, three 
sister goddesses, called Aglaia, Sjrfendour, 
Thalia, the Blooming One, and Euphrosyne, 
Joy, daughters of Jupiter and the ocean 
nymph Eurynome ; but their parentage 
has been variously given. In the Iliad 
they appear as the attendants of Juno, in 
the Odyssey of Venus. They were origin- 
ally represented as clothed, but in later 
times entirely naked. In one of the 
groups of statues described by Pausa- 
nias they held respectively a rose, a die, 
and a leaf of myrtle. Their worship was 
often associated with that of Venus, Cupid, 
Mercury, Apollo, and the Muses. The 
Lacedaemonians and Athenians originally 
worshipped only two Graces. 

Chariton of Aphrodisias, (a Carian 
town,) the author of a Greek romance, 
intitled " The Loves of Chaereas and Cal- 
lirrhoe." The appellation is probably as- 
sumed, as well as the title he gives him- 
self, of " Secretary to the Rhetorician 
Athenagoras," whom Thucydides mentions 
as enjoying great credit at Syracuse : for 
we have no data to fix the period of Cha- 
riton, though it is usually placed at the 
end of the fourth century of our era. He 
was opposed to Hermocrates, the general 
who vanquished the Athenians. 

Charmides, I., son of Glaucon, famed 
in early life for his beauty and dissipation, 
turned his attention to public affairs at the 
instigation of Socrates, and became one of 
h 6 



156 



CHA 



CHE 



the ten tyrants of the Piraeus. He was 
slain, along with his friend Critias, in the 
first battle between the forces of the ty- 
rants and those of Thrasybulus. Plato 
has called one of his dialogues after him, 
and he is frequently mentioned by Xeno- 
phon. — II. (or Charmidas), an academic 
philosopher, the friend of Philo, and cele- 
brated for the extent of his memory and 
his wisdom. 

Charmion, one of Cleopatra's attend- 
ants, who killed herself after the example 
of her mistress. 

Charmis, a successful physician of Mar- 
seilles, in Nero's age, who revived the use 
of cold baths at Rome in cases of sickness, 
after the practice had been discontinued 
since the time of Musa. 

Charon, I., the fabulous ferryman who 
conducted the souls of the dead in a boat 
over the Styx and Acheron to the infernal 
regions. He received an obolus from every 
passenger ; and hence the ancients used to 
put that piece of money in the mouths of 
the dead. Such as had not been honoured 
with a funeral were not permitted to enter 
his boat, without wandering on the shore 
for 100 years. If any living person pre- 
sented himself, he could not be admitted 
before he showed Charon a golden bough 
he had received from the Sibyl; and Charon 
was imprisoned for one year, because he 
had ferried over, against his own will, Her- 
cules without a passport. The poets have 
represented Charon as an old robust man, 
of a severe though animated countenance, 
with glowing eyes, a white and bushy beard, 
dusky garments, and an oar in his hand 
for the guidance of his dark-coloured boat. 
The story of Charon is said to be of Egyp- 
tian origin. By the Latin and Greek 
author? he was called the son of Erebus 
and Nox. — II. A native of Lampsacus, 
who lived between the 75th and 78th 
Olympiad. He Avrote the history of Persia, 
Libya, ./Ethiopia, and other countries ; 
but only a few fragments of his writings 
remain. 

Charondas, a celebrated legislator, 
born at Catana in Sicily about 600 b. c. 
He was of the middle class of citizens, 
and framed laws for the people of Catana, 
and for other communities which, like 
them, were descended from Chalcis in 
Euboea. Many of his maxims have been 
preserved. The manner of his death is 
worthy of notice. He had made a law 
that no man should go armed into the 
assembly of the people ; the penalty being 
death. Returned from pursuing some 
robbers, he entered the city, without re- 
flecting that he carried a sword ; and on 



some one remarking to him, " You are 
violating your own law," he replied, " On 
the contrary, I am establishing it;" and 
slew himself on the spot. This action is 
asciibed by some to Diocles. 

Charybdis, a whirlpool on the coast of 
Sicily, opposite another whirlpool called 
Scylla on the coast of Italy ; dangerous to 
sailors, and fatal to part of the fleet of 
Ulysses. The words of a modern poet, 
" Incidit in Scyllam, qui vult vitare Cha- 
rybdim," became a proverb, to show that 
in our eagerness to avoid one evil we fall 
into a greater. See Scylla. 

Chauci, a people of Germany, of Suevic 
race, divided into Majores and Minores; 
the former situated between the Visurgis, 
Weser, and the A Ibis, Elbe ; the latter 
between the Amisia, Ems, and the Vi- 
surgis. They are distinguished by Tacitus 
as the noblest, bravest, best disciplined, 
and most civilised of the German nations ; 
but Pliny gives a wholly different state- 
ment. They were at one time in alliance 
with the Romans, but they never appear 
to have been subjugated. In the middle 
of the third century they joined the great 
Frankish confederation. 

Chelidonia, a festival at Rhodes, in 
which it was customary for boys to go 
asking presents from door to door, and 
singing a song called Chelidonisma, be- 
cause it began with an allusion to the 
arrival of the xv^^i " swallow," and the 
consequent approach of spring. Similar 
customs are still found in many countries 
at that season of the year. 

ChelidonLe, Kelidoni, small islands on 
the coast of Lycia, dangerous to sailors. 
They were said to be two or three at the 
utmost in number in antiquity ; but five 
were seen by Captain Beaufort, who attri- 
butes the discrepancy to the shock of an 
earthquake having rent some of them in 
twain. 

Chelidonium Promontorium, now 
Cape Kelidonia. See Sacrum Promon- 
torium. 

Chelone, a nymph changed into a tor- 
toise by Mercury, for ridiculing the nup- 
tials of Jupiter and Juno. 

Chelonites, or Chelonatas, Cape Tor- 
nese, a promontory of Elis, forming the 
extreme point of the Peloponnesus towards 
the north-west. 

Chemmis, I. (See Panopolis.) — II. An 
island in Egypt in a deep lake, near the 
temple of Latona in the city of Butus. 
It was said to be a floating island ; but 
Herodotus candidly said that he neither 
saw it float nor move. It contained a 
spacious temple, dedicated to Apollo. — 



CHE 



CHI 



157 



III. A city of Egypt, placed by Herodo- 
- tus in the Thebaic nome near Neapolis, 
and containing a temple dedicated to 
Perseus, son of Danae. Some have sup- ; 
posed the city to be identical with that | 
above mentioned, otherwise called Pano- j 
polis ; but others, with greater probability, 
identify it with Coptos. 

Cheops and Cheospes, king of Egypt, 
after Rhampsinitus, reigned 1178 b. c, 
and built the pyramids. His history has 
been given by Herodotus (book ii. ) ; but 
it is evidently fabulous. 

Chephrex, brother and successor of 
Cheops, in imitation of whom he also ' 
built a pyramid. The ^Egyptians so 
hated these two brothers, in consequence I 
of their oppression, that they would never 
mention their names, but even called their 
pyramids by the name of the shepherd 
Philitis, who fed his cattle in those places. 

Chersoxesus, Lat. Peninsula, from 
X*p<ros, or xeppos, " the main-land," vrjaos, \ 
" island," i. e. an island joining to the main- I 
land. The five most celebrated were : — 
1. Peloponnestis ; 2. Tliracian, at the south 
of Thrace ; 3. Taurica, now Cri)n Tar- 
tary, near the Palus Ma?otis ; 4. Cimbrica, 
now Jutland, in Denmark ; 5. Aurea, in 
India, beyond the Ganges. 

Cherusci, a people of Germany, be- 
tween the Weser and Elbe, and south-east I 
of the Chauci. Under the conduct of I 
Arminius, they defeated and slew the 
three Roman legions under Varus, a. d. 
9 *, but they were afterwards defeated by 
Germanicus, and never recovered their 
former eminence. 

Chilo, a Spartan philosopher, whose 
reputation for wisdom procured him a 
place among the seven wise men of Greece. 
He became one of the ephori, b. c. 566 ; 
and afterwards visited the court of Croesus, 
king of Lydia, where he is said to have 
met JEsop. He died through excess of 
joy, while embracing one of his sons who 
had obtained a victory at Olympia, b. c. 
597. 

Chimera, a fabulous monster, sprung 
from Echidna and Typhon. which ravaged 
the country of Lycia until destroyed by 
Bellerophon. According to one account 
it had the head of a lion, which vomited 
forth flames, the body of a goat, and the 
tail of a serpent. But many other forms 
were assigned to it, the poets having vied 
^with each other in representing it as the 
\ personification of all that is terrific and 
horrible. Various explanations have been 
given of this fable ; but the best is that of 
Servius, who represents the Chimsera to 
""be a volcanic mountain of Lycia, whose 



summits were infested by lions, its sides 
occupied by pastures abounding in goats, 
and the foot swarming with serpents. This 
interpretation has been abundantly con- 
firmed in more recent times, and more 
especially by Captain Beaufort, to whose 
Karmnania we beg to refer the reader. 

Chimerium, now Cape Saracinico, a 
promontory on the coast of Epirus, oppo- 
site Paxos. 

Chiox, a native of Heraclea Pontica, 
and a disciple of Plato. Having finished 
his studies at Athens, he returned to He- 
raclea, where he slew his sovereign, Clear- 
chus, and was himself slain by his suc- 
cessor, Satyrus. A collection of seventeen 
letters are attributed to him, though their 
genuineness has been questioned. 

Chioxe, I., daughter of Da?dalion, and 
mother of Philammon and Autolycus, by 
Apollo and Mercury. The former, as son 
of Apollo, became an excellent musician ; 
and the latter was notorious for his rob- 
beries, of which his father Mercury was 
the patron. Chione grew so proud of her 
divine lovers, that she placed herself on an 
equality with Juno, for which impiety she 
was killed by the goddess, and changed 
into a hawk. — II. Daughter of Boreas 
and Orithyia, and mother of Eumolpus by 
Neptune, whom she threw into the sea, 
but he was preserved by his father. 

Chioxides, the first comic writer among 
the Athenians, lived 4S7 b. c. Only three 
of the titles of his plays are extant. 

Chios, known also by the names of 
JEthalia, Macris, and Pityusa, now Scio, a 
celebrated island in the JEgean sea, be- 
tween Lesbos and Samos, on the coast of 
Asia Minor. Its chief town, Chios, had a 
beautiful harbour, which could contain 80 
ships. The wines of Chios, especially 
those produced in the district of Arvisia, 
were amongst the most esteemed of any 
in the ancient world. According to Pliny, 
Chian wine was served up by Julius 
Caesar at his most splendid entertainment ; 
and it is thought worthy of notice, that 
Hortensius left a very large stock of 
this famous beverage to his heir. The 
wine of the island still preserves some por- 
tion of its ancient celebrity ; but the pro- 
duce is scanty, and it is said to be injured 
by transportation. Chios was originally 
peopled by Pelasgi from Thessaly ; and it 
subsequently became one of the twelve 
Ionian states founded by the European 
colonists from Greece. In antiquity, Chios 
gave birth to many distinguished indivi- 
duals ; among whom may be specified Ion, 
the tragic poet, Theopompus, the histo- 
rian, Theocritus, the sophist, and Metro- 



158 



CHI 



CHR 



dorus, the physician and philosopher. 
But Chios aspires to a still higher honour, 
that of being the native country of the first 
and greatest of poets, 

" The blind old man of Chios' rocky isle ;" 

and it is admitted by the ablest critics 
that, of all the cities that contended for 
the honour of having been the birth- 
place of Homer, the claims of Chios and 
Smyrna were apparently the best founded. 
The Chians were for some time in pos- 
session of the empire of the sea. They are 
said to have been the first who traded in 
slaves ; and the oracle, informed of the fact, 
declared that it had drawn upon them the 
anger of heaven : one, says Barthelmi, of 
the noblest, but at the same time, least re- 
garded answers, the gods have communi- 
cated to man. The Chians took a promi- 
nent part in the great revolt of the Ionian 
cities against the Persians, by whom they 
were afterwards reduced and punished 
with great severity. At a subsequent 
period we sometimes find them on the side 
of the Athenians, and sometimes on that of 
the Lacedemonians ; but in every alliance 
the Chians were amongst the most re- 
spectable of the Greek states. They be- 
came the allies of Rome during the wars 
with Mithridates. After innumerable vi- 
cissitudes Chios came, in the middle ages, 
into the possession of the Genoese, who 
built its capital. It was taken by the 
Turks in the 1 6th century. 

Chiron, the most celebrated of the Cen- 
taurs, was son of Philyra and Saturn. 
He was famous for his knowledge of music, 
medicine, and shooting, and instructed in 
the polite arts Achilles, iEsculapius, Her- 
cules, &c. When Hercules was in the 
pursuit of the Centaurs, he accidentally 
wounded Chiron in the knee with a poi- 
soned arrow, which, notwithstanding every 
effort of the hero, proved to be incurable ; 
and upon Chiron begging Jupiter to de- 
prive him of immortality, he was placed 
by the god among the constellations, under 
the name of Sagittarius. 

Chloe, a surname of Ceres at Athens, 
in whose honour yearly festivals, called 
Chloia, were celebrated with much re- 
joicing. Chloe is supposed to bear the 
same signification as Flava. The name, 
from its signification (x^dri, blossom), has 
generally been applied to women possessed 
of beauty and simplicity. 

Chxoreus, a priest of Cybele, who came 
with iEneas into Italy, and was killed by 
Turnus. 

Chloris, I., the Greek name for the 
goddess of flowers, equivalent to the Ro- 



man Flora. (See Flora.) — II. Daughter 

of Amphion, son of Jasus and Perse- 
phone, and wife of Neleus, king of Pylos, 
by whom she had one daughter and twelve 
sons, all of whom, except Nestor, were 
killed by Hercules. 

Chlorus. See Constantius Chlorus. 

Choaspes, I., an Indian river. See 
Suastus. — II. A river of Susiana. See 
Eul^us. 

Chobus Schijani, a river of Colchis, 
falling into the Euxine. 

Choerades, islands in the Ionian sea, 
off the coast of Iapygia, near the harbour 
of Tarentum. 

ChcerEuE, Cavalier i, islands off the coast 
of Eubcea, near Styra. 

Chozrilus, I., an Athenian tragic poet, 
contemporary of Phrynichus, and competi- 
-tor of uEschylus, b. c. 499. He is said to 
have written 1 50 plays, but none of them 
have reached our time. — II. A poet of 
Samos, who flourished between 460 and 
430 b. c. In his old age he went to reside 
at the court of Archelaus in Macedonia, 
where he died. Some fragments of his 
epic poem, " The Perseid," have come down 
to us. He was held in high esteem by 
the Athenians, who decreed that part of 
his poem should annually be read in public 
on the celebration of the Panathenaea. — 
III. A poet of Iassus in Asia Minor, to 
whom Alexander the Great promised apiece 
of gold for every good verse he should com- 
pose in his praise. Only seven lines were 
deemed by the monarch worthy of the 
promised reward. 

Chorasmii, a people of Asia, between 
Sogdiana and the north-eastern shore of 
the Caspian, whose capital was Gorgo, 
now Urgheng. Their country is now 
Kharasm. 

Chorineus, a man killed in the Rutu- 
lian war. 

Chorcebus. See Corcebus. 

Chronium Mare, the Frozen Ocean. 
The Cimbri called it Morimarusa, " Dead 
Sea." 

Chronos, or Kronos, the Greek name 
of Saturn. See Saturnus. 

Chrtsa, I., a maritime town of Troas, 
near the city of Hamaxitus, whence 
Achilles bore away as his prize the beauti- 
ful Chryseis. It was famous for a temple 
of Apollo Smintheus, whence it was also 
called Sminthium. — II. A small island 
near Lemnos, in which Philoctetes took 
up his abode, when suffering from the 
wound inflicted by one of the arrows of 
Hercules. It was afterwards submerged 
by the sea, in accordance with an ancient 
prediction. 



CHR 



CHR 



159 



Chrysanthius, an eclectic philosopher 
of Sardis, made high priest of Lydia by 
Julian, and supposed to have possessed the 
gift of prophecy. 

Chrysaor, son of Medusa by Neptune, 
born immediately after the decapitation of 
his mother. He was of gigantic stature, 
and derived his name from being armed 
with a golden sword, xpv°~ €l0V &°P- He 
married Callirrhoe, by whom he had 
Geryon, Echidna, and other monsters. 

Chrysaorius, a surname of Jupiter, 
from his temple at Stratonice, where the 
Carians held a sort of political meeting 
called Chrysaorium. 

Chryses, priest of Apollo at Lyrnessus 
or Chrysa, father of Astynome, called from 
him Chryseis. When Lyrnessus was 
taken, and the spoils divided, Chryseis fell 
to the share of Agamemnon. Chryses, on 
hearing of his daughter's fate, went to the 
Grecian camp to solicit restoration; and 
finding that his prayers were fruitless, 
he implored the aid of Apollo, who visited 
the Greeks with a plague, and obliged 
them to restore Chryseis. 

Chrysippus, I., a natural son of Pelops, 
carried off by Laius, whose history has 
been variously narrated. According to 
the most common account, he was slain 
by Atreus and Thyestes, at the instigation 
of his stepmother Hippodamia. — II. Son 
of Apollonius, was born at Soli, in Cilicia 
Campestris, b. c. 280. Having lost his 
patrimony, he came to Athens, where he 
devoted himself to the study of philosophy 
under Cleanthes, whom he afterwards suc- 
ceeded. His dialectical skill procured for 
him the highest reputation ; and such was 
his indefatigable industry that he is said 
by Diogenes to have written 705 volumes. 
Of these numerous works, however, no- 
thing remains except a few extracts pre- 
served in the works of Cicero, Plutarch, 
Seneca, and Aulus Gellius. After Zeno 
he is regarded as the main prop of the 
Stoic school ; and to him is attributed the 
invention of the logical form Sorites. He 
died b. c. 208 ; and a statue was erected 
to his memory. 

Chrysoasfides, soldiers in the armies 
of Persia, whose arms were covered with 
silver to display the opulence of the prince 
whom they served. 

Chrysoceras, Horn of Gold, a long cove 
of Byzantium, forming an excellent har- 
bour ; whence its name. 

Chrysopolis, Scutari, a town and har- 
bour opposite Byzantium, on the Asiatic 
shore. Towards the close of the Pelopon- 
nesian war, the Athenians levied there a 
toll on all ships coming from the Euxine ; 



and at a later period the ten thousand 
Greeks encamped on it for some days pre- 
viously to their passing over into Thrace. 
It is said to owe its name to the circum- 
stance of the Persians having established 
their treasury in it when they attempted 
the conquest of Greece. 

Chrysorrhoas, Golden Stream, a river 
of Syria, which rises in Mt. Libanus, and, 
after dividing into five branches, of which 
the largest flows through Damascus, again 
unites its streams and flows into the sea. 
It is identical with the Bardine or Amana, 
(in Scripture Abana,) now the JBaradi. 

Chrysostom, St. John, an eminent fa- 
ther of the church, was born at Antioch, 
a. d. 347. His father's name was Secun- 
dus ; and the surname of Chrysostom, or 
" Golden Mouth," was given to him on 
account of his eloquence. He was bred 
to the bar ; but his predilections for the 
church induced him to abandon it, and he 
retired to a monastery for the purposes of 
study and meditation. But the austeri- 
ties which he practised in his sechision 
had nearly terminated fatally, and at the 
end of six years he returned to Antioch, 
where he was ordained ; and obtained such 
celebrity for his eloquence, that on the 
death of Nectarius, patriarch of Constan- 
tinople, he was chosen to supply his place. 
But his zeal in repressing heresy and pa- 
ganism, in the correction of abuses that 
had crept into the church, and more espe- 
cially in the monastic establishments, soon 
involved him in a quarrel with Theophilus, 
bishop of Alexandria, who enjoyed the 
■patronage of the empress Eudoxia; and 
he was deposed by a synod held at Chal- 
cedon a. d. 403, arrested, and conveyed 
to Nicaea in Bithynia. The banishment 
of a man whose charities had endeared him 
to the people led to so violent an outbreak 
that the empress herself sued for his return ; 
but Chrysostom, regardless of consequences, 
directed his invectives, with still greater 
force than before, against the nefarious 
practices of his former accusers and the 
vanity of the empress ; and another synod 
being convened, he was once more deposed, 
and transported to Cucusus, a lonely city on 
the confines of Cappadocia. He bore his 
calamities with admirable fortitude ; but 
his enemies, alarmed at his untiring efforts 
in promoting the conversion of the people 
in the neighbourhood, resolved to remove 
him still further from the capital ; and the 
indignities to which he was subjected on 
the journey produced a violent fever, which 
ended in his death at Comana, a. d. 407. 
Thirty-five years afterwards his remains 
were removed, amid great pomp and vene- 



160 



CHR 



CIC 



ration, to Constantinople by Theodosius 
II., and he was honoured with the title of 
Saint. The best edition of his voluminous 
writings is that of Montfaucon, 11 vols, 
folio, Paris, 1718. 

Chrysothemis, L, a daughter of Aga- 
memnon and Clytemnestra. — II. A Cre- 
tan who first obtained the poetical prize at 
the Pythian games. 

Chthonia, a surname of Ceres, from a 
temple built to her by Chthonia, at Her- 
mione, or, more properly, from x^v, earth. 
She had a festival there called by the same 
name, and celebrated every summer. 

Chthonius, a Centaur, killed by Nestor 
in the conflict at the nuptials of Pirithous. 

Cibal^e, Savilei, a town of Lower Pan- 
nonia, famous for the defeat of Licinius 
by Constantine, a. d. 315, and for being 
the birthplace of Gratian. 

Cibyra, I., a commercial city of Phrygia, 
between Lycia and Caria ; surnamed the 
Great, to distinguish it from a city of the 
same name in Pamphylia. It was origin- 
ally a small town of the Cabalees ; but on 
the arrival of a Pisidian colony, it became 
a large and flourishing city, whose influ- 
ence extended to several of the neighbour- 
ing countries. After its conquest by the 
Romans, it was the chief city of a conven- 
tion comprising no fewer than twenty-five 
towns. According to Tacitus, it was 
destroyed by an earthquake, and, though 
partially rebuilt by Tiberius, it never re- 
gained its former influence. Four different 
languages were spoken in Cibyra, viz. the 
Lydian, Pisidian, Lycian, and Greek. The 
inhabitants excelled in engraving on iron 
and steel. The city is now in ruins. — II: 
A maritime city of Pamphylia, south-east 
of Aspendus, called Parva to distinguish 
it from the preceding. Its site answers to 
the modern Iburar. 

Cicero, M. T., after Demosthenes the 
most celebrated orator of antiquity, was 
born at Arpinum b. c. 107, the same 
year which gave birth to Pompey the 
Great. His family was of equestrian rank, 
but had never taken any part in the affairs 
of Rome. His father, whom ill health 
prevented from engaging in public life, 
was on intimate terms with some of the 
most distinguished citizens of Rome ; and 
among these was the celebrated Crassus, 
who undertook the education of young 
Cicero and his brother Quintus, selected 
their teachers, and directed their studies. 
After displaying many promising abilities 
at school, on attaining the manly gown he 
served his first campaign under Sylla and 
Pompeius Strabo, b. c. 89, and on his return 
to Rome devoted himself to philosophy 



and rhetoric under two of the greatest 
masters of the day, Philo and Apollonius 
Molo of Rhodes, then exiles from their 
native country. During the cruelties of 
Marius, and the proscriptions of Sylla, 
Cicero lived in retirement, perfecting him- 
self in those studies and acquirements 
which ultimately raised him to the highest 
offices of the state. At the age of twenty- 
six, when Sylla had completely extinguish- 
ed the democratic elements ot the Roman 
constitution, he made his first appearance 
as an advocate ; and the first case of im- 
portance which he undertook, the defence 
of Roscius Amerinus, accused of parri- 
cide by his enemies, placed him at once 
among the first orators of Rome. But his 
delicate health obliged him soon afterwards 
to abandon his professional occupations for 
a time ; and the next two years were spent 
in Athens, where he resumed his friendship 
with his old schoolfellow Pomponius Atti- 
cus, and in visiting and studying under 
the principal philosophers and rhetoricians 
of Asia. On his return to Rome he soon 
eclipsed all his competitors at the bar; and 
the voice of his fellow-citizens called him 
to the quaestorship, the first public office 
which he filled, b. c. 76. Sicily fell to his 
share ; and his administration of his office 
so endeared him to the people, that on his 
return he was received with every demon- 
stration of respect, and after conducting 
his celebrated prosecution against Verres, 
and defending Roscius, Fonteius, and Ca?- 
cina, he was elected aedile, b. c. 69, and 
two years afterwards praetor. His praetorship 
was celebrated for his advocacy of the Ma- 
nilian law, which transferred the command 
of the Mithridatic war from P. Crassus 
to Pompey, and for his defence of Cluen- 
tius. Refusing to accept a foreign pro- 
vince, the usual reward of the praetorship, 
he now directed his aim to the consulship ; 
and though a new man, as it was termed, 
and with the noblest citizens of Rome for his 
competitors, he succeeded in attaining the 
object of his ambition. His consulship is 
chiefly memorable for his detection of 
Catiline's conspiracy ; and the vigorous 
measures which he adopted for the con- 
demnation of the criminals obtained for 
him the title of " Father and Deliverer of 
his Country." Hitherto the life of Cicero 
had been a series of triumphs ; he was 
now doomed to experience in a signal man- 
ner the mutability of fortune. On the 
one hand, his vanity and presumption had 
rendered him odious to the aristocracy, by 
whom he was regarded as an upstart ; on 
the other, the people had begun to discern 
in his recent conduct a want of sympathy 



CIC 



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161 



with their body. Hence, when the tribune 
Clodius, availing himself of these symp- 
toms, proposed his famous measure, which, 
though expressed in general terms, was 
distinctly aimed against Cicero, he saw 
himself abandoned even by his friends, and 
was forced to retire into voluntary exile. 
When, however, the faction had subsided 
at Rome, the whole senate and people 
were unanimous for his recal ; and after 
sixteen months' absence he returned to 
Rome, having borne his exile most unphi- 
losophically and effeminately. Five years 
afterwards he was sent, with the power of 
proconsul, to Cilicia, where he prosecuted 
the war with great success, and was greeted 
by the soldiers with the title of Imperator. 
During the civil commotions between Cae- 
sar and Pompey, he joined himself to the 
latter, after much hesitation, and followed 
him to Greece. When victory had de- 
clared in favour of Caesar, at the battle of 
Pharsalia, Cicero went to Brundisium, and 
was reconciled to the conqueror, who treat- 
ed him with great humanity ; and from 
this time he retired into the country, and 
seldom visited Rome. The assassination of 
Caesar, however, once more brought him 
on the public stage of affairs. He recom- 
mended a general amnesty; but when he saw 
the interest of Caesar's murderers decrease, 
and Antony come into power, he retired 
into Sicily, but soon afterwards returned 
and delivered the celebrated series of Phi- 
lippics against Antony, which, though at 
first eminently successful, ultimately ended 
in his ruin. The two consuls, Octavius 
and Lepidus, whom he had so zealously 
supported, having formed an alliance with 
Antony, Cicero, convinced that libei-ty was 
at an end, retired to Tusculum, where he 
learned that Octavius had deserted him, 
and that his name, at Antony's demand, 
had been placed on the list of the pro- 
scribed. Being pursued by the emissaries 
of Antony, he fled in a litter towards the 
sea at Caieta ; and on being overtaken by 
the assassins, he stretched out his head 
with perfect calmness, and submitted his 
neck to the sword of Popilius, who had 
been one of his clients. This memorable 
event happened in Dec. b. c. 43. His 
head and right hand were carried to Rome, 
and hung up in the Roman forum. We 
have been unable to give any more than 
the most slender outline of the life of this 
distinguished Roman ; and have not found 
room even to glance at many of the most 
important events in his eventful history, 
and more especially in his oratorical and 
literary career. Cicero has acquired more 
real fame by his literary compositions than 



by his exertions as a Roman senator. His 
learning and abilities have been the admir- 
ation of every age and country, and his 
style has always been accounted the true 
standard of pure Latinity. He was twice 
married ; first to Terentia, whom he after- 
wards divorced, and by whom he had a son 
and daughter ; afterwards to a young lady 
to whom he was guardian, and whom he 
afterwards repudiated, because she seemed 
elated at the death of his daughter Tullia. 
— II. Marcus, son of Cicero, was born at 
Arpinum, a. u. c. 688. He fought under 
Pompey at the battle of Pharsalia ; after- 
wards served under Brutus, on whose 
death he joined Sextus Pompeius, and came 
to Rome after the peace concluded between 
the latter and the triumvirs. On the rup- 
ture of Octavius with Antony, the former 
associated him with himself in the consul- 
ship, and commissioned him to destroy 
the monuments that had been erected in 
honour of Antony. He afterwards went 
as proconsul to Asia ; but the date and 
manner of his death are unknown. He is 
said to have been addicted to the pleasures 

of the table III. Quintus, brother of 

the orator, and brother-in-law of Atticus, 
was elected praetor a. u. c. 692, and ob- 
tained the government of Asia. He sub- 
sequently acted as Caesar's lieutenant in 
Gaul, and as Cicero's in Cilicia ; took 
part with Pompey in the battle of Phar- 
salia ; was afterwards pardoned by Caesar, 
and on the formation of the triumvirate 
was proscribed, together with his son, and 
put to death. He wrote several tragedies 
and other pieces ; but only one or two 
fragments remain. 

Cicones, a people on the coast of 
Thrace, near the spot where Maronea 
stood in a later age. Their chief city 
was Ismarus, the plundering of which was 
the cause of great loss, both in men and 
ships, to Ulysses. See Ismarus. 

Cilicia, called by the Turks Tis- 
Weleieth, " Stony Province," a country of 
Asia Minor, on the sea-coast, south of 
Cappadocia and Lycaonia, bounded by 
Syria on the east, and Pisidia and Pam- 
phylia on the west. It was divided into 
two districts, Campestris and Trachea ; the 
former, which was the larger and more 
eastern portion, derived its name from its 
champaign character; the latter, which 
was nearly wholly occupied by the ridge 
of Taurus, was so called from its rugged 
aspect. The government of Cilicia was 
originally a theocracy ; under the Persian 
regime it had nominal kings ; and it after- 
wards became first a Macedonian, and 
then a Roman province. From the earliest 



162 



CIL 



CIM 



ages the Cilicians had been famous for 
their piracies ; and when Cilicia yielded 
to the arms of Pompey, more than 20,000 
pirates are said to have fallen into his 
hands. The more ancient name of the 
inhabitants of Cilicia was Hypachaei ; and 
it received the name Cilicia from Cilix, 
a son of Agenor. 

Cilla, a town of Mysia, near Adra- 
myttium, where Apollo was worshipped ; 
so called from Cillus, one of Hippodamia's 
suitors, who was killed by QEnomaus. 

Cimber, L. T., one of Cesar's mur- 
derers, who had been throughout the civil 
war a violent partisan of the dictator, and 
had received for his services the province 
of Bithynia. He was notorious for drunk- 
enness. 

Cimbri, a people of Germany, who in- 
vaded the Roman empire with a large army, 
and were conquered by Marius and Catu- 
lus. Some authors maintain that their 
original seat was the Cimbric Chersonese, or 
modern Jutland, and that their name in- 
dicates a curious connection with the Cim- 
merii ; but the whole subject is involved 
in the deepest obscurity. The Cimbri, 
aided by the Teutones and Ambrones, in- 
vaded the Roman territories, b. c. 109. 
In the first battle they vanquished the 
consul Pap. Carbo ; in another, defeated 
M. Junius Silanus, another consul ; in a 
third, L. Cassius ; in a fourth, M. Aure- 
lius Scaurus, whom they took prisoner 
and put to death. Marius, in his second 
consulship, being chosen to carry on the 
war, met the Teutones at Aquas Sextias, 
where he left dead on the field of battle 
20,000, and took 90,000 prisoners, b. c. 
102. The Cimbri, who had formed another 
army, had already penetrated into Italy, 
where they were met at the Athesis by 
Marius and his colleague Catulus, a year 
after, and 140,000 of them were slain. 
From this period little or no mention is 
made of the Cimbri in history ; but it is 
usually supposed that the remnant of them 
settled in the central valleys of Helvetia, 
and the inhabitants of the mountainous 
district of Bern are regarded as their de- 
scendants. 

Ciminus, I., a range of hills in Etruria, 
south of Salpinum. — II. A lake at the 
foot of Mons Ciminus, Lago di Vico, or 
Ronciglione. 

Cimiuerii, a Nomadic race of Upper 
Asia, who appear to have originally in- 
habited a portion of what is now called 
Tartary. Being driven from their primi- 
tive seats by the Scythians, they invaded 
Asia Minor, and seized on the kingdom of 
Cyaxares, which they retained for twenty- 



eight years ; but were driven back by 
Alyattes, king of Lydia. Their first ap- 
pellation is not known. The country in- 
habited by the Cimmerii is represented as 
inhospitable and bleak, covered with forests 
and fogs which the sun could not pene- 
trate : hence, Cimmerian darkness. 

Cimmerium, a town in the interior of 
the Tauric Chersonese, north of Mons 
Cimmerius, now Eski-Krim, or Old-Krim. 

Cimolus, one of the Cyclades, north- 
east of Melos. Its more ancient name 
was Echinusa, " Viper's Island," from the 
number of vipers which infested it. It 
produced what was called the Cimolia 
terra, a species of earth resembling fullers' 
earth. It is now Kimoli, though more 
generally known by the name of Argen- 
tiera. 

Cimon, I., one of the most able and success- 
ful generals of antiquity, son of Miltiades 
and Hegesipyle, daughter of Olorus, king 
of Thrace, was born at Athens, b. c. 502. 
His education had been much neglected, 
and his early youth was much disfigured 
by great excesses. When his father died 
Cimon was imprisoned, because unable to 
pay the fine laid on him by the Athenians ; 
and was only released from confinement 
by the wealthy Callias, who, struck with 
his half-sister Elpinice, offered him his 
liberty as the price of her hand. (See 
Callias.) He first distinguished himsel. 
at the battle of Salamis, where he attracted 
the notice of Aristides, to whose fostering 
care the developement of his genius is 
mainly to be ascribed. From that period 
he rose rapidly in public favour. It would 
be long to relate the numerous battles in 
which he was engaged, and the numerous 
victories he obtained. Suffice it to say, 
that his arms were chiefly directed against 
the Persians, whom he routed in three 
successive engagements ; and, on his re- 
turn to Athens, he employed all the for- 
tune he had accumulated during his 
command in embellishing his native city, 
and in acts of charity and hospitality. He 
some time afterwards lost his popularity, 
and was banished for ten years by ostra- 
cism ; but the Athenians having sustained 
a signal defeat from the Spartans, he was 
recalled with acclamation, and effected Si 
reconciliation between Lacedaemon and 
his countrymen, b. c. 450. In the follow- 
ing year he was appointed commander of 
an expedition to assist Amyrtaeus, king 
of Egypt, against Cyprus ; but was car- 
ried off by illness, or in consequence of a 
wound in the harbour of Citium, to which 
he was laying siege. His spirit, however, 
still animated his countrymen ; for the 



CIN 



CIR 



163 



fleet, when sailing home -with his remains, 
defeated a large squadron of Phoenician 
and Cilician galleys, near the Cyprian 
Salamis, and followed this up by another 
victory on shore. 

Cincia lex, enacted by M. Cincius, 
tribune of the people, a. v. c. 549, that no 
man take any fee for pleading a cause. 

Cincinnatus, L. Q., a Roman general, 
celebrated for his courage, disinterested 
ness, and frugality, was called from the 
plough to be consul at Rome, a. u. c. 296. 
His year of office expired, he again re- 
tired to his rural occupations, greatly 
against the inclinations of the Romans ; 
but soon afterwards the successes of the 
iEqui and Yolsci rendering a dictator ne- 
~cessary, he was elected to that office with 
acclamation, and received the announce- 
ment of his new honour while engaged in 
the cultivation of his fields. Repairing 
to the field of battle, where his countrymen 
were closely besieged, he conquered the 
enemy, returned to Rome in triumph, laid 
down his office sixteen days after his ap- 
pointment; and in his eightieth year he 
was again summoned against Praeneste as 
dictator, and after a successful campaign 
resigned the absolute power he had en- 
joyed only twenty-one days. To account 
for the original poverty of such a dis- 
tinguished man, the Roman historians al- 
leged that Cincinnatus, having become 
surety for the appearance of his son Caeso 
to stand his trial for having insulted the 
tribunes, was mulcted in so large a sum 
that he was obliged to sell his estates, and 
consequently was reduced to the rank of a 
peasant. Be this as it may, it is certain 
that Caeso was recalled by the influence of 
his father. 

Cineas, a Thessalian, minister and friend 
of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who em- 
ployed him on many embassies in con- 
sequence of his oratorical talents. Having 
been sent to Rome to sue for peace, he 
compared the senate to an assembly of 
kings, and a war with the Romans to a 
contest with a Lernaean hydra. 

Cingetorix, I., a prince of Gaul in 
alliance with Rome. — II. A prince of 
Britain, who attacked Caesar's camp by 
order of Cassivelaunus. 

Cixgulum, Cingolo, a town of Picenum, 
south-west of Ancona. It surrendered to 
Caesar. 

Cinna, Corn., I., an adherent of Marius, 
who played a conspicuous part in the civil 
war between that leader and Sylla. Having 
attained to the consulship after the pro- 
scription of Marius by his opponent, he 
began to exert himself for the recal of the 



former, and accused Sylla, who was on the 
eve of departure as pro-consul to Asia, of 
maladministration ; but Sylla did not find 
it advisable to defend himself. On his 
subsequently attempting to pass by force 
a new law in favour of the Italian allies, a 
violent contest ensued between his party 
and the party of the senate, at the head of 
which was Octavius, his colleague in the 
consulship ; nearly 10,000 were slain, and 
Cinna and his partisans were driven from 
the city. Upon this he fled to the allies; 
collected thirty legions ; called the pro- 
scribed to his support ; and with Marius, 
Sertorius, and Carbo, marched upon and 
took possession of Rome. The senators 
who had opposed the party of Cinna were 
put to the sword ; and a scene of bloodshed 
and rapine ensued to which history affords 
no parallel. Cinna and Marius then de- 
clared themselves consuls ; but Marius 
died within seventeen days, and Cinna 
became absolute master of Rome. This 
position he held for three years, till Sylla, 
having at length terminated the war with 
Mithridates, prepared to march against 
the tyrant. Cinna, however, resolved to 
cross the Adriatic, and to anticipate him 
by attacking him in Thessaly ; but a mu- 
tiny of his troops ensued, and he was 
slain, b. c. 77. — II. One of Caesar's mur- 
derers. — III. C. Helvius, a poet inti- 
mate with Caesar, at the time of whose 
death he was tribune of the commons. 
He attended the obsequies of Caesar, and, 
being mistaken by the populace for Cinna 
the conspirator, was torn to pieces. He was 
the author of a poem entitled " Smyrna," 
some fragments of which still remain. — 
IV. Grandson of Pompey, who conspired 
against Augustus; but was pardoned, and 
became one of his most intimate friends. 
He afterwards became consul, and made 
Augustus his heir. 

Cinniana, a town of Lusitania, whose 
precise situation is unknown. It was 
famous for the valour of its citizens. 

Cinyps and Cixyphus, a small river of 
Africa, below Tripolis, now Wady Qua- 
ham. 

Cimyras, king of Cyprus, son of Pa- 
phus, husband of Cenchreis, and father of 
Myrrha and Adonis. See Myrrha ; Ado- 
nis. 

Circe, an ocean nymph, daughter of 
Sol and Perseis, sister of iEetes, king of 
Colchis, and Pasiphae, wife of Minos, was 
celebrated for her skill in magic, and for her 
knowledge of subtle poisons. She dwelt 
in a beautiful island, attended by four 
nymphs, who passed the day in knitting 
and embroidery, and relieved their labours 



164 



CIR 



CIS 



with songs. Ulysses, when thrown upon her 
shores, deputed some of his companions to 
explore the country, who approached the 
palace of the nymph, and were hospitably 
entertained ; but, having incautiously tasted 
of the magic cup, were all forthwith changed 
into swine, except Eurylochus, who alone 
escaped to inform Ulysses of their fate. 
The latter, fortified against all enchant- 
ments by the herb moly, which he had re- 
ceived from Mercury, went to Circe ; drank 
freely of her cup, without the usual effect 
being produced; and, placing his sword 
at her breast, demanded the restoration of 
his companions to their former state. She 
complied, loaded the hero with honours, 
yielded to his love, and became the mother 
of Telegonus, or, according to Hesiod, of 
Agrius and Latinus. Ulysses remained 
with Circe a whole year; and, at his de- 
parture, the nymph advised him to descend 
to hell, and consult the manes of Tiresias 
concerning the fate which attended him. 
Later legends have incorporated a variety 
of stories on the fable of Circe. Thus it 
has been said that she was married to a 
Sarmatian prince of Colchis, whom she 
murdered to obtain his kingdom ; but was 
expelled by her subjects, and fled to the 
headland named from her in Italy (see 
Ciroeii), or to the island iEaa. There she 
changed king Picus into a magpie, for not 
returning her love ; and among other su- 
pernatural acts ascribed to her, she is said 
to have changed her rival Scylla into a sea- 
monster. Among the various theories that 
have been started to explain the fable of 
Circe, the simplest and most satisfactory is 
that of Heyne, who thinks that Homer 
merely gave a kind of historical aspect to 
an ancient allegory which showed the bru- 
talising influence of sensual indulgences. 

Circeii, Monte Circello, a promontory 
of Latium, below Antium. The ad- 
jacent country being very low, this pro- 
montory at a distance had the appearance 
of an island, and was fabled to be the re- 
sidence of Circe. The promontory of Circeii 
was famous for its oysters. — II. A town 
of Latium, not far from the promontory of 
Circeii, built probably on the site of the 
village of San Felice. It was colonised 
by Tarquinius Superbus : in the time of 
Cicero Circe was worshipped there ; and 
it was the spot whither Lepidus was 
banished by Augustus. 

Circius, a tempestuous north-west wind, 
blowing in the southern parts of Gaul, 
along the coast of the Mediterranean. 

Circus, a name given at Rome to an 
oblong-circular building used for the ex- 
hibition of public spectacles and chariot 



races. Its length to its breadth was gene- 
rally as five to one, and it was divided 
down the centre by an ornamented barrier 
called the spina. There were several of these 
at Rome, of which the most celebrated was 
the Circus Maximus. Julius Caesar im- 
proved and altered the Circus Maximus ; 
and, that it might serve for the purpose of 
a naumachia, supplied it with water. Au- 
gustus added to it the celebrated obelisk 
now standing in the Piazza del Popolo. No 
vestiges of this circus remain. Besides these, 
there were at Rome the Circi of Plaminius, 
near the Pantheon ; Agonalis, occupying the 
site of what is now the Piazza Navona ; of 
Nero, on a portion whereof St. Peter's 
stands; Florus, Antoninus, and Aurelian, 
no longer even in ruins ; and that of Cara- 
calla, which was 738 feet in length, and is 
sufficiently perfect in the present day to 
exhibit its plan and distribution in the 
most satisfactory manner. The spectacles 
exhibited in the Circus were called the 
Circensian games, and consisted chiefly of 
chariot and horse races. The Romans were 
passionately fond of them, and more parti- 
cularly of the chariot races, which excited 
so great an interest in the times of the em- 
perors as to divide the whole population 
of the city into factions, known by the 
names of the colours worn by the different 
charioteers. The disputes of these fac- 
tions sometimes led to serious disturb- 
ances, and even to bloodshed. 

Ciris. See Scylla. 

Cirrha, a town of Phocis, situated at the 
head of the Crissaean gulf, and serving as 
the harbour of Delphi. The inhabitants, 
having violated the sanctity of Delphi and 
ransacked its treasures, were declared ac- 
cursed by the oracle, and a war of extermi- 
nation was proclaimed against them, which 
was actively carried on by Solon. The 
town was afterwards rebuilt by the Am- 
phisians ; it contained, even in the time of 
Pausanias, temples of Apollo, Diana, and 
Latona, and several beautiful statues. Its 
ruins are still visible near the modern 
village Xeno Pegadia. 

Cirtha and Cirta, a city of Numidia, on 
a branch of the Ampsagas, the residence of 
Syphax, Masinissa, and the other sovereigns 
of the country. It afterwards received the 
name of Sittianorum Colonia, from Sit- 
tius, to whom Caesar gave it as a reward 
for his services in Africa ; and, at a still 
later period, the emperor Constantine, 
having greatly repaired it, called it Con- 
stantina after himself. It is now Cosan~ 
Una, 

Cisalpina and Cispadana Gallia. See 
Gallia. 



CIS 



CLA 



165 



Cisrhenani, part of the Germans who 
lived nearest Rome, west of the Rhine. 

Cissa. See Susiana. 

Cisseis, a patronymic given to Hecuba, 
as daughter of Cisseus. 

Cisseus, I., a king of Thrace, father of 
Hecuba and Theano. — II. A son of Me- 
lampus, killed by iEneas. 
, Cissia, a country of Asia, bounded on 
the north by Media, on the west by Ba- 
bylonia, on the south by the Persian gulf, 
and on the south-east by Persia. Its two 
chief towns were Susa and Ardericca. 

Cissus, Cisme, a town of Macedonia, 
near Thessalonica. Xenophon speaks of a 
Mount Cissus, probably in this direction. 

Cith^ron, a king of Plataea in Boeotia, 
remarkable for wisdom. He gave name 
to the celebrated mountain range in Boe- 
otia, dedicated to Jupiter Cithasronius, 
and remarkable for being the scene of 
many events recorded by the ancient poets. 
Here the death of Pentheus, the meta- 
morphosis of Actaeon, and the exposure of 
CEdipus took place ; and here Bacchus held 
his revels, and celebrated his mystic orgies. 
It is now called Elatea. 

Citium, one of the most ancient cities of 
Cyprus, said to have been built by Chit- 
tim, son of Javan, and celebrated for being 
the birthplace of Zeno. Cimon, the fa- 
mous Athenian general, died in the har- 
bour while laying siege to the town. It 
is now called Chiti. 

Cius, I., E slier, a river of Thrace, rising 
in the chain of Mt. Rhodope, and falling 
into the Ister. — II. A river and town of 
Bithynia. The town was destroyed by 
Philip, father of Perses, and rebuilt by 
Prusias, who gave it his own name. See 
Prusias. 

■ Civilis, a powerful Batavian, who raised 
a sedition against the Roman power during 
the contest for the purple between Vespa- 
sian and Vitellius. 

Clanis, La Chiana, a river of Etruria, 
rising near Arretium, and falling into the 
Tiber, north-east of Vulsinii. — II., or 
Clanius, Lagno, a river of Campania, which 
rises in the Apennines near Nola, and falls 
into the sea near Liternum. By some the 
ancient name is given as Liternus. 

Clarus, or Claros, Zille, I., a city of 
Ionia, famous for its temple, grove, and 
oracle of Apollo, whence Apollo was sur- 
named Clarius. It was built by Manto, 
daughter of Tiresias, who fled from Thebes, 
after it had been destroyed by the Epi- 
goni. The oracle uttered its predictions 

as late as the reign of Constantine II. 

An island of the iEgean between Tenedos 
and Scios. 



Clastidium, Chiasteggio, a town of Li- 
guria, celebrated as the spot where C. 
Marcellus gained the spolia opima by 
his victory over Viridomarus. It formed 
the chief depot of the Carthaginians during 
their encampment on the Trebia, and was 
afterwards burned by the Romans. 

Claudia, (Gens,) a patrician family at 
Rome, which derived its origin from 
Appius Claudius, and gave birth to many 
distinguished men in the days of the re- 
public. — There was also a plebeian branch 
of the family, called Claudii Marcelli. 

Claudia, I., a Vestal virgin, who, when 
accused of having violated her vow, proved 
her innocence by drawing off from a shoal 
in the Tiber, with the sole aid of her 
girdle, a ship which had stranded, and 
which had on board the statue of Cybele, 
which had been brought to Italy from Asia 
Minor. — II. A sister of Claudius Pulcher, 
who, when her chariot was retarded in the 
crowded streets, expressed the wish that 
her brother were alive again to rid Rome 
of its over-population by the loss of another 
fleet, and was fined for the expression. — 
III. A Vestal virgin, daughter (not, as 
some erroneously say, sister) of Appius 
Claudius Audax, whose chariot she 
mounted in the midst of a triumph, a.u.c. 
610, which had been reluctantly granted 
by the people, and, riding with him to the 
Capitol, saved him from molestation by 
the sacredness of her character. — IV. 
Augusta, daughter of Nero and Poppa?a, 
who, on her death, at the age of four 
months, received divine honours. — V. 
Antonia, a daughter of Claudius, and wife 
of Cn. Pompey, whom Messalina caused to 
be put to death. Her second husband, 
Sylla Faustus, by whom she had a son, 
was killed by Nero, and she shared his 
fate on refusing to marry his murderer. — 
VI. A Roman road, which branched off 
from the Via Flaminia and joined the Via 
Aurelia at Lucca. 

ClaudLe leges, a name given to several 
enacted by M. CI. Marcellus the consul, 
Q. Claudius the tribune, and the emperor 
Claudius, respectively. 

ClaudLe Aqu^e, the first water brought 
to Rome by an aqueduct eleven miles in 
length, erected by Appius Claudius, a.u.c. 
441. 

Claudianus, a Latin poet, born at 
Alexandria in iEgypt, about a. d. 365. 
After passing some time at Rome, he 
followed, in 395, Stilicho, minister and 
guardian of Honorius, to Mediolanum, 
the residence of the emperor of the West ; 
here the minister, a Vandal by nation, and 
his spouse, the princess Serena, became 



1G6 



CLA 



CLA 



his patrons. He served with such dis- 
tinction in the war with Gildo that a 
bronze statue was erected to his honour 
in the Forum Trajani. He married, a. d. 
398, an Egyptian heiress, with whom he 
returned to the imperial court, and en- 
joyed the favour of the emperor for ten 
years ; but being involved in the over- 
throw of his protector, Stilicho, he lost 
his official stations, and died in obscu- 
rity. His poems are of various kinds, 
epic, panegyric, satirical, bucolic, and epi- 
grammatic ; and the best editions are those 
of Gesner and Burmann. 

Claudiofolis, the name of several ancient 
cities, of which the principal are, L, a city 
of Bithynia, originally called Bithynium, 
situated in a district called Salone, famous 
for its excellent pastures. It received 
the name Claudiopolis from the emperor 
Tiberius. As the birthplace of Antinous, 
the favourite of the emperor Hadrian, it 
received many privileges ; under Theo- 
dosius it became the capital of the province 
Honorias ; and at a much later period it 
was overwhelmed by an earthquake. — II. 
A city of Cilicia Trachea, or, according to 
some geographers, of Isauria, founded by 
Claudius, the Roman emperor. 

Claudius, Tiber. Drusus Nero, I., 
the second son of Drusus Nero, and 
Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by 
Octavia, sister of Augustus, was born at 
Lyons, b. c. 10. His early life was passed 
in great obscurity ; and on his grow- 
ing up to manhood he employed him- 
self chiefly in literary pursuits, in which 
he attained considerable proficiency. He 
was associated with his nephew Caligula 
in the consulship, a. d. 37 ; and after the 
murder of the latter, he was dragged from 
a corner in which he had concealed him- 
self, and proclaimed emperor by the 
soldiers, a. d. 41. The commencement of 
his reign was distinguished by acts of 
clemency and mercy. He recalled the 
exiles ; restored to their rightful owners 
much property that had been confiscated 
by his predecessors, and embellished Rome 
with many magnificent works. He re- 
duced Mauritania to a Roman province ; 
his armies fought successfully against the 
Germans ; and for his triumphs in Britain 
he obtained with his infant son the surname 
of Britannicus. But he soon sank into 
apathy, and allowed himself to be governed 
by worthless favourites, and more especially 
by the empress Messalina, whose licentious- 
ness and avarice plundered the state and 
distracted the provinces. When the career 
of this guilty woman was terminated he 
married his niece Agrippina, whose influ- I 



ence over him was such that she induced 
him to nominate her son Nero by a for- 
mer marriage heir to the imperial throne, 
to the prejudice of Britannicus ; and on 
his afterwards displaying some symptoms 
of returning favour for his son, she caused 
him to be poisoned in the 63d year of 
his age, and 14th of his reign, a. d. 54. 

— II. Marcus Aurelius, was born at 
Illyricum a. d. 214, and succeeded Gal- 
lienus, a.d. 268, on the imperial throne. 
Immediately on his accession he directed 
his arms against Aureoles, who had re- 
volted from Gallienus, and having defeated 
him, marched against the Germans, when 
he gained a great battle on the banks of 
Lake Benacus. On his arrival in Rome 
he applied himself to the correction of 
abuses ; and in the following year de- 
feated 300,000 Goths, who had passed 
over into Greece : hence he was surnamed 
Gothicus. A pestilence which broke out 
among the Gothic fugitives carried him 
off at Sirmium, after a short but splendid 
reign of two years. — III. Nero, a Roman 
consul in the second Punic war, who, in 
conjunction with his colleague Liv. Sa- 
linator, defeated and killed Hasdrubal, 
as he was marching through Italy to go 
to the assistance of his brother Hannibal. 

— IV. Appius. (See Appius.) — V. Pul- 
cher, a consul, who, when consulting the 
sacred chickens, ordered them to be cast 
into the sea, because they would not 
eat. He was unsuccessful in his expe- 
dition against the Carthaginians in Sicily, 
and was disgraced on his return to Rome. 

— VI. Tiberius Nero, father of the em- 
peror Tiberius, distinguished for the skill 
he displayed in the Alexandrian war 
under Julius Caesar. Having excited a 
sedition in Campania, which was promptly 
quelled by the arrival of Octavius, he fled 
to Sicily and Achaia; but on the esta- 
blishment of the second triumvirate, he 
returned to Rome, and transferred his wife 
Livia to Octavius. — VII. Tiberius Nero 
Caesar, the successor of Augustus, and son 
of the preceding. (See Tiberius.) — The 
name of Claudius is common to many 
Roman consuls and other officers of state. 

Clausus, or Claudius. See Appius, L 
Clazomenje and Clazomena, a city 
of Ionia on the coast of the iEgean sea. 
There were two cities of this name ; the 
more ancient stood on the continent, and 
was strongly fortified by the Ionians to 
resist the Persians. After the defeat of 
Croesus they withdrew to a neighbouring 
island, where they built the second Clazo- 
menae, so often mentioned in Roman his- 
tory. Alexander joined it to the continent 



CLE 



CLE 



167 



by a mole 250 paces in length ; and it was 
so greatly embellished by Augustus that, 
by a species of euphemism, he was said to 
be its founder. It was the birthplace of 
Anaxagoras. It is now Dourlak or Vourla. 

Cleander. See Perennis. 

Cleanthes, L, a Stoic philosopher, dis- 
ciple and successor of Zeno, was born at 
Assus in Lydia, b. c. 300. His first ap- 
pearance in Athens was in the capacity of 
a wrestler ; but, having heard the lectures 
of Crates and Zeno, he laid aside the ces- 
tus of the pugilist for the cloak of the phi- 
losopher. By night he drew water as a 
common labourer, that he might in the 
daytime attend the schools of philosophy : 
and for many years he wrote the heads of his 
master's lectures on shells and bones, for 
want of money to buy better materials. 
The Roman senate erected a statue in 
honour of him at Assus. He starved him- 
self in his sixtieth year, b. c. 240. He 
wrote much ; but none of his writings re- 
main, except the beautiful Hymn to Ju- 
piter, preserved in the Anthology. — II. 
A Corinthian painter, whose age is un- 
certain, but who is said to have been the 
inventor of drawing in outline. 

Clearchus, I., a tyrant of Heraclea in 
Pontus,who was killed by Chionand Leo- 
nidas, Plato's pupils, during the celebra- 
tion of the festivals of Bacchus, after the 
enjoyment of sovereign power twelve 
years, b. c. 353. — II. A Lacedaemonian, 
one of the Greek commanders in the army 
of Cyrus, by whom he was highly esteem- 
ed. He had been previously governor of 
Byzantium, but had conducted himself so 
tyrannically that the Spartan government 
recalled him, upon which he fled from By- 
zantium and took refuge in Selymbria. 
Being defeated by the Spartans, he fled to 
Cyrus ; but after the battle of Cunaxa he 
was entrapped, along with the other Greek 
leaders, and put to death by the satrap 
Tissaphernes. 

Cleisthenes, an Athenian of the family 
of the Alcmaeonidae, and grandson of Cleis- 
thenes, tyrant of Sicyon. He headed the 
democracy after the expulsion of the Pisis- 
tratidas (b. c. 510), and, having secured the 
favour of the people, introduced many 
beneficial changes into the constitution of 
Attica. He was afterwards expelled by 
Cleomenes, king of Sparta; but returned 
in triumph, at the head of 700 families 
who had been his companions in exile. 
He is said to have introduced ostracism 
into Athens. 

Clemens, Romanus, I., one of the 
early Christians, the friend and fellow-tra- 
veller of St. Paul ; afterwards bishop of 



Rome, a. d. 67 or 91. He was the author 
of a-n Epistle to the Church of Corinth. 
The manner and period of his death are 
uncertain ; some writers maintaining that 
he suffered martyrdom, others that he was 
banished to the Tauric Chersonesus, where 
he died. The account of his life, pilgrim- 
ages, and martyrdom, compiled by various 
fathers of the church, is generally con- 
sidered apocryphal. — II. Alexandrinus, 
an eminent father of the church, flourished 
between a. n. 192 and217. He early devoted 
himself to study in the schools at Athens, 
under many preceptors ; but the chief of 
his teachers was Pantasnus, who kept a 
Christian school at Alexandria, in which 
capacity he was succeeded by Clemens. 
The period of his death is unknown. He 
left numerous works distinguished for 
their learning and orthodoxy, of which 
several editions have been published. 

Cleobis and Biton, two youths, sons 
of Cydippe, priestess of Juno at Argos. 
When oxen could not be procured to draw 
their mother's chariot to the temple of 
Juno, they yoked themselves to it, and 
drew it forty -five stadia to the temple, 
amidst the acclamations of the multitude. 
She entreated the goddess to reward their 
piety with the greatest blessing that could 
be granted to mortals, and upon retiring 
to rest they never awoke again. The 
Argives raised statues to their memory at 
Delphi. 

Cleobulus, one of the seven wise men of 
Greece, son of Evagoras, king of Lindus, 
whom he succeeded. He was as remark- 
able for personal strength and beauty as 
for wisdom. None of the particulars of 
his life are known. He died in his seven- 
tieth year, b. c. 564. His favourite maxim 
was "Apiarov /xerpov, — moderation is best. 

Cleombrotus, I., son of Pausanias, suc- 
ceeded his brother Agesipolis I. as king 
of Sparta. He made war against the 
Boeotians, and was mortally wounded at 
the battle of Leuctra, in which his army 
was wholly defeated by Epaminondas, 
b.c. 371. — II. A son-in-law of Leoni- 
das II. , king of Sparta, who usurped the 
kingdom after the expulsion of his father- 
in-law, but was soon afterwards expelled 
in favour of his predecessor. 

CLEOMEnES, a Greek astronomical writer, 
whose work on the " Cyclic Theory of 
Meteors" has reached our times. His 
age is uncertain. — II. A famous athlete 
of Astypalasa, above Crete, who, in a com- 
bat at Olympia, having, though accident- 
ally, killed his antagonist by a blow with 
his fist, was deprived of the victory, and 
became delirious. On his return to Asty- 



168 



CLE 



CLE 



palaea, having entered a school, he pulled 
down the pillars which supported the roof, 
and crushed to death sixty boys. He then 
fled for shelter into a tomb, but could not 
be found. The oracle of Delphi being 
consulted, responded, " Ultimus heroum 
Cleomedes Astypalaeus," on which they 
ordered sacrifices to him as a god. 

Cleomenes, I., son of Anaxandrides, 
king of Sparta, ascended the throne b. c. 
519. At the beginning of his reign he 
undertook an expedition against the Ar- 
gives, and destroyed about 5000 who had 
taken refuge in a sacred grove. He freed 
Athens from the tyranny of the Pisis- 
tratidaa ; and afterwards assisted Isagoras 
in expelling Cleisthenes. Having by un- 
due influence procured from the oracle a 
declaration that his colleague Demaratus 
was illegitimate, the latter was deposed ; 
but the means by which he had attained 
his object becoming known, he fled into 
Thessaly, and subsequently into Arcadia, 
where he endeavoured to excite a war 
against the Lacedaemonians. His country- 
men, fearing his intrigues, recalled him, 
but he soon afterwards perished by his 
own hand, in a fit of insanity. — II. Suc- 
ceeded his brother Agesipolis II. on the 
throne of Sparta, b. c. 370. He reigned 
sixty-one years in the greatest tranquillity, 
and was succeeded by his grandson, Areus 
I. — III. Succeeded his father Leo- 
nidas on the throne of Sparta, b. c. 236. 
Dissatisfied at the prevailing manners of 
Sparta, he resolved to restore the insti- 
tutions of Lycurgus ; and making war the 
cloak of his designs, he marched against 
the Acha?ans, who were commanded by 
Aratus, and greatly distinguished himself. 
On his return to Sparta, he put to death 
four of the ephori, made a new division ot 
the lands, and introduced the old system 
of education. He then associated his bro- 
ther Euclidas with himself en the throne, 
in opposition to the law which forbade 
more than one of the same family to sit 
on the throne ; and continuing the war 
against the Achasans, took several cities 
and attempted to destroy their league. 
Meanwhile Aratus, general of the Achas- 
ans, called Antigonus to his assistance ; 
and Cleomenes, having lost the unfortunate 
battle of Sellasia, b. c. 222, retired into 
Egypt, to the court of Ptolemy Euer- 
getes, whither his wife and children had 
fled before him. Ptolemy received him 
with great cordiality ; but his successor ex- 
pressed his jealousy of the noble stranger, 
and imprisoned him. Cleomenes soon 
afterwards killed himself, and hir, body 
was flayed and exposed on a cross, b, c. 



219. With him ended the family of the 

Heraclidas. 

Cleon, an Athenian, who, from a 
low origin, by dint of eloquence and 
impudence, raised himself to be com- 
mander of the forces. He first distin- 
guished himself as a public speaker in the 
discussion of the massacre of the Mity- 
leneean prisoners, b. c. 427 ; and it was 
at his instigation that the decree was 
passed by which a thousand of these un- 
fortunate wretches were cruelly massacred. 
The Athenians having entrusted him with 
the command, by an extraordinary train of 
circumstances, he came off" victorious at 
Sphacteria, b. c. 425 ; and, elated with his 
success, he got himself appointed com- 
mander of an expedition into Thrace, but 
was ingloriously slain at Amphipolis, in an 
engagement with Brasidas, who also fell, 
b.c. 422. The vanity and incapacity of 
Cleon formed a favourite butt for the 
satirical pen of Aristophanes. 

Cleok^:, I., a town of Argolis, north- 
east of Nemaea, situated on a rock and 
surrounded by walls. It was near Cleonae 
that Hercules defeated and slew Moliones. 
Games were solemnised there. Its ruins are 
to be seen on the site now called Courtese. 

— II. A town of Macedonia, in the pe- 
ninsula of Athos, founded by a colony 
from Chalcis. 

Cleopatra, I., grand-daughter of At- 
talus, and wife of Philip of Macedon, after 
he had divorced Olympias. "When Philip 
was murdered by Pausanias, Cleopatra was 
put to death by order of Olympias. — 
II. Sister of Alexander the Great and 
wife of Alexander of Epirus, who fell in 
Italy. After the death of her brother, her 
hand was sought by Perdiccas, and other 
generals, but she was killed by Antigonus, 
as she attempted to flee to Ptolemy in 
Egypt. — III. Daughter of Idas and Mar- 
pessa, and wife of Meleager, son of OEneus. 

— IV. Wife of Tigranes, king of Arme- 
nia, and sister of Mithridates. — V. Daugh- 
ter of Ptol. Philometor, the wife of three 
kings of Syria, and the mother of four. 
By her first husband, Alexander Balas, she 
became the mother of Antiochus Diony- 
sius; of SeleucusV. and Antiochus VIII. 
by her second husband, Demetrius Nicator ; 
and of Antiochus IX., surnamed Cyzi- 
cenus, by her third husband Antiochus 
Euergetes, or Sidetes. Having been sus- 
pected of preparing poison for her son, 
Antiochus VIII., she was compelled to 
drink it herself, b.c. 120. — VI. A daugh- 
ter of Antiochus III. of Syria, and wife of 
Ptolemy V., king of Egypt. She was left 
guardian of her infant son, Ptolemy VI., 



CLE 



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169 



but died soon after her husband, to the 
great regret of her subjects. — VII. The 
most celebrated of this name, the daughter 
of Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, and 
distinguished for her beauty, and still more 
for her personal accomplishments, was born 
b. c. 69. Her father, who died b. c. 51, 
leaving two sons, called Ptolemy, besides 
Cleopatra and her sister Arsinoe, had no- 
minated Cleopatra joint sovereign with her 
eldest brother; but a quarrel soon broke 
out between them, and Cleopatra took 
refuge in Syria. About this period Julius 
Cassar, having arrived in Egypt in pursuit 
of Pompey, resolved to see the will of 
Ptolemy fulfilled ; and Cleopatra, con- 
scious of her personal charms, procured a 
private interview with the Roman general, 
and by her fascinating manners completely 
gained his favour. The young king, Ptole- 
my, however, proved refractory ; and an en- 
gagement soon afterwards taking place, he 
was drowned in the Nile, and Cleopatra was 
proclaimed joint sovereign with her young- 
er brother Ptolemy, then a boy of eleven. 
Cassar continued some time at the Egyp- 
tian court, and on his departure Cleopatra 
followed him to Rome, where she remained 
till his assassination. Meanwhile her bro- 
ther, who had attained his majority (four- 
teen), demanded his share in the govern- 
ment, and was poisoned by order of Cleopa- 
tra; her sister Arsinoe shared the same fate; 
and she remained in sole possession of the 
royal authority. But the dissensions among 
the rival leaders, who divided the power 
of Cassar, had nearly involved her in a 
contest with both parties ; when the de- 
cisive issue of the battle of Philippi re- 
lieved her from all scruple as to the line 
of conduct to be adopted, and determined 
her inclinations, as well as her interests, in 
favour of the conquerors. To afford her 
an opportunity of explaining her conduct, 
Antony summoned her to Cilicia, B. c, 40 ; 
and from the moment of the famous 
interview on the river Cydnus (so beauti- 
fully described both by the historian 
and the poet), his fame and his ambition 
were forgotten in an all-absorbing passion 
for the Egyptian queen. He accompanied 
her to Alexandria; and spent in her so- 
ciety several months amidst scenes of gaiety 
and magnificence, which only boundless 
wealth and boundless extravagance could 
invent. The death of his wife Fulvia, and 
his marriage with Octavia, separated them 
for a time ; but they met again in Syria, 
previously to the unsuccessful war against 
Parthia ; and from this time their fate was 
united. Meanwhile they returned to Alex- 
andria ; and, to gratify his adored Cleo- 



patra, Antony annexed to her kingdom 
Phoenicia, Syria, Crete, Cyprus, and Libya, 
while her son Caesarion, whom she had 
had by Cassar, was declared joint sove- 
reign of Egypt. But the sun of Cleo- 
patra was now about to set. Octavius, 
whose friendship for Antony had been gra- 
dually converted into enmity, induced the 
Roman people to make war upon him ; 
and Cleopatra, whose kingdom was no less 
at stake than the power of Antony, accom- 
panied him to Ephesus, Smyrna, Athens, 
and, finally, to Actium, where she ruined 
the cause of her lover by her precipitate 
flight. Arrived in Egypt, she shut herself 
up, and caused the rumour of her death 
to be spread abroad, on which Antony 
committed suicide ; and the queen, to pre- 
vent herself falling into the hands of Oc- 
tavius, who anxiously desired that she 
might grace his triumphal entry into 
Rome, followed the example of her lover. 
A small puncture in the arm was the only 
mark of violence which could be detected 
on her body ; and hence it was believed 
that she had occasioned her death by the 
bite of an asp, or by the scratch of a poi- 
soned bodkin. She died in her thirty- 
ninth year, b. c. 30 ; and with her ended 
the dynasty of the Greek monarchs of 
Egypt, who had swayed the sceptre nearly 
300 years. She received from Octavius a 
magnificent funeral ; and, agreeably to her 
request, she was laid by the side of An- 
tony. Her son Cassarion was afterwards 
put to death by Octavius ; and her three 
children by Antony, Alexander, Ptolemy, 
and Cleopatra, graced the conqueror's tri- 
umph. Besides the personal attractions 
of Cleopatra, she is said to have been a 
skilful musician, to have spoken ten lan- 
guages fluently, and to have been other- 
wise highly accomplished. 

Cleofatuis, a town of Egypt on the 
Arabian gulf, in the immediate vicinity of 
Arsinoe, with which it was frequently con- 
founded. See Arsinoe. 

Cleostratus, a philosopher and astro- 
nomer of Tenedos, about b. c. 536, who 
reformed the Greek calendar. 

Climax, a pass of Mount Taurus, formed 
by the projection of a brow into the Me- 
diterranean sea. See Pharsalis. 

Clinias, I., a Pythagorean philosopher 
and musician, b. c. 520. — II. An Athe- 
nian, who distinguished himself above all 
his countrymen in the battle fought against 
the Persian fleet at Artemisium. He mar- 
ried Dinomache, daughter of Megacles, 
great grandson of Cleisthenes, tyrant of 
Sicyon, and was the father of the cele- 
brated Alcibiades. Pie fell at the battles 
x 



170 



CLI 



CLO 



of Coronea. — III. Father of Aratus, 
killed by Abantidas, b. c. 263. 

Clio, /cAeos, glory, daughter of Jupiter 
and Mnemosyne, the Muse who presided 
over history. She is represented crowned 
with laurels, holding in one hand a trum- 
pet, and a book, with sometimes a plec- 
trum or quill with a lute, in the other. 
Her office was to record the actions of 
illustrious heroes. 

Clitomachus, a native of Carthage, and 
pupil and successor of Carneades at Athens. 
Few particulars of his history are recorded. 
He was seized with lethargy at an ad- 
vanced age, and, on a partial recovery, laid 
violent hands upon himself, saying, " The 
love of life shall deceive me no longer." 
Cicero says that, he wrote 400 books upon 
philosophical subjects. 

Clitor, a city in Arcadia, famous for its 
temples of Ceres, iEsculapius, and other 
deities. Near it was a fountain called 
Clitorium, whose waters gave a dislike for 
wine. 

Clitumnus, Clitumno, a river of Umbria 
which rises in the vicinity of Spoletum, 
and, after uniting with the Tinia, flows into 
the Tiber. It was famous for its milk- 
white herds, selected as victims in the 
celebration of the triumph. There was a 
small temple on its banks, the ruins of 
which are to be seen between Poligno and 
Spoleto. 

Clitus, the foster-brother and familiar 
friend of Alexander the Great, whose life 
he had saved in battle ; but having, during 
the Indian expedition, expressed a more fa- 
vourable opinion of the actions of Philip 
than of Alexander, the latter, either in a 
fit of anger or drunkenness, killed him 
with his javelin. 

CloacIna, a goddess of Rome who pre- 
sided over the Cloacae, or sewers for carry- 
ing off the filth of the city. 

Cloanthus, a companion of iEneas, 
from whom the family of the Cluentii were 
descended. 

Clodia, I., a woman of abandoned 
character, sister of Clodius the tribune, 
and wife of Q. Metellus Celer, whom she 
was suspected of having poisoned. — II. 
The younger sister of the preceding, and 
equally infamous in character. She mar- 
ried Lucullus, but was repudiated by him 
for her scandalous conduct. 

Clodia lex, I., de Magistratibus, enacted 
by the tribune Clodius, a. u.c. 695, which 
forbade the censors to put a stigma on any 
person not actually accused and condemned 
by both the censors. — II. Another, 
a. u.c. 695, which required the same dis- 
tribution of corn among the people gratis, 



as had been given them before at 6 asses 
and a triens the bushel. — III. Another, 
a. u.c. 695, De Judiciis, which called to ac- 
count such as had executed a Roman 
citizen without a judgment of the people, 
and the formalities of a trial. This law 
was chiefly aimed against Cicero, at whose 
instigation the accomplices of Catiline had 
been condemned without a trial ; and it 
was in consequence of the passing of this 
law that he was banished. — IV. Another, 
De duspiciis, which prevented the magis- 
trates from dissolving the Comitia Tributa 
by declaring that the auspices were unfa- 
vourable. By this law the Lex iElia and 
Fufia was repealed. 

Clodius, Pb., I., a Roman patrician, 
descended from the family of Appius Clau- 
dius, was born b. c. 87. He was accused 
of the most revolting turpitude in the case 
of his nearest female relatives ; but he first 
became notorious for having introduced 
himself in the disguise of a woman into 
the house of J. Caesar, while Pompeia, 
Caesar's wife, of whom he was enamoured, 
was celebrating the mysteries of the Bona 
Dea. Though brought to trial for this 
sacrilege, his numerous hirelings and de- 
pendants, aided, it is thought, by a whole- 
sale bribery of his judges, procured his ac- 
quittal , but the testimony which Cicero 
bore to the profligacy of his character 
wounded him to the heart, and drove him 
to measures of vengeance which were but 
too successful. To qualify himself for a 
tribune of the people, he caused himself to 
be adopted into a plebeian family ; and no 
sooner was he elected to the office than he 
first secured the favour of the populace by 
proposing numerous laws to augment their 
privileges, and then had recourse to the 
measure by which Cicero was driven into 
an ignominious exile. (See Clodia Lex.) 
But his insolence knew no bounds ; and so 
troublesome did he become, even to his 
own party, that, in order to keep him 
in check, Pompey proposed the recal of 
Cicero from exile, which he at last effected 
by the aid of the tribune Milo ; and after 
many manifestations of hatred to Cicero, 
he was, at last, slain in a conflict that took 
place between his followers and those of 
Milo. 

Clcelia, I., a Roman virgin, who, when 
given with nine other maidens as hostages 
to Porsenna, king of Etruria, urged her 
companions to escape, and, with them, 
swam across the Tiber to Rome. The 
Romans, however, jealous of their good 
faith, sent them all back ; but Porsenna, 
not to be outdone in generosity, restored 
them to liberty. Her courage was re- 



CLO 



COD 



171 



warded by her countrymen with an eques- 
trian statue in Via Sacra. — A different 
story is told by Pliny (xxxiv. 13.). 

Clotho, youngest of the three Parcae, 
daughters of Jupiter and Themis. She 
held the distaff in her hand, and spun the 
thread of life, whence her name (/cAwtfeu', 
to spin). See Parcje. 

Cluentius, a Roman citizen, accused, 
at his mother's instigation, of having mur- 
dered his step-father, b. c. 54. He was 
defended by Cicero in an oration of great 
ability, still extant. 

Cltjv-ea and Clypea, (called by the 
Greek writers Apsis), Aklibia, a town of 
Africa Propria, not far from Carthage, 
built on a promontory, shaped like a shield ; 
whence its name. It served as a strong- 
hold to Regulus in the first Punic war. 

Clusium (more anciently Camers), Chiusi, 
a town of Etruria, on the banks of the 
Clanis. It was the capital of Porsenna, 
king of Etruria, of whose splendid mau- 
soleum Pliny has left us an account. 

Clusius, or Clesius, La Chiese, I., a 
river of Cisalpine Gaul, rising among the 
Eriganei, and flowing between the lake 
Benacus and the river Mela. — II. Sur- 
name of Janus, when his temple was shut. 

Clymene, I., a daughter of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and wife of Iapetus, by whom 
she had Atlas, Prometheus, Menoetius, 
and Epimetheus. — II. Mother of Phae- 
thon. — III. A female servant of Helen, 
who accompanied her mistress to Troy, 
when she eloped with Paris. 

Clymeneides, a patronymic given to 
Phae'thon's sisters, daughters of Clymene. 

Clytemnestra, a daughter of Tynda- 
rus, king of Sparta, by Leda, and wife of 
Agamemnon, king of Argos. She was born, 
together with Castor, from one of the eggs 
which her mother brought forth after her 
amour with Jupiter, under the form of a 
swan She had before married Tantalus, 
son of Thyestes, according to some au- 
thors. When Agamemnon went, to the 
Trojan war, he left his cousin iEgisthus 
regent of his kingdom; but the latter 
proved unfaithful to his trust, corrupted 
Clytemnestra, and usurped the throne. 
Agamemnon, on his return home, was mur- 
dered by his guilty wife, who was herself 
afterwards slain, along with her paramour 
iEgisthus, by Orestes, son of Agamem- 
non. 

Cneus or Cnjsus, a praenomen common 
to many Romans. 

Cnidus and Gnidus, a town and pro- 
montory of Doris in Caria, at the extre- 
mity of a promontory called Triopium. 
Venus was the chief deity, and had here a 



famous statue made by Praxiteles. It was 
celebrated for its wines, and for being the 
birth-place of Eudoxus, Agatharchidas, 
Theopompus, and Ctesias. It is now a 
heap of ruins, and the modern name is 
Cape Crio. 

Cnosus, Cnossus, or Gnossus, the royal 
city of Crete, more anciently called Casratus, 
an appellation which was also given to the 
inconsiderable stream that flowed beneath 
its walls. It was indebted for its celebrity to 
Minos, who fixed his residence there ; and 
by its alliance with Gortyna, it obtained 
the dominion of nearly the whole island. 
The vestiges of the ancient city are still to 
be seen on the site occupied by Long Can- 
dia. 

Cocalus, aking of Sicily, who hospitably 
received Daedalus when he fled before 
Minos. When Minos arrived in Sicily, 
the daughters of Cocalus destroyed him. 

Cocceius Nerva. See Nerva. 

Coccygius, more anciently Thornax, a 
mountain of Argolis, called Coccygius, 
from Jupiter having been metamorphosed 
there into the bird called Coccyx by the 
Greeks. On its summit was a temple 
sacred to that god, and another of Apollo 
at the base. 

Cocintum, Cape Stilo, a promontory of 
the Brutii, below the Sinus Scylacius. 

Cocles, Pub. Horat., a celebrated Ro- 
man, who, alone, opposed the whole army 
of Porsenna at the head of a bridge, while 
his companions behind him were cutting 
off the communication with the other 
shore. When the bridge was destroyed, 
Cocles, after addressing a brief prayer to 
the god of the Tiber, leaped into the 
river, and swam across in safety. As 
a mark of gratitude, the inhabitants of 
the city, in the midst of a severe fa- 
mine, supplied him with provisions ; and 
the state afterwards raised a statue to his 
honour, and gave him as much land as he 
could plough round in a day. He only 
had the use of one eye, as cocles signifies. 
( See the spirited version of this legend in 
tne Lays of Ancient Rome by the Right 
Hon. T. B. Macaulay.) 

Cocytus, a river of Epirus, which, ac- 
cording to Pausanias, blended its nau- 
seous waters with those of the Acheron, 
from kwkvcc, to weep. Its etymology, the 
unwholesomeness of its waters, and its 
vicinity to the Acheron, have made the 
poets call it one of the rivers of hell : 
hence " Cocytia virgo," applied to Alecto, 
one of the Furies. Milton speaks of the 
" Cocytus named of lamentations loud 
Heard on the rueful stream." 

Codanus sinus, one of the ancient names 
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172 



COD 



COL 



of the Baltic. It was represented as full 
of large and small islands, the largest heing 
called Scandinavia. 

Codomannus, a surname of Darius III., 
king of Persia. See Darius. 

Codridje, descendants of Codrus, who 
went from Athens at the head of several 
colonies. 

Codrus, son of Melanthus, and last king 
of Athens. When the Heraclidae made 
war against Athens, the oracle declared 
that the victory would be granted to that 
nation whose king was killed in battle. 
The Heraclidae on this gave strict orders 
vo spare the life of Codrus ; but the re- 
sponse being communicated to the king, he 
went in disguise into the enemy's camp ; 
and having provoked a quarrel with two of 
them, was killed, b. c. 1070. The Athe- 
nians thereupon sent a herald to claim the 
body of their king ; and the chiefs of the 
Heraclidae, deeming the war hopeless, 
withdrew their forces from Attica. Codrus 
was styled the father of his country ; and 
to pay greater honour to his memory, the 
Athenians made a resolution, that no man 
after Codrus should reign in Athens under 
the name of king, and substituted for it 
that of Archon. 

Ccele, Hollow, I., the northern division 
of Elis. — II. A quarter in the suburbs of 
Athens, appropriated to sepulchres. It 
was one of the Attic demi or boroughs. 

Ccele-syria and Ccelo-syrJa, Hollow 
Syria, a country of Syria, between Mt. 
Libanus and Antilibanus. In the time 
of Diocletian, it received the name of 
Phoenicia Libanesia. It is now called El- 
bokah. 

Ccelia lex, a law passed a. u. c. 630, 
that in trials for treason the people should 
vote by ballot, which had been excepted 
by the Cassian law. 

Ccelus, a Roman deity, identical with the 
Grecian Uranus. See Uranus. 

Cgeus, one of the Titans, son of Coelus 
and Terra, and father of Latona, Aster ia, 
&c, by Phcebe. 

Cohors. See Legio. 

Colchi, the inhabitants of Colchis. 

Colchis and Colchos, Mingrelia, a 
country of Asia, south of Asiatic Sarmatia, 
east of the Euxine sea, north of Armenia, 
and west of Iberia. It was famous for 
being the land to which the expedition of 
the Argonauts was directed, and for being 
the scene of the story of Jason and Medea. 
Colchis was divided into Cisphasiana and 
Transphasiana by the Phasis, on which 
were the towns iEa, Cyla, and Phasis. 
The inhabitants were said to be of Egyptian 
origin; but the whole question of their 



origin and early history is involved in ob- 
scurity. At the period of the Argonautic 
expedition, Colchis formed an opulent 
kingdom under iEetes ; at a later period 
it was parcelled out into numerous inde- 
pendent states ; and on its subjugation by 
Mithridates, it was governed by prefects 
appointed by the conqueror. Colchis was 
a rich and fertile country, abounding with 
fruit of every kind, and every material 
requisite for navigation. It had valuable 
mines of gold and silver ; and its inhabit- 
ants were famed for their manufacture of 
linen. The honey was not good, and pro- 
duced singular effects on those who par- 
took of it. (See Xen. Anab. iv. 20.) 

Co lias, a promontory of Attica, about 
20 stadia from Phalerum, and still retain- 
ing its ancient name. It was celebrated 
for its temples of Venus, Ceres, and Pan, 
&c, and for its earthenware. 

Collatia, I., a town of Latium, colo- 
nised from Alba, and celebrated by the 
self sacrifice of the chaste Lucretia. — II. 
Collatini, a town of Apulia, near Mt. Gar- 
ganus. 

Collatinus, T. Tarquinius, nephew 
of Tarquin the Proud, and husband of 
Lucretia, to whom Sext. Tarquin offered 
violence. After the expulsion of the 
Tarquins, he was elected consul along 
with Brutus ; but his relationship to the 
Tarquins excited the distrust of the Ro- 
mans, and he subsequently retired to Alba 
in voluntary banishment. 

Collina, I., called also Quirinalis, one 
of the gates of Rome, on Mt. Quirinalis, 
so called a collibus Quirinali et Viminuli. 
— II. The name of one of the four wards 
into which Rome was divided by Serv. 
Tullius. The other three were Palatina, 
Suburrana, and Esquilina. 

Colons, I., a city of Troas, north of 
Larissa, but whether maritime or inland 
has not been ascertained. — II. A town of 
Mysia in the territory of Lampsacus. 

Colonia AgrippIna, Cologne, a city 
of Germany on the Rhine. See Agrip- 
pina. 

Colonos, a demus of Attica, north-east 
of the Academy, near Athens. It Avas 
named Hippeios, from the altar erected 
to the Equestrian Neptune, and was ren- 
dered celebrated by the play of Sophocles, 
as the scene of the last adventures of 
ffidipus. 

Colophon, a city of Ionia, north-west 
of Ephesus, founded by Andraemon, son 
of Codrus, and destroyed by Lysimachus, 
together with Lebedus, in order to people 
the new city he had founded at Ephesus. 
The inhabitants of Colophon were gene- 



COL 



Com 



173 



rally regarded as effeminate ; but they pos- 
sessed a flourishing navy, and the success 
of their cavalry was such that the phrase 
Ko\o<pava iir'iTiQevai passed into a proverb, 
signifying, " To put the finishing hand to j 
an affair.''' Hence, in the early periods of I 
the art of printing, the place and date of 
the edition, being the last thing printed, 
was called the Colophon. Colophon was 
one of the seven cities which contended for 
the birth of Homer, and was famed for its 
resin ; hence the term Colophony. Its port 
was called Notium. The modern name is 
Attobosco, or, according to others, Belvidere. 

Colossi and Colossis, a large town 
of Phrygia Pacatiana, near Laodieea, in 
an angle formed by the rivers Lycus and 
Marauder. The government was demo- 
cratical. and the first ruler called archon. 
It was the seat of one of the first Christian 
churches ; and to it St. Paul addressed 
one of his Epistles. It was nearly de- 
stroyed, in the reign of Nero, by an earth- 
quake ; and, at a later period, it was su- 
perseded by Chonae. Some of its ruins 
are visible near the village Khonas or 
Kanassi. It was famous for its wool. 

Colossus, a celebrated brazen image 
of Rhodes, one of the seven wonders of the 
world, the workmanship of Chares, a pupil 
of Lysippus, who was employed twelve 
years in making it. Its height was 105 
Grecian feet ; and to render it steady on 
its pedestal, large stones were placed in its 
cavities. It stood with distended legs on 
the two moles which formed the entrance 
of the harbour. . There was a winding 
staircase to go up to the top, whence one 
might discover Syria, and the ships which 
went to Egypt. It was erected b. c. 300 ; 
and after having stood about 66 years, was 
thrown down by an earthquake. It re- 
mained in ruins for 894 years. In a.d. 
672 it was sold by the Saracens, masters 
of the island, to a Jew, who loaded 900 
camels with the brass. 

Columella, L. Junius Moderatus, a 
writer on agriculture, born at Gades, in the 
reign of Augustus or Tiberius. He be- 
took himself at an early period to Rome, 
where he passed his life. His works, " De 
Re Rustica," in twelve Books, and " De 
Arboribus," have reached our times. 

Columns Herculis, " The Pillars of 
Hercules," a name often given to Calpe and 
Abyla, or the heights on the European 
and African sides of the Straits of Gibraltar. 
The Mediterranean was fabled to have had 
no outlet in this quarter until Hercules 
broke through the mountain barrier, and 
thus formed the straits opening into the 
Atlantic. 



Coma gene. See Comma gene. 

Comana (ce et orum), I., a large and 
populous city of Pontus, surnamed Pon- 
tica, to distinguish it from the Cappadocian 
city of the same name, and celebrated for 
the worship of the goddess Ma, supposed 
to be equivalent to the Bellona of the Ro- 
mans. The festivals of this goddess, which 
were solemnised with great magnificence, 
drew thither an immense concourse of 
people; and from the assiduity with which 
pleasure was sought after by the inha- 
bitants, the city was sometimes called 
the little Corinth. Its ruins are still vi- 
sible on the site of Komanak. — II. A city 
of Cappadocia, now el Boston, on the river 
Larus, the capital of Cataonia, and cele- 
brated, like its Pontic namesake, from 
which it was distinguished by the epithet 
XpvffTi, for the worship of Ma, the Cappa- 
docian Bellona. The population consisted 
in a great degree of the ministers of the 
goddess, whose chief priest knew no supe- 
rior but the king of the country. 

Comaria, the ancient name of Cape 
Camorii in India. 

Comitia {orum), public assemblies of the 
Roman people {quasi a cum eundo), at 
which all the most important business of 
the state was transacted, such as the elec- 
tion of magistrates, the passing of laws, 
the declaration of war, the making of peace, 
and some other purposes. They were di- 
vided into three classes, corresponding to 
the three divisions of the Roman people, 
and distinguished by the epithets, Cu- 
riata, Centuriata, and Tributa. 1. The 
Comitia Curiata were the assemblies of 
the patrician houses or populus ; and 
m these, before the plebeians attained 
political importance, was vested the su- 
preme power of the state. The name Cu- 
riata was given because the people voted 
in curia, each curia giving a single vote 
representing the sentiments of the majority 
of the members composing it; which was 
the manner in which the tribes and centu- 
ries also gave their suffrages in their re- 
spective comitia. After the institution of 
the Comitia Centuriata, the functions of the 
curiata were nearly confined to the election 
of certain priests, and passing a law to con- 
firm the dignities imposed by the people. 
2. The Comitia Centuriata were the as- 
semblies of the whole Roman people, in- 
cluding patricians, clients, and plebeians, 
in which they voted by centuries. By the 
constitution of the centuries, these comitia 
were chiefly in the hands of the plebeians, 
and so served originally as a counterpoise 
to the powers of the Comitia Curiata, for 
which purpose they were first instituted 
i 3 



174 



COM 



CON 



by the lawgiver, king Servius Tullius. 
These comitia quickly obtained the chief 
importance, and public matters of the 
greatest moment were transacted in them, 
as the elections of consuls, praetors, and 
censors, and the passing laws and trials for 
high treason. 3. The Comitia Tributa 
were the assemblies of the plebeian tribes. 
They were first instituted after the expul- 
sion of the kings ; and in them were trans- 
acted matters pertaining to the plebeians 
alone, as the election of their tribunes and 
aediles. 

Commagene, Camash, the north-eastern- 
most district of Syria, bounded on the north 
by Mount Taurus, on the west by Amanus, 
on the east by the Euphrates, and on the 
south by Cyrrhestica. It became a Roman 
province under Domitian, having previ- 
ously had independent sovereigns. The 
chief city was Samosata. 

Comjiodus, L. Aurelius Antoninus, 
son of M. Antoninus, succeeded his father 
in the Roman empire, a.d. 1 80. Naturally 
cruel, and addicted to licentious pur- 
suits, his accession to the throne placed 
boundless means of indulgence within his 
power; and his whole reign was a series of 
brutal debauchery, relieved by deeds of the 
most disgusting barbarity. His time was 
spent in the society of freedmen, courtesans, 
and gladiators ; and, being endowed with 
such bodily strength as to have acquired 
the surname of Hercules, he used fre- 
quently to exhibit in public as a wrestler. 
That he might indulge his favourite pur- 
suits without impediment, the government 
of the empire was committed to a succes- 
sion of favourites, who all fell victims to 
the rage of the people ; but at last Martia, 
one of his mistresses, having found a scroll 
on which she and some of her companions 
were noted down for execution, a conspi- 
racy was immediately formed, poison was 
administered to him, and, to ensure the 
completion of the deed, a powerful wrestler 
was called in, who strangled him, in the 
thirty-first year of his age and the thir- 
teenth of his reign, a. d. 192. He never 
trusted himself to a barber, but always 
burnt his beard, in imitation of the tyrant 
Dionysius. During his reign Rome was 
assailed by two great calamities, — a pesti- 
lence which lasted three years, and a great 
conflagration, by which great part of the 
city and several of the largest public build- 
ings were destroyed. He was succeeded 
by Pertinax. 

Compitalia, annual festivals cele- 
brated by the Romans in the crossways, 
in honour of the household gods called 
Lares Compitales. They were said to 



have been instituted in honour of Servius 
Tullius, who was fabled to have been the 
son of a Lar Familiaris ; and were always 
held soon after the Saturnalia. They had 
fallen into desuetude before the time of 
Augustus, who, however, revived them, 
and introduced the practice of adorning 
the statues of the Lares Compitales with 
flowers twice a year. 

Compsa, Conza, a city of Samnium, on 
the southern confines of the Hirpini. It 
revolted to Hannibal after the battle of 
Cannas, but was retaken by the Romans 
under Fabius two years afterwards. 

Comum, Como, a city of Gallia Cisalpina, 
at the southern extremity of the Lacus 
Larius, or Logo di Como. It was origin- 
ally a Gallic settlement, but owed its 
principal importance to a Greek colony 
established there by Pomp. Strabo and 
Corn. Scipio, and subsequently by Julius 
Caesar, when it took the name of Novum 
Comum. It was the birth-place of Pliny 
the Younger. 

Concani, a people of Spain, among the 
Cantabri, who mingled the blood of horses 
with their drink. They were said to be of 
Scythian origin. Their chief town, Con- 
cana, is now Santilana, or Cangas de Onis. 

Concordia, goddess of peace and con- 
cord at Rome, to whom Camillus first 
raised a temple in the Capitol ; she had, 
besides, other temples and statues, and was 
addressed to promote the peace and union 
of families. 

Condrusi, a people of Gallia Belgica, 
south of the Eburones. Their country 
corresponds to Condros in Liege. 

Confluentes, Coblentz, a town at the 
confluence of the Moselle and Rhine. In 
the time of the Romans it was the station 
of the first legion, and afterwards became 
the residence of the successors of Charle- 
magne. 

Confucius, or Koong-for-tse, the cele- 
brated Chinese philosopher and lawgiver, 
descended of an illustrious family, was born 
in the state of Loo, b. c. 550. The early 
part of his life was spent in study and 
meditation; and he then travelled through 
the various states of which China was then 
composed, inculcating those doctrines which 
have remained to this day the only code 
of Chinese morals and customs. After 
encountering many disappointments, he 
was at length appointed to the government 
of his native state, which he administered 
with great success; but, owing to the 
jealousy of the neighbouring rulers, he 
was obliged to flee, and after many wander- 
ings and disappointments, cheered, how- 
ever, by the daily augmenting number of 



CON 



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175 



his proselytes and the purity of his in- 
tentions, he retired from the world, in 
company with a few chosen disciples, to 
complete those works which have become 
the sacred books of the Chinese. He died 
in his seventy-third year. His descend- 
ants, who may be said to constitute the 
only hereditary nobility of China, still 
nourish in the district in which Confucius 
was born ; and, amid all the changes and 
revolutions of the empire, their privileges 
have been respected. In every consi- 
derable city of China there is a temple 
dedicated to Confucius ; and the man- 
darins, and even the emperor himself, are 
bound to do him homage. His chief 
work is the Ly-King or " Book of Rites 
and Ceremonies," which is the foundation 
of the present state of Chinese manners, 
and one cause of their uniform unchange- 
ableness. 

Conimbrica, Cobnbra, a town of Lusi- 
tania, on the river Munda. 

Coxon, L, a famous Athenian com- 
mander, son of Timotheus, was one of the 
generals who succeeded Alcibiades in the 
command of the fleet, during the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. Though at first defeated 
by Callicratidas, the Lacedaemonian ge- 
neral, he shortly afterwards gained a 
signal victory at Arginusa? ; but, on being 
again defeated in a naval battle by Ly- 
sander, near the iEgos-potamos, he retired 
in voluntary banishment to Evagoras, king 
of Cyprus. The Lacedaemonians, now 
without a rival, having made war upon 
Persia, Conon effected a union between 
the Persian and Athenian fleet, and having 
fallen in with the enemy near Cnidus, com- 
pletely defeated them b. c. 398, and once 
more restored Athens to its naval supre- 
macy. Conon thereupon, after ravaging 
the coasts of Laconia, returned to Attica, 
amid the congratulations of his fellow 
citizens, and having obtained a large sum 
from Pharnabazus, one of the Persian 
satraps, rebuilt the long walls which had 
been demolished at the close of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, and gave a public enter- 
tainment to the Athenians. Being sub- 
sequently appointed ambassador to oppose 
an attempt of the Lacedaemonians to nego- 
tiate a peace with the Persians, he was 
imprisoned by the Persian minister Tiri- 
bazus, on the pretext of his adopting 
measures detrimental to the interests of 
Persia ; but was subsequently released, and 
died in privacy at Cyprus, b. c. 390. — II. A 
Greek astronomer of Samos, who flourished 
b. c. 247. None of his works have reached 
us ; but he is mentioned with eulogy by 
Archimedes, Virgil, Seneca, and others. 



He was the proposer of the spiral which 
bears the name of Archimedes, with whom 
he lived on terms of friendship. See Be- 
renice VIII. 

Consentes, the twelve superior gods of 
the Romans, Dii major um gentium. The 
word signifies consentientes, " who con- 
sented to the deliberations of Jupiter's 
council." Their names are briefly expressed 
in these lines by Ennius : — 

Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, 
Venus, Mars, 

Mercurius, Jovi\ Neptunus, Vulcanus, 
Apollo. 

Coxsentia, Cosenza, the capital of the 
Brutii, situated at the source of the Crathis. 
It was taken by Hannibal after the sur- 
render of Petilia, but again fell into the 
hands of the Romans towards the end of 
the war. 

Constaxs, a son of Constantine. See 

CoXSTANTIXUS. 

Coxstantia, grand-daughter of the 
Great Constantine, and wife of the em- 
peror Gratian. 

Constantina, wife of the emperor Gallus. 

Constaxtixopolis. See Byzantium. 

Constantixus, called the Great, son of 
Constantius Chlorus, was born at Naisus, a 
city of Dacia Mediterranea, a. d. 272 or 
274. Being in Britain at the time of his 
father's death, he was proclaimed emperor 
by the troops, with the title of Augustus, but 
Galerius refused to confirm it,and afterwards 
he was nominated Caesar and appointed 
governor of Gaul, which he administered 
for six years, a. d. 306 — 312. At this pe- 
riod of his life, the Roman empire was dis- 
tracted by six different claimants for the 
purple ; but among them all Constantine 
possessed a decided superiority in prudence 
and abilities, both military and political, 
and he ultimately succeeded, after a series 
of engagements, in removing four of his 
competitors, leaving himself and his brother- 
in-law Licinius the sole claimants of the 
throne. But the peace that had been 
cemented between them by the marriage 
of Licinius to the sister of Constantine was 
soon interrupted by a struggle for the sole 
supremacy ; and the defeat of Licinius near 
Adrianople a. d. 323, left Constantine sole 
master of the Roman world. From his 
first appearance in public life, Constantine 
had shown a great attachment to Christi- 
anity, which was so strengthened by a mi- 
raculous vision often referred to in history 
(See Labarum), that he had long adopted 
the cross as his standard, granted immu- 
nities, and showered down even positive 
favours to the Christians, and even sum- 
moned the council of Nice, which he at- 
i 4 



176 



CON 



CON 



tended in person, a. d. 325. On the trans- 
ference of the seat of empire to Byzantium, 
a. d. 328, which received from Constantine 
the name of Constantinople, several edicts 
were issued for the suppression of idolatry, 
and the whole empire was pervaded by the 
religion and institutions of Christianity. 
But his life was disfigured by some acts 
of tyranny and cruelty. At the instigation 
of his second wife, Fausta, he put his eldest 
son, Crispus, to death, amid circumstances 
of revolting barbarity ; but, on discovering 
his innocence of the crime laid to his 
charge, he inflicted the same punishment 
on the accuser. The latter years of his 
life were spent in embellishing his new 
capital, which soon became the rival of 
Home in population and magnificence, and 
in introducing numerous improvements 
into the various branches of the state. In 
the year 337, when preparing to march 
against the Persians, he fell ill at Nico- 
media, and died in the 64th year of his 
age, after being solemnly admitted into 
the Christian Church by baptism. His 
empire was divided, agreeably to his will, 
among his three sons, Constantinus, Con- 
stans, and Constantius. The first, who 
had Gaul, Spain, and Britain, was con- 
quered by the armies of his brother Con- 
stans, and killed in his 25th year, a. d. 340. 
The second, Constans, was murdered by 
Magnentius, governor of the provinces of 
Rhastia, after a reign of thirteen years over 
Italy, Africa, Illyricum. Constantius, the 
only surviving brother, now became the 
sole emperor, a. d. 353 ; but, after pu- 
nishing his brother's murdei-er, he gave 
way to cruelty and oppression, and died in 
his march against Julian, who had been 
proclaimed emperor byhis soldiers, a. d. 361 . 
The name of Constantine was very common 
to the emperors of the East, in a later 
period. Soon after the age of Constantine, 
a separation was made of the two empires ; 
Rome was called the capital of the western, 
and Constantinopolis the capital of the 
eastern, dominions of Rome. 

Constantius, L, Chlorus, so called on 
account of his paleness, son of Eutropius, 
and father of the great Constantine, me- 
rited the title of Cassar, which he obtained 
by his victories in Britain and Germany, 
and became the colleague of Galerius, on 
the abdication of Dioclesian. He was a 
humane and benevolent prince. He died 
at York, a. d. 306. — II. Third son of 
Constantine the Great. (See Constan- 
tinus.) — III. Father of Julian and Gallus, 
son of Constantius by Theodora, died 
a. d. 337. — IV. A Roman general of j 
Nyasa, who married Placidia, sister of Ho- | 



norius, and was proclaimed emperor, an 
honour which he enjoyed only seven months. 
He died universally regretted, a. d. 421, 
and was succeeded by his son Vaientinian 
in the West. 

Consuales Luni, or ConsualTa, festivals 
at Rome in honour of Consus, god of 
counsel. See Consus. 

Consules, the magistrates of Rome, with 
almost regal authority for the space of one 
year. The two first consuls were L. Jun. 
Brutus and L. Tarq. Collatinus, chosen 
a. u. c. 244, after the expulsion of the 
Tarquins. In the first ages of the re- 
public the two consuls were chosen from 
patrician families or noblemen ; but the 
people obtained the privilege, a. u. c. 388, 
of electing one of the consuls from their 
own body, and sometimes both were 
plebeians. It was required that every 
candidate for the consulship should be 
forty-three years of age, called legitimum 
tempus. He was always to appear at the 
election as a private man, and it was re- 
quisite to have discharged the functions of 
quaestor, aedile, and prastor. Sometimes 
these qualifications were disregarded. The 
consuls were at the head of the whole re- 
public ; all the other magistrates were 
subject to them, except the tribunes of the 
commons. Their insignia were the same 
with those of the kings (except the crown), 
namely, the toga prcetexta, sella curulis, the 
sceptre or ivory staff, and twelve lictors 
with the fasces and securis. Val. Popli- 
cola took away the securis from the fasces, 
i. e. the power of life and death, and only 
left to them the right of scourging. Out 
of the city, when invested with military 
command, they retained the securis, i. e. 
the right of punishing capitally. They 
were elected at the Comitia Centuriata, 
some months before their entrance into 
office, which took place at different periods 
of the year at different times, but finally 
in January, during which interval they 
were termed consules designati, or appointed 
consuls. Soon after their entrance into 
office they cast lots about the provinces to 
fall to the share of each, the superintend- 
ence of which was conferred on them by 
the senate. Under the emperors the no- 
minal office of the consulate was preserved, 
but its substantial power destroyed; the 
elections also became merely forms, the 
emperor appointing whom he pleased. 
Then, too, the custom was introduced of 
having several sets of consuls in one year ; 
those admitted on the first day, however, 
gave their name to the year, and were dis- 
tinguished from the others, who were 
termed suffecti (i. e. substituted), by the 



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177 



title ordinarii (i. e. regular). Persons 
also were sometimes dignified merely with 
the title without enjoying the office, and 
were then styled honorary consuls. Under 
Justinian (a. u. c. 1294), the year ceased to 
be denominated by the name of the consul. 

Consus, a Roman deity who presided 
over counsels. His temple in the Maxi- 
mus Circus was always covered, except on 
the anniversary of his festival (called Con- 
sualia), to show that counsels ought to be 
secret and inviolable. Horse and chariot 
races were celebrated on this occasion ; 
hence Consus has sometimes been con- 
founded with Neptunus Equestris. It 
was at these festivals that the Sabine 
maidens were carried off by the Romans. 

CopuE, a small town of Boeotia, on the 
northern shore of the lake Copais, to 
which it gives name. It was a place of 
considerable note previously to the Trojan 
war ; and, in the time of Pausanias, had 
temples of Bacchus, Ceres, and Serapis. 

Copais lacus, a lake of Boeotia, which 
received different appellations from the 
different towns situated along its shores. 
Thus, at Haliartus it was called Haliar- 
tius Lacus ; at Orchomenus, Orchomenius. 
Pindar and Homer call it Cephisus. It 
was by far the largest lake of Greece, 
being about forty-seven miles in circum- 
ference, and navigable from the mouth of 
the Cephisus to Copas. It was especially 
celebrated for its eels. 

Cophas, a harbour in Gedrosia, sup- 
posed by some to be Gondel. 

Cophontis, a burning mountain of Bac- 
triana. 

Copia, goddess of plenty among the 
Romans, represented as bearing a horn 
filled with grapes, fruits, &c. 

Coptus, now Keft, or Kuypt, a city of 
/Egypt, in the northern part of the The- 
bais, east of the Nile. It was originally 
a religious city, but afterwards rose into 
great commercial importance, and was 
ultimately destroyed by Dioclesian. 

Cora, Cori, a town of Latium, on the 
confines of the Volsci, built by a colony of 
Dardanians before the foundation of Rome. 
It suffered greatly during the contest with 
Spartacus ; but revived in the reign of 
Tiberius and Claudius. The ruins of 
some splendid buildings are still visible. 

Coracesium, Maya, a maritime town 
of Pamphylia, taken by Pompey in the 
piratical war. 

Coralli, a savage people of Sarmatia 
Europaea, who inhabited the shores of the 
Euxine, near the mouths of the Danube. 

Coras, a brother of Catillus and Ti- 
burtus, who fought against JEneas. 



Corax, an ancient rhetorician of Sicily, 
who is said to have invented the art of 
oratory, b. c. 473, and to have first de- 
manded salary of his pupils. 

Corbulo, Cn. Domitics, a Roman com- 
mander, celebrated for rigid observance of 
military discipline, and for the success of 
his arms. Nero, through jealousy, or- 
dered him to be murdered, on which he 
fell on his sword, exclaiming, " I have 
well deserved this I" a. d. 66. His name 
was given to a place called Corbulonis 
Monumentum in Germany among the 
Frisii, supposed to be Groningen. 

Corcyra, L, an island in the Ionian 
sea, off the coast of Epirus, in which Ho- 
mer places the gardens of Alcinous ; said 
to have been first known under the name 
of Drepane, afterwards changed to Scheria. 
It was originally peopled by the Phae- 
acians, a nation of great commercial en- 
terprise ; and in process of time it became 
one of the most powerful islands of Greece. 
It was successively colonised by the Co- 
rinthians and the Romans, and formed one 
of their chief naval stations ; but, in the 
time of Strabo, its glory was completely 
eclipsed. It is now called Corfu, and is 
the most important, though not the largest, 
of the Ionian islands. Corcyra was also 
the name of the chief city of the island, 
and its site is now occupied by Corfu. — 
II. Curzola, an island in the Adriatic, on 
the coast of lllyricum, termed Nigra 
or MiXaiva, black, from the dark masses 
of wood with which it was crowned, and to 
distinguish it from the more celebrated 
island of that name. 

Corduba, Cordova, a famous city of 
Hispania Baetica, on the right bank of the 
Baetis, and the birth-place of both the 
Senecas and Lucan. 

Cordyla, a port of Pontus, south-west 
of Trapezus, supposed to give its name to 
the fish caught there, cordylce, " the fry of 
the tunny-fish." 

Core (Gr. Kopn], maiden), the name 
given by the Athenians to Proserpine, 
daughter of Ceres. 

Coresus. See Callirrhoe. 

Corfinium, the capital of the Peligni, 
in Italy, near the Aternus. During the 
Social war it was regarded as the capital of 
Italy ; and, though it soon lost this dis- 
tinction, it was long regarded as of great 
importance. It was captured by Caesar. 

Corinna, a poetess of Thebes, or, ac- 
cording to others, of Tanagra, remarkable 
for her personal attractions. She was the 
teacher, and subsequently the rival of 
Pindar, over whom she gained the victory 
no less than five times. She was called 
i 5 



178 



COR 



COR 



Myia, or M the fly," as Erynna had been 
styled " the bee." 

Corinthi isthmus, Isthmus of Corinth, 
between the Saronicus Sinus and Corin- 
thiacus Sinus, and uniting the Pelopon- 
nesus to the northern parts of Greece, or 
Gratia Propria. At the narrowest point 
the breadth is about five miles. Various 
attempts were made at different times to 
effect a junction between the two gulphs 
by means of a canal ; but they all proved 
unsuccessful; and, as a substitute, ships 
were drawn by means of machinery from 
one sea to the other, though, of course, 
this mode of conveyance could only apply 
to the smallest craft. The isthmus of 
Corinth derived great celebrity from the 
games held there every five years in honour 
of Paleemon, or Melicerta, and subsequently 
of Neptune. See Isthmia. 

Cokinthiacus sinus, Gulf of Lepanto, 
Nepactos, or Salojia, an arm of the sea, 
running in between the coast of Achaia 
and Sicyonia to the south, and that of 
Phocis, Locris, and JEtolia to the north. 
It was divided into small bays with a 
variety of names, such as Crissaean, Cirr- 
haean, Delphic, Calydonian, Rhian, and 
Halcyonian, which, however, were some- 
times poetically applied to the whole gulf. 

Corinthus, Corito or Corinth, a famous 
city of Greece, on the isthmus of the 
same name. Commanding the Ionian and 
.iEgean seas, and holding, as it were, the 
keys of Peloponnesus (see LncHiEUM, Cen- 
CHREiE, and Schcexus), Corinth, from the 
preeminent advantages of its situation, was 
already the seat of opulence and the arts, 
while the rest of Greece was sunk in com- 
parative obscurity and barbarism. Its ori- 
gin is lost in the obscurity of time. Ac- 
cording to the Corinthians themselves, their 
city received its name from Corinthus, 
son of Jove ; and it was said by others to 
have existed under the name of Ephyre 
long prior to the siege of Troy. But 
be this as it may, its admirable position 
soon raised it to be the seat of perhaps 
the most important traffic carried on in 
ancient times. At a very early period she 
founded Corcyra, Syracuse, and other im- 
portant colonies ; established within her 
walls various manufactures, particularly of 
brass and earthenware ; had numerous 
fleets, both of ships of war and merchant- 
men ; and was the centre of an active 
commerce that extended to the Black sea, 
Asia Minor, Phoenicia, Egypt, Sicily, and 
Italy. In the magnificence of her public 
buildings, and the splendour of the chefs- 
d'oeuvre of statuary and paintings by which 
they were adorned, she was second only to 



Athens ; while the opulence of which she 
was the centre made her a favourite seat of 
pleasure and dissipation, as well as of trade 
and industry. The government of Corinth, 
like that of the other Grecian states, was 
originally monarchical. It then became 
subject to the oligarchy of the Bacchida?, 
and was again, after a period of ninety 
years, subjected to kings or tyrants. Peri- 
ander, the early part of whose reign was 
that of a Titus, and the latter that of a 
Tiberius, was the last of its sovereigns. 
At his death the Corinthians established a 
republican form of government, inclining, 
however, more to aristocracy or oligarchy 
than democracy. It seems to have been 
| judiciously devised ; and the public tran- 
quillity was less disturbed in Corinth 
than in most Grecian states. When the 
Achaeans became involved in a war with 
Rome, Corinth was one of their principal 
strongholds. Though the Roman senate 
had resolved upon the destruction of the 
city, Metellus was anxious to avert the 
catastrophe ; but his offers to bring about 
a reconciliation, which might have saved 
Corinth, were contemptuously rejected, 
and his deputies thrown into prison. The 
Corinthians suffered severely for this in- 
considerate conduct. The consul Mum- 
mius, having superseded Metellus, ap- 
peared before Corinth with a powerful 
army ; and after defeating the Achaeans, 
entered the city, which had been left 
without any garrison, and was deserted by 
the greater number of its inhabitants. It 
was first sacked, and then set on fire ; and 
it is said that the accidental mixture of the 
gold, silver, and copper, melted on this 
occasion, furnished the first specimens of 
the Corinthian brass, so much esteemed in 
subsequent ages ! Not satisfied with the 
total destruction of the city, the natives of 
Corinth who had escaped were carefully 
hunted out and sold as slaves, their lands 
being at the same time disposed of to 
strangers, mostly to the Sicyonians. Co- 
rinth remained in the ruinous state to 
which it had been reduced by Mummius, 
till a colony was sent thither by Julius 
Caesar. Under its new masters it once more 
became a considerable city, as is evident 
from the account given of it by Pausa- 
nias, and is much distinguished in the 
gospel history. After being sacked by 
Alaric, it came, on the fall of the Eastern 
empire, into the possession of the Ve- 
netians. 

Coriolanus, the surname of Caius or 
Cneius Marcius, from the city of Corioli, 
capital of the Volsci, which was taken 
almost solely by his exertions. Being 



COR 



COR 



179 



refused the consulship, notwithstanding 
many services to his country, his resent- 
ment was roused ; and on his subsequently 
insisting, during a scarcity, that the corn 
which Gelon, king of Sicily, had sent to 
Rome should be sold, and not distributed, 
he was impeached by the tribunes of the 
people, and condemned to perpetual banish- 
ment. Upon this he retired to Attius 
Tullus, king of the Volsci, from whom, 
though hitherto his greatest enemy, he 
met a most friendly reception ; and having 
advised him to make war against Rome, was 
associated with him in the command of the 
Volscianarmy. The Romans, horror-struck 
at the defeats they were perpetually sustain- 
ing, sent several embassies to reconcile 
him to his country ; but Coriolanus was 
deaf to all proposals, and having encamped 
within five miles of Rome, would only 
grant peace on the most humiliating con- 
ditions, to which it was impossible to ac- 
cede. After all other means of concili- 
ation had failed, a number of Roman ma- 
trons, headed by Veturia and Volumnia, 
the mother and wife of Coriolanus, pro- 
ceeded to his tent; and their tears and 
entreaties at length prevailed over his stern 
and obstinate resolutions ; but before or- 
dering the Volscian army to retire, he is 
said to have exclaimed, " O, mother, thou 
hast saved Rome, but lost thy son !" He 
then retired to the country of the Volsci, 
where, according to one account, he lived 
to a great age ; while others report that he 
was murdered by the Yolscians, who were 
indignant at his leniency towards Rome. 
The Roman matrons wore mourning for 
him after his death; and in requital for 
the services of Volumnia, a temple was 
erected to Female Fortune. Nearly the 
whole history of Coriolanus is regarded by 
Niebuhr as a poetical legend, belonging to 
the latter half of the third century of the 
city, and not deserving a place in authentic 
history. 

Corioli, an ancient city of the Volsci, 
between Velitrae and Lanuvium, from the 
capture of which C. Marcius received the 
surname of Coriolanus. It was situated 
on the confines of Ardea, Aricia, and An- 
tium ; but though Dionysius calls it one 
of the most considerable cities of the Volsci, 
no traces of its existence remained in the 
time of Pliny. 

Cornelia lex, I., the name given to 
numerous enactments passed in the dic- 
tatorship, and by the influence of Sylla. 
Of these the principal were De Religione, 
a. u. c. 677, restoring to the sacerdotal 
order the privilege of choosing the priests, 
which, by the Domitian law, had been 



lodged in the hands of the people. — II. 
De Municipiis, depriving the free towns 
which had sided with Marius of their 
lands, and of the right of citizens. — III. 
De Magistratibus, giving the power of 
bearing honours and being promoted be- 
fore the legal age, to those who had fol- 
lowed the interest of Sylla, while the sons 
and partisans of his enemies, who had been 
proscribed, were deprived of the privilege 
of standing for any office in the state. — 
IV. De Magistratibus, a. u. c. 673, ordain- 
ing that no person should exercise the 
same office until after an interval of ten 
years, or be invested with two offices at the 
same time ; and that no one should be 
praetor before being quaestor, nor consul 
before being praetor. — V. De Magistrati- 
bus, a. u. c. 673, divested the tribunes of 
the privilege of making laws, interfering, 
holding assemblies, and receiving appeals. 
— VI. Giving the power to a person ac- 
cused of murder to choose whether the 
jury should give their verdict clam or pa- 
lam, viva voce, or by ballot. — VII. Im- 
posing the punishment of aquce et ignis 
inter dictio, on such as were guilty of 
forgery and of extortion in their pro- 
vinces. 

Cornelia, I., daughter of Cinna, first 
wife of J. Caesar, and mother of Julia, who 
married Pompey. She died young, and her 
husband pronounced a funeral oration over 
her body. — II. Daughter of Metellus 
Scipio, and wife of Crassus, after whose 
death she married Pompey. She was 
distinguished by many accomplishments 
and virtues. After the battle of Pharsalia, 
she accompanied Pompey in his flight to 
Egypt, and witnessed his fate from her 
galley. — III. Daughter of Scipio Africanus 
Major, wife of Sempronius Gracchus, and 
mother of the two celebrated tribunes known 
by the name of the Gracchi. Left a widow 
at an early age, her hand was sought by 
Ptolemy, king of Egypt ; but she declined 
the offer, and devoted her whole care to 
the education of her children in those 
principles of virtue and freedom which 
afterwards placed them at the head of 
their contemporaries. An anecdote of 
Cornelia has been often cited. A Cam- 
panian lady having vauntingly displayed 
her jewels to Cornelia, requested in return 
to be shown those of the latter. Cornelia 
purposely detained her in conversation till 
her children returned from school, when, 
pointing to them, she exclaimed, " These 
are my jewels!" She bore the untimely 
death of her sons with great magnanimity ; 
and, after her decease, the Romans erected 
a statue to her memory, with this inscrip- 
i 6 



180 



COR 



COR 



tion, " To Cornelia, mother of the Grac- 
chi." 

Cornelius, a name indicating a member 
of the illustrious family of the Gens Cor- 
nelia at Rome ; but the great majority 
of the individuals who bore it being better 
known by their surnames, as Cossus, 
Dolabella, Lentulus, Gallus, Nepos, Sylla, 
&c, we beg to refer the reader to these 
heads. 

Corniculum, a Sabine town whence 
the Corniculani Colles. It is said to have 
been the birth-place of Servius Tullius. 

Cornificius, I., Quintus, a contempo- 
rary and friend of Cicero, Catullus and 
Ovid, distinguished himself as propraetor 
in the Illyrian war, and also as governor 
of Syria, and afterwards of Africa. He 
espoused the cause of the senate after 
Caesar's death, and protected those who 
had been proscribed by the second trium- 
virate ; but lost his life while contending 
in Africa against Sextius, who had been 
sent against him by Octavius. Some 
modern scholars make this Cornificius to 
have been the author of the Treatise to 
Herennius, commonly ascribed to Cicero. 
(See Herennius.) — II. Lucius, a partisan 
of Octavius, by whom he was appointed 
to accuse Brutus, before the public tri- 
bunal at Rome, of the assassination of 
Caesar. He afterwards distinguished him- 
self, as one of Octavius's lieutenants, by a 
masterly retreat in Sicily during the war 
with Sextus Pompeius. 

Corniger, a surname of Bacchus, and 
of several rivers, such as the Tiber and 
Numicius ; the figures of these divinities 
being represented with horns. 

Cornutus, Ann^us, a native of Africa, 
who taught philosophy at Rome in Nero's 
reign. He belonged to the Stoic sect, and 
was preceptor of Lucan and Persius ; the 
latter of whom dying before him, left him 
his library. He was banished for an 
offensive remark upon Nero's bad verses, 
and died in exile. Of his numerous 
writings only one, entitled, " A Theory 
concerning the Nature of the Gods," has 
reached our times. 

Corcebus, I., son of Mygdon and Anax- 
imena, who assisted Priam in the Trojan 
war, with the hopes of being rewarded 
with the hand of Cassandra for his services. 
Cassandra, knowing his fate, entreated him 
to retire from the war, but in vain, and he 
was killed by Peneleus on the night of the 
capture of Troy. — II. A hero of Argolis, 
whose impiety in killing the serpent sent 
by Apollo to avenge Argos, produced a 
pestilence, to remove which the oracle of 
Delphi commanded him to build a temple, 



where a tripod, which was given him should 
fall from his hand. — III. A foot racer 
of Elis who carried off the prize at the 
Olympic games, b. c. 776, a date which is 
remarkable for being the first from which 
the Greeks began to count their Olym- 
piads. The Olympic games were insti- 
tuted at a much earlier period ; but the 
names of the victors were, on this occasion, 
inserted for the first time on the public re- 
gistry. According to Athenaeus, Corcebus 
was a cook by trade. 

Corone, a city of Messenia, on the 
western shore of the Sinus Messeniacus, 
built for the Messenians after their restora- 
tion to their country by the aid of the 
Thebans. Its site is now occupied by the vil- 
lage of Petalidhi, not far from the modern 
town of Coron, to which it has given name. 

Coronea, I., a considerable city of 
Boeotia, south-east of Chaeronea, said to 
have been founded, together with Orcho- 
menus, by the descendants of Athamas, 
who came from Thessaly. It was the scene 
of several decisive actions, of which the 
most important was that between the Lace- 
daemonians and allied Greeks, b. c. 394, in 
which the former were victorious. Coronea 
was twice taken by the Phocians under 
Onomarchus; but was restored to the The- 
bans by Philip of Macedon, for adhering 
to whose cause it was subsequently se- 
verely punished by the Romans. Many 
marbles and inscriptions of the ancient 
city are found near the village Korumis, 
which has been founded on its ruins. — 
II. A city of Thessaly, near Pharsalus. 

Coronides, a surname of the god JEs- 
culapius, as son of Coronis. 

Coronis, I., daughter of Phlegyas, and 
mother of iEsculapius by Apollo, who 
put her to death for her infidelity, sparing, 
however, the offspring of her womb. — II. 
Daughter of Coroneus, king of Phocis, 
who was changed into a crow by Minerva, 
when fleeing from the importunities of 
Neptune. — III. A daughter of Atlas and 
Pleione, and one of the Hyades. 

Corsi, I., the inhabitants of Corsica. — 
II. Inhabitants of northern Sardinia, who 
came originally from Corsica. 

Corsica, an island in the Mediterra- 
nean, called by the Greeks Kvpvos, the in- 
habitants Kvpvioi, by the Latins Corsi. 
In later times the island took the name 
also of Cor sis. The inhabitants were a 
rude race of mountaineers, indebted for 
their subsistence more to the produce of 
their flocks than the cultivation of the soil. 
It was originally colonised by the Pho- 
caeans, who, on quitting Asia, settled here 
and founded the city Aleria; but they 



COR 



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181 



were subsequently driven out by the Car- 
thaginians, and in b. c. 231, it fell into the 
hands of the Romans, who settled two co- 
lonies in it, and made it a place of banish- 
ment. In the middle ages it was succes- 
sively taken possession of by the Goths, 
the Eastern Emperors, the Saracens, Franks, 
Colonni, Pisans, and Genoese, by whom it 
was ceded to France in 1768, in whose 
hands it has since remained, with two brief 
interruptions. It has been immortalised 
in modern times by having given birth to 
Pascal Paoli, and Napoleon. 

Corsote, Erzi, a city of Mesopotamia, 
at the confluence of the Masca and Eu- 
phrates. 

Cortona, an ancient city of Etruria, 
north-west of the Lacus Thrasymenus, 
supposed to have been built on the ruins 
of the more ancient Corythus, one of the 
principal cities of the Etruscans. Its Pe- 
lasgic origin is attested by the massy re- 
mains of its ancient walls. In the fifth 
century of Rome, it was allied to the Ro- 
mans, and remained faithful to its alliance 
during the second Punic war. The Greek 
name was Gortyn. The city still retains 
its ancient appellation of Cortona. 

Corvinus, I., a name given to M. Va- 
lerius, from a crow, which assisted him 
when fighting against a Gaul. (See Va- 
lerius.) — II. Messala, an eloquent orator, 
in the Augustan age. See Messala. 

Cor vb antes, the priests of Cybele, called 
also Galli and Curetes. (See Curetes. ) 
In celebrating the festivals of the goddess, 
they ran about with loud cries and howl- 
ings, beating their cymbals, and conducting 
themselves so franticly as to have enriched 
the Greek language with several terms 
expressive of frenzy or insanity. The 
name is said to be derived either from 
Corybas, a son of Cybele, or from the 
Greek words, signifying " shaking the head 
violently." They first dwelt on Mt. Ida, 
or rather in Phrygia, whence they passed 
into Crete, where they secretly brought up 
Jupiter, and are said to have first turned 
their attention to metallurgy. 

Corybas, son of Jasus and Cybele, 
who is said to have introduced the rites 
of the mother of the gods into Phrygia 
from the island of Samothrace. 

CorycIdes, a name applied to the 
daughters of the river god Pleistus, who 
inhabited the Corycian cave, on Mount 
Parnassus. , 

Corycium Antrum, a grotto on Mt. 
Parnassus, sacred to the Corycian Nymphs 
and the god Pan, and of such extent that, 
on the approach of the Persians, the 
greater part of the population of Delphi 



found refuge within it. It is still famous 
for the stalactites with which it is adorned. 

Corycus, I., a small maritime town of 
Cilicia Trachea, near the confines of Ci- 
licia Campestris. It appears to have been 
a fortress of great strength, and to have 
served, at one time, as the harhour of Se- 
leucia. In its vicinity was produced the 
best saffron of antiquity. The famous 
Corycian cave, which must not be con- 
founded with the grotto of the same name 
on Mt. Parnassus, celebrated as the fabled 
residence of the giant Typhosus, was si- 
tuated near it. The modern name is 
Korghoz. — II. Promontory of Ionia, Cape 
Curco, a famous retreat for robbers. — 
III. A town of Lycia, about thirty stadia 
north of Olympus. 

Corydon, a fictitious name of a shepherd. 

Corymbifer, a surname of Bacchus, 
from his wearing a crown of corymbi, cer- 
tain berries which grow on the ivy, which 
was sacred to him. 

Coryphasium, Cape Zonchio, a town and 
promontory on the western coast of Mes- 
senia, to which the inhabitants of Pylos 
retired on the destruction of their town. 

Cos, Stan- Co, an island of the iEgean, 
one of the Sporades, more anciently called 
Cea, Staphylus, Nymphsea, and Meropis, 
of which the last was the most common 
It was taken possession of by a colony 
from Epidaurus, long previously to the 
Trojan war ; and the inhabitants carefully 
preserved the recollection of their origin, 
by the zeal which they displayed in the 
worship of iEsculapius. The government 
of Cos was originally an aristocracy ; b. c. 
486, it seems to have become a satrapy of 
Persia, with a delegated sovereign; but, 
after a few revolutionary movements, it 
once more subsided into its original form. 
The soil of Cos was very productive ; its 
wines vied with those of Chios and Lesbos, 
and it was celebrated for its purple dye, 
and for its manufacture of a species of trans- 
parent silk stuff in great request at Rome. 
From this island also came both the sub- 
stance and the name of the whetstone, Cos. 
Its chief city was Cos, anciently called Asty- 
palaea, a city which, though not large, was 
very attractive. It was famous for a temple 
of iEsculapius, enriched with the celebrated 
paintings of Apelles, one of which was re- 
moved to Rome by Augustus. It was 
celebrated for being the birth-place of 
Apelles and Hippocrates. 

Cosa and Cossa, or CossiE, I., a town of 
Etruria, north-west of Centum Cellae, near 
the coast. It was founded by the people 
of Volsci, an Etrurian town, and became a 
Roman colony, a. u. c. 480. —II. A city 



182 



COS 



CRA 



of Lucania in Italy, near the source of 
the Cylistamus. Its ruins are marked by 
the site of the modern village Chita. 

Cossus, L, a surname of the Familia 
Maluginensis, a branch of the Gens Cor- 
nelia. — II. Aulus Cornelius, a military 
tribune of Rome, who slew in battle Lar 
Tolumnius, king of the Veientes, and de- 
dicated the spolia opima to Jupiter Fere- 
trius, a. u. c. 318. See Opima Spolia. 

Cotes, Cape Espartel, a promontory of 
Mauritania. The name signified " a vine ; " 
hence the Greeks sometimes translated the 
term by Ampelusia. 

Cothon, a small island near the citadel 
of Carthage, with a convenient bay. It 
was the residence of the Carthaginian ad- 
miral, and the whole bay was fitted out 
with numerous docks, containing every 
variety of shipping materials. 

Cotiso, king of the Daci, whose army 
invaded Pannonia, and was defeated by 
Corn. Lentulus, lieutenant of Augustus. 

Cotta, I. M. Aurelius, a Roman com- 
mander in the Mithridatic war, sent to 
guard the Propontis and Bithynia. He 
was the colleague of Lucullus, in the con- 
sulship. His eagerness to engage with 
Mithridates before Lucullus arrived to 
assist him, led to his defeat both by sea 
and land, and he was shut up in Chalce- 
don, until he was relieved by Lucullus. 
He was surnamed Posticus, because he took 
Heraclea in Pontus by treachery. — II. 
Caius Aurelius, a celebrated Roman orator, 
who flourished about a. u. c. 661. He 
failed in his application for the tribune- 
ship, and being accused before the people, 
he denounced the injustice of the equites 
in unmeasured terms, and retired into vo- 
luntary exile. He was recalled by Sylla, 
and created consul, a. u. c. 677. — III. 
L. Aurelius, flourished at the Roman 
bar, when Cicero was yet a young man, 
and inspired the latter with a desire to 
rival him in eloquence. He attained the 
consulship a. u. c. 687. and the year 
following, the censorship. In the debate 
on the recal of Cicero from exile, Cotta 
distinguished himself by the manly frank- 
ness with which he censured the proceed- 
ing against him. — IV. L. Aurunculeius, 
a lieutenant of Caesar in Gaul, cut off, 
along with Titurius, by the Eburones. 

CottLe Alpes, Mont St. Genevre, er- 
roneously supposed to be the place where 
Hannibal crossed into Italy. They derived 
their name from 

Cottius, an Alpine chieftain, who held 
a kind of sovereignty over several valleys 
among the Alps. He defied even the 
power of Rome during Augustus ; but his 



j territory became a Roman province under 
Nero. 

Cottus, a giant, son of Coelus and Ter- 
ra, who had one hundred hands, and fifty 
heads. His brothers were Gyes and Bria- 
reus. 

Coty^eum, Kutaieh, a town of Phrygia, 
on the Thymbris, a branch of the Sanga- 
rius. It was said by Suidas to be the 
birth place of JEsop. 

Cotys, a name common to several kings 
of Thrace, and other individuals. — I. A 
king of Thrace, contemporary with Phi- 
lip of Macedon, and an inveterate foe to 
the Athenians. He was assassinated by 
Python and Heraclides, who received from 
the Athenians the rights of citizenship and 
a golden crown, as a recompense for the 
deed. — II. Another who sent .his son Sa- 
dales at the head of 500 horse to aid 
Pompey against Caesar. — III. Another in 
the time of Augustus, slain by his uncle 
Rhescupores, b. c. 15. He was fond of 
literature, and to him Ovid addressed one 
of his Epistles from the Euxine. — IV. A 
king of the Odrysae in Thrace, who 
favoured the interests of Perses against the 
Romans. — V. Son of Manes, whom he 
succeeded on the throne of Lydia. 

Cotytto, a goddess worshipped by the 
Thracians, and also by some of the Greeks, 
and apparently identical with thePhrygian 
Cybele. Her festivals were celebrated 
with great indecency and licentiousness. 

Crag us, a chain of woody mountains, 
sacred to Diana, running along the eastern 
shore of the Sinus Glaucus, in Lycia. The 
fabulous monster Chimaera, said to have 
been subdued by Bellerophon, had its re- 
sidence here. It was also the name of a 
town near the mountain range so called. 

Cranai, a surname of the Athenians, 
from 

Cranaus, the successor of Cecrops on 
the throne of Athens. He reigned nine 
years, and was the father of Atthis by Pe- 
dias. 

Cranii, a town of Cephallenia, to which 
the Messenians retired when they were 
driven from Pylos by the Macedonians. 
Ruins of its cyclopean walls may still be 
seen at the upper extremity of the bay of 
Argostoli. 

Crakon and Cranxom, a city of Thes- 
saly, on the Onchestus, near which was a 
celebrated hot spring. 

Grantor, a philosopher of Soli, among 
the pupils of Plato, b. c. 310, and highly 
celebrated for the purity of his moral doc- 
trines. 

Crassus, a surname of several distin- 
guished Romans, of whom the most cele- 



CRA 



CRA 



183 



brated were, I., Lucius Licinius, one of 
the most distinguished orators of Rome, 
born a. u. c. 612. He superintended the 
early education of Cicero ; and attain- 
ed to the highest honours of the state, 
being elected consul, a. u. c. 657, and af- 
terwards censor. He died a. u. c. 662, in 
consequence of a pleuritic fever, brought 
on by his oratorical exertions in the senate. 
— II. Marcus, surnamed " Agelastus," 
because he never laughed, was created 
praetor, a. u. c. 648. — III. M. Licinius, 
grandson of the preceding, surnamed Rich, 
on account of his wealth, which he ac- 
quired by educating slaves, and selling them 
at a high price. The cruelties of China 
obliged him to leave Rome ; and after the 
death of the latter, he passed into Africa, 
and thence to Italy, where he served under 
Sylla, whose favour he conciliated. When 
the gladiators, with Spartacus at their 
head, had defeated some of the Roman 
generals, Crassus, being sent against them, 
by one decisive blow put an end to the 
war, and was honoured with an ovation on 
his return. Soon afterwards he was made 
consul with Pompey, with whom he did 
not agree ; but Caesar, in order to conso- 
lidate his own power, effected a reconcili- 
ation between them, and associated them 
with himself in the first triumvirate. Being 
appointed to the province of Syria, which 
seemed to promise an inexhaustible source 
of wealth, he set off from Rome, regard- 
less of evil omens and denunciations, and 
hastened to make himself master of Par- 
thia. But he was betrayed on his march by 
Ariamnes, and was met in a large plain 
by Surena, general of the forces of Orodes, 
king of Parthia, when a battle was fought, 
in which 20,000 Romans were killed, and 
10,000 taken prisoners. Crassus, forced 
by the mutiny of his soldiers, and treachery 
of his guides, to meet Surena in a con- 
ference, was perfidiously murdered by the 
barbarians, b. c. 52, and his head and 
right hand cut off and sent to Orodes, the 
Parthian king. Crassus was fond of phi- 
losophy, and his knowledge of history was 
extensive. — IV. Publius, son of Crassus 
the Rich, whom he accompanied on his 
Parthian expedition. Seeing himself sur- 
rounded by the enemy, he ordered one of 
his men to run him through ; but the 
enemy cut off his head, and barbarously 
exhibited it to his father. 

Crater, or Sinus Crater, the ancient 
name of the Gulf of Naples, from its re- 
sembling the mouth of a large bowl 

Craterus, one of Alexander's generals, 
conspicuous both for his literary fame and 



his valour in the field, and greatly re- 
spected by the Macedonian monarch, on 
account of his open character. After Alex- 
ander's death, he was associated with Anti- 
pater in the care of the hereditary states; 
and having afterwards passed with his col- 
league into Asia, he was killed in a battle 
against Eumenes, b.c. 321. 

Crates, I., a philosopher of Boeotia, son 
of Ascondus, and disciple of Diogenes the 
Cynic, b.c. 324. He was considered as 
the most distinguished philosopher of the 
Cynic sect, after Diogenes, and received 
the nickname of " door-opener " from his 
habit of entering people's houses uninvited. 
— II. A philosopher of Athens, who suc- 
ceeded in the school of his master, 
Polemon. His system of philosophy did 
not differ materially from that of Plato. 
He was the teacher of Archelaus and Bion 
the Borysthenite, and flourished b.c. 287. — 
III. An Athenian comedian, originally an 
actor, who lived about b. c. 450, and is said 
to have been the first who introduced a 
regular plot into his pieces. A few frag- 
ments of his writings still remain. — IV. 
A distinguished grammarian and Stoic, 
born at Mallas in Cilicia, about b.c. 182. 
He was sent as ambassador to Rome by 
Attalus, king of Pergamus, about b.c. 
159; and on his return wrote an account 
of the most striking events of every age. 

Crathis, I., a river of Arcadia, rising 
in a cognominal mountain, and flowing 
through Achaia into the Sinus Corinth- 
iacus, west of iEgira. — II. Crati, a river 
of-Lucania, flowing into the Sinus Taren- 
tinus, between Crotona and Sybaris, and 
said to possess the property of turning 
white the hair of those who bathed in its 
waters. 

CratInus, the son of Callinder, an 
Athenian Comic poet, born b. c. 519. 
Though in his 71st year when his first co- 
medy was performed, he lived to gain three 
victories, in one of which he bore away the 
palm from his youthful competitor Aris- 
tophanes. His love of wine was a favourite 
subject of ridicule with his contemporaries ; 
but, notwithstanding this propensity, he 
attained his 97th year. 

Cratippus, a Peripatetic philosopher of 
Mitylene, and a friend and contemporary 
of Cicero, who had studied under him at 
Ephesus, and considered him the greatest 
philosopher of the age. After the battle 
of Pharsalia, Pompey visited the house of 
Cratippus, where their discourse was chiefly 
turned on providence, which the warrior 
blamed, and the philosopher defended. He 
afterwards went to Athens, where the good 
offices of Cicero procured for him the rights 



184 



CRA 



CRE 



of a Roman citizen from Julius Caesar ; and 
at the request of the Areopagus he re- 
mained there to instruct the Athenian 
youth in philosophy. He wrote on di- 
vination, and the interpretation of dreams. 

Cratylus, a Greek philosopher, disciple 
of Heraclitus, and preceptor of Plato after 
the death of Socrates. 

Crauallidje, a nation which occupied 
a part of the Cirrhaean plain. They plun- 
dered some of the offerings of Delphi, and 
were exterminated by the Amphictyons. 

Cremera, La Valca, a small river of Tus- 
cany, flowing at the foot of the citadel of 
Veii, and famous for the daring but un- 
fortunate enterprise of the gallant Fabii, 
A.u.c. 277. 

Cremna, I., a strong place in the in- 
terior of Pisidia, on the declivity of Tau- 
rus. It was situated on a rocky eminence, 
and was looked upon as impregnable, till 
it was taken by the tetrarch Amyntas. 
The Romans afterwards established a co- 
lony in Cremna. It is supposed by some 
to have been near the modern Kebrinaz. — 
II. A commercial place on the Palus 
Maeotis, near the mouth of the Tanais. 

Cremona, a city of Cisalpine Gaul, 
north-east of Placentia, and a little north 
of the Po. Together with Placentia, it 
was the seat of the first co!ony established 
by the Romans in Cisalpine Gaul, and 
during the whole of the Punic war it re- 
mained faithful to the Roman cause. In 
the civil wars it espoused the cause of 
Brutus, after whose defeat its territory was 
parcelled out by Augustus among his ve- 
terans. But a severer destiny was in store 
for Cremona. In the civil wars that arose 
between Vespasian and Vitellius, it was 
entered by the troops of the former, and 
exposed to all the horrors of fire, the sword, 
and the ungoverned passions of a licentious 
soldiery ; and though the public indigna- 
tion compelled Vespasian to take some 
steps for its restoration, it never regained 
its former prosperity. 

Cremutius Cordus, an historian, who 
wrote an account of the achievements of 
Augustus, and incurred the resentment of 
Tiberius, by calling Cassius the last of the 
Romans. 

Crenides. See Panceus Mons. 

Ckeon, I., king of Corinth, son of Sisy- 
phus, and father of Creusa, or Glauce, the 
wife of Jason (see Creusa and Medea). — 
II, Brother of Jocasta, wife and mother of 
CSdipus. He ascended the throne of 
Thebes, after Eteocles and Polynices had 
fallen in mutual combat ; but having given 
orders that the bodies of the latter and his 
party should be deprived of funeral rites, 



war was made upon him by Adrastus, aided 
by Theseus, king of Athens, who slew him 
in battle (see Eteocles, Antigone, Adras- 
tus, &c). — III. First annual archon at 
Athens, b.c. 684. 

Creophylus, a native of Samos, who 
composed an epic poem commemorative of 
the exploits of Hercules. Lycurgus found 
the Iliad and Odyssey in the possession of 
his descendants. 

Cresphontes, a son of Aristomachus, 
who, with his brothers Temenus and Aris- 
todemus, conquered the Peloponnesus. 

Creston, or Crestone, a city of Thrace, 
the capital, probably, of the district of 
Crestonia, chiefly occupied by a remnant 
of Pelasgi. This district is now called 
Caradagh. 

Creta, one of the largest islands of the 
Mediterranean sea, at the south of all the 
Cyclades ; designated by the several ap- 
pellations of JEria, Doliche, Idasa, and 
Telchinia. Crete is highly interesting 
from its classical associations. Its history 
leads us back to the earliest mythological 
ages. It was the birth-place of Jupiter, 
" king of gods and men." Adventurers 
from Phoenicia and Egypt introduced arts 
and sciences into Crete, while Greece and 
the rest of Europe were involved in the 
darkest barbarism. Hie laws of Minos 
served as a model to those of Lycurgus ; 
so that Crete became, as it were, a channel 
by which the civilisation of the East was 
transferred to Europe. Its wealth, and the 
number (100) and flourishing condition 
of its cities, particularly those of Cnossus, 
Gortyna, Cydonia, &c, are repeatedly re- 
ferred to by Homer. Unluckily, however, 
the most violent animosities usually sub- 
sisted among the principal cities of the 
island, which formed so many independent 
republics ; and Crete was thus prevented 
from playing any conspicuous part in the 
affairs of Greece, or from making that 
figure in history it could hardly have failed 
to make, had it been a single state. It 
was conquered by the Romans, after an 
obstinate resistance, b. c. 67. After being 
possessed for a while by the Byzantine 
emperors, the Saracens took it in the 
ninth century ; but being expelled in 952, 
it was again restored to the eastern empire. 
The chief magistrates of Crete were ten in 
number, called Cosmoi, and elected annu- 
ally. The Gerontes constituted the council 
of the nation, and were selected from those 
who were thought worthy of holding the 
office of cosmoi. The Cretan soldiers were 
held in great estimation as light troops 
and archers, and offered their services for 
hire to such states, whether Greek or 



CRE 



CRCE 



185 



Barbarian, as needed them. But Poly- 
bius charges them repeatedly with the 
grossest immorality, and the most hateful 
vices. The interior of Crete was very moun- 
tainous and woody, and intersected with fer- 
tile valleys. It contains no lakes, and the 
rivers are mostly mountain-torrents, dry 
during the summer season. The modern 
name is Candia. Chalk was produced in 
great abundance here, called Creta terra, 
or simply Creta. 

Crete, I., the wife of Minos. — II. A 
daughter of Deucalion. 

Creusa, L, also called Glauce, daugh- 
ter of Creon, king of Corinth, and wife of 
Jason, after he had repudiated Medea. 
The latter, in revenge, sent her, as a bridal 
present, a diadem and robe, both of which 
had been so prepared that when she put 
them on flames burst forth and consumed 
her. Her father perished in a similar way 
while attempting to extinguish the flames. 
— II. Daughter of Priam, king of Troy, 
and Hecuba, wife of iEneas, and mother 
of Ascanius. When Troy was taken, she 
fled in the night with her husband ; but 
they were separated in the confusion, nor 
could Mneas recover her, though he twice 
braved the flames in the attempt. While 
he was distractedly seeking for her, Creusa 
appeared to him in a vision, and told him 
that she had been adopted by Cybele 
among her attendant nymphs ; and ex- 
horted him to pursue his course to Italy. 

Creusis, or Creusa, a town of Boeotia, 
which Pausanias and Livy term the har- 
bour of Thespia?. The position of Creusa 
corresponds with that of Livadostro. 

Crimisus, or Crimissus, I., a river in 
the western part of Sicily, flowing into the 
Hypsa. The god of the river also called 
Crimisus became father of Acestes by a 
Trojan female, and was represented under 
the shape of a dog on the coins of the 

city of Segesta II., or Crimisa, a river, 

promontory, and town of Bruttium, north 
of Crotona. The modern name of the pro- 
montory is Capo delV Alice, of the river, 
the Fiumenica; and the modern Giro an- 
swers to the ancient city, which was said 
to have been founded by Philoctetes after 
the siege of Troy. 

CrispInus, L, a praetorian, who, origi- 
nally a slave in Egypt, was, after the ac- 
quisition of riches, raised to the honours of 
Roman knighthood by Domitian, and lived 
in a style of unbounded luxury, for which 
he was severely lashed by the Roman 
satirists. — II. A Stoic philosopher in the 
time of Horace, who wrote a silly poem 
explanatory of the tenets of his sect. 
CRissiEUs sinus, arm of the Sinus Co- 



rinthiacus, extending into the country of 
Phocis, with the town of Crissa at its 
head, whence its name. It is now called 
the Gulf of Salona, from the city Salona, 
the ancient Amphissa, chief town of the 
Locri Ozolae. 

Critheis, the reputed mother of Ho- 
mer. See Homerus. 

Critias, one of the thirty tyrants set 
over Athens by the Spartans. He had 
been at one period a disciple of Socrates, 
and applied himself to the study of elo- 
quence and the other polite arts, in which 
he attained considerable proficiency ; but 
he was subsequently banished from Athens, 
whence he retired first to Thessaly, and 
then to Sparta, and only returned to Athens 
to become one of the thirty tyrants ap- 
pointed by Lysander, B. c. 404. After a 
cruel and oppressive use of the power thus 
conferred upon him, he fell in battle against 
Thrasybulus and his followers. 

Crito, I., the intimate friend and dis- 
ciple of Socrates, whom he attended in his 
last moments. — II. An Athenian sculptor 
of the age of Cicero, who formed a statue 
belonging to the class of Caryatides, which 
is still extant, and forms part of the collec- 
tion at the Villa Albani. — III. A Mace- 
donian historian, who wrote an account of 
Pallene, Persia, the foundation of Syra- 
cuse, the Getae, &c. 

Critolaus, I., a native of Phaselis in 
Lycia, who came to Athens to study phi- 
losophy, and became the head of the Peri- 
patetic school after the death of Ariston of 
Ceos. He was associated with Carneades 
and Diogenes in an embassy to Rome, 
b.c. 158, and acquired great reputation 
for his rhetorical powers. He lived more 
than eighty years. — II. A general of the 
Achasans, and one of the originators of the 
war between the Romans and his country- 
men, which ended in the subjugation of 
the latter. 

Criu-metopon, I., Ram's Front, a pro- 
montory of the Tauric Chersonese, and 
the most southern point of that penin- 
sula. — II. Cape Crio, a promontory of 
Crete, forming its south-western extre- 
mity. 

Crobyzi, a people of Lower Msesia, 
whose territory lay between Mt. Hcemus 
and the Danube. 

Crocodilopolis. See Arsinoe V. 

Crocus, a beautiful youth who, being 
unable to obtain the Nymph Smilax, the 
object of his affection, pined away, and 
was changed into the crocus or saffron ; 
while Smilax was metamorphosed into a 
yew tree. 

Crcesus, fifth and last of the Merm- 



186 



CRO 



CTE 



nadse who reigned in Lydia, was son of 
Alyattes, and born about b. c. 591. On 
ascending the throne, b. o. 560, he attacked 
and reduced to subjection the lonians and 
iEolians in Asia, and all the nations west 
of the Halys, which constituted the bound- 
ary of his kingdom. He then applied him- 
self to the arts of peace, and to the patron- 
age of literature and the arts. Poets 
and philosophers were invited to his court, 
and among others Solon, with whom he 
held a conversation on human happiness, 
which subsequently had a powerful influ- 
ence on his fate. The sudden death of 
his son Atys, which took place soon after, 
was a heavy blow to Croesus ; but the 
deep affliction into which he was plunged 
by this loss yielded, after two years of 
mourning, to a feeling of disquiet at the 
rapid advances of Cyrus, and the increas- 
ing greatness of the Persian empire. With 
a view to ward off impending danger, he 
allied himself with the Lacedaemonians, 
and after a doubtful response of the oracle 
as to the success of the enterprise, which, 
however, he interpreted in his favour, he 
marched against the Persians with an army 
of 420,000 men, and 60,000 horse. In 
the first battle victory declared for neither 
side ; but Croesus having retreated to 
Sardis to recruit his forces, Cyrus marched 
against him, besieged his capital, and, 
having taken him prisoner, ordered him to 
be burned alive. The pile was already on 
fire, when Cyrus, hearing the conquered 
monarch three times pronounce the name 
of Solon with lamentable energy, asked 
him the reason of his exclamation ; and 
upon Croesus repeating the conversation 
he once had had with Solon on the instability 
of human happiness, Cyrus was so moved 
at the recital, that he not only spared his 
life, but made him one of his most intimate 
friends, and in his last moments recom- 
mended him to his son Cambyses, as one 
in whom he might place the most un- 
limited confidence. Cambyses, however, 
treated him with great insolence, and is said 
to have even condemned him to death ; but 
though it is believed that he escaped from 
this sentence, his subsequent history is 
unknown. The wealth of Croesus was 
proverbial in the ancient world. 

Cromi, or Cromni, a considerable town 
of Arcadia, in the district Cromitis, sup- 
posed to be identical with the modern 
Crano. 

Crommyon, Kinetta, a small place in 
Corinthia, on the shore of the Saronic 
Gulf, celebrated as the haunt of a wild 
boar destroyed by Theseus. 

Cronia, a festival celebrated at Athens, 



in honour of Cronos or Saturn. The Rho- 
dians observed the same festival, and ge- 
nerally sacrificed to the god a condemned 
malefactor. The Roman Saturnalia are 
generally called Cronia by the Greek 
writers. 

Crophi, a mountain of Egypt, between 
Elephantina and Syene. 

Crotona, or Croto, Cotrone, a power- 
ful city of Italy, in the Bruttiorum Ager, 
on the coast of the Sinus Tarentinus. Cro- 
tona was one of the oldest and most flou- 
rishing Greek colonies, and was famous 
alike for the salubrity of its climate, the fer- 
tility of its territory, and the beauty of its 
women. The residence of Pythagoras and 
his most distinguished followers in this 
city, together with the overthrow of Sy- 
baris, which it accomplished, the exploits 
of Milo and other Crotoniate victors in 
the Olympic games, contributed to raise 
its fame. It had also a celebrated school 
of medicine. Crotona fell successively 
into the possession of the Locrians, Cartha- 
ginians, and Romans, from whom it re- 
ceived a colony a. u. c. 560. About six 
miles from Crotona, on the Lacinium Pro- 
montorium, now Capo delle Colonne, stood 
the famous temple of Juno, thence called 
Diva Lacinia, containing, among other 
master-pieces, the Helen of Zeuxis, and 
held in the highest veneration. Of this 
splendid edifice only one solitary column 
now remains. 

Crotoniat^e, inhabitants of Crotona. 

Crotoniatis, a part of Italy, of which 
Crotona was the capital. 

Crustumerium, or Crustumiuji, a town 
of the Sabines, in the vicinity of the Fidena?, 
founded by a colony from Alba. A set- 
tlement was founded in its territory by 
Romulus ; but the city itself was not finally 
conquered till the reign of the elder Tar- 
quin. The name of Crustumini Colles 
appears to have been given to that ridge 
of which the Mons Sacer formed a part. 
Marcigliano Vecchio is said to occupy its 
site. 

Ctesias, the name of several individuals 
in antiquity, the most distinguished of 
whom was the son of Ctesiochus, of an 
Asclepiad family of Cnidae, a Greek phy- 
sician and historian who flourished about 
the end of the fifth century b. c. He was 
taken prisoner at the battle of Cunaxa, 
b. c. 401 ; and it has been stated, but not 
upon sufficient authority, that he was 
raised from the position of a captive to the 
situation of royal physician. But be this 
as it may, it is certain that he spent seven- 
teen years at the court of the Persian mo- 
narch, and employed his time in writing 



CTE 



CUR 



187 



numerous historical and other works, of 
which, however, only a few fragments have 
reached our time. 

Ctesibius, a native of Ascra, contempo- 
rary of Archimedes, and instructor of 
Hiero, nourished during the reigns of 
Ptolemy II. and III. He is said to have 
been the son of a barber, and for some 
time to have exercised, at Alexandria, the 
calling of his parent. ; but he became 
known as the inventor of several in- 
genious contrivances for raising water, 
&c. The invention of clepsydra, " water- 
clocks," is also ascribed to him. 

Ctesifhon, L, an Athenian, who having 
proposed a decree that Demosthenes should 
be presented with a golden crown for his pro- 
bity and virtue, was accused by iEschines 
of seditious views, brought to trial, and 
successfully defended by Demosthenes in 
the celebrated oration " For the Crown." 
(See Demosthenes ; .ZEschines. ) — II. A 
city of Parthia, on the eastern bank of the 
Tigris, about three miles from Seleucia. 
It was founded by Vardanes, fortified by 
Pacorus, and became the metropolis of the 
Parthian empire. It was taken by the 
Romans a. d. 165, and thirty-three years 
later was destroyed by Severus ; but it 
soon recovered from its disasters, and in 
the time of Julian it was one of the largest 
cities of the East. Its ruins are still vi- 
sible. 

Cula.ro, a town of the Allobroges in 
Gaul, called afterwards Gratianopolis, from 
its being rebuilt by Gratian ; now Grenoble. 

Cuma, Cyma, and Cum^e, L, one of the 
oldest and most powerful cities of J£o\is, in 
Asia Minor, said to have its name derived 
from the Amazon Cyme ; Greek, KvjXT]. 
The inhabitants bore the character of stu- 
pidity. In the reign of Tiberius, Cumaa 
suffered, along with many other cities, 
from the earthquake which desolated 
the province. It was afterwards called 
Phriconis, now Sanderly. — II. A city 
of Campania in Italy, north-west of Nea- 
polis, famous for the oracular Sibyl, 
who dwelt in the Cumasan cave, whence 
she delivered her prophetic lore. Cuma? 
was founded about b. c. 1050 by some 
Greeks of Euboea, under the conduct of 
Hippocles of Cumae and Megasthenes of 
Chalcis, and is supposed to have been the 
most ancient of the Greek colonies, both 
in Italy and Sicily. The fertility of the 
surrounding country, and the excellent 
harbours along the coast, soon rendered it 
one of the most powerful cities of southern 
Italy, and enabled it to form numerous set- 
tlements on the Italian shores, and to send 
out colonies as far as Sicily. It placed it- 



self, along with Campania, under the pro- 
tection of Rome, and soon became a 
municipal city. It was attacked by Han- 
nibal during the second Punic war, but 
successfully defended by Sempronius Grac- 
chus. Augustus elevated it into a Roman 
colony ; but, owing to the superior at- 
tractions of Baia? and Neapolis, it did not 
attain to any considerable prosperity ; and 
in Juvenal's time it was nearly deserted. 
Numerous ruins of amphitheatres and tem- 
ples attest, even in the present day, the 
former magnificence of Cuma?. 

Cunaxa, a place of Babylonia, famous 
for the battle between Artaxerxes and his 
brother Cyrus the Younger, b. c. 401, in 
which the latter lost his life. 

Cuneus, I., Ager, Algarve, a region in 
the southernmost part of Lusitania, be- 
tween the river Anas and the Sacrum 
Promontorium and Atlantic. The appel- 
lation Cuneus is generally thought to have 
been given it by the Romans from its re- 
semblance to "a wedge" {cuneus'). — II. 
or Cuneum Promontorium, a promon- 
tory of the Cuneus Ager, in Lusitania, to 
the west of the mouth of the Anas, now 
Cape Santa Maria, the southernmost point 
of Portugal. 

Cupido, among the Romans the god of 
love, equivalent to, though not perfectly 
identical with, the Eros of the Greeks. 
There were three divinities, or rather three 
forms of the same deity, with this appella- 
tion ; but the one usually meant, when 
spoken of without any qualification, was 
the son of Mercury and Venus. Like the 
rest of the gods, Cupid assumed different 
shapes ; but he is generally represented as 
a winged infant, naked, armed with a bow, 
and quiver full of arrows, with which he 
transfixes the hearts of lovers, inflaming 
them with desire. On gems, and all other 
pieces of antiquity, he is represented as 
amusing himself with some childish di- 
version. Among the ancients he was wor- 
shipped with the same solemnity as his 
mother Venus ; and as his influence was 
extended over the heavens, sea, and earth, 
and even the empire of the dead, his di- 
vinity was universally acknowledged, and 
prayers and sacrifices were daily offered to 
him. Statues of Cupid formed among 
the ancients great objects of vertu. 

Cures, a town of the Sabines, north of 
Eretum, celebrated for having communi- 
cated the name of Quirites to the Romans, 
and for giving birth to Numa Pompilius. 
Its site has not been accurately determined. 

Curetes, an ancient people, who set- 
tled in the island of Crete ; but being pi- 
ratical in their habits, in process of time, 



188 



CUR 



CUR 



occupied many of the islands of the Ar- 
chipelago, and established themselves also 
along the coasts of Acarnania and iEtolia. 
From them the latter country first received 
the name of Curetis. Some deduce their 
name from the town of Curium in iEtolia, 
in the vicinity of Pleuron. Ritter, how- 
ever, finds in the term Curetes the key- 
word of his mythological system, which 
traces every thing to an early worship of 
the sun (Kor) and the other celestial bo- 
dies. The name Curetes is also applied 
to a class of priests in the island of Crete, 
who would seem to be identical with the 
early inhabitants already spoken of. To 
them was confided by Rhea the care of 
Jupiter's infancy, and, to prevent his being 
discovered by his father Saturn, they in- 
vented a species of Pyrrhic dance, and 
drowned the cries of the infant deity by 
the clashing of their arms and cymbals. 
The Roman writers make no distinction 
between the Curetes and the Corybantes, 
priests of Cybele. 

Curetis, L, a name given to Crete, as 
the residence of the Curetes. — -II. The 
earlier name of iEtolia. See Cuhetes. 

Curia, I., a sub-division of the three 
Roman tribes, each tribe containing ten 
curias. This arrangement is ascribed to 
Romulus. In later times the tribes were 
increased to thirty-five, but the original 
number of curiae was preserved. To each 
curia was assigned a temple for the per- 
formance of sacred rites ; he who presided 
over one curia was called Curio ; and he 
who presided over them all was called 
Curio maximus. — II. The name given to 
public edifices among the Romans, gene- 
rally of two sorts, divine and civil. In 
the former were held the assemblies of the 
priests, for the regulation of religious cere- 
monies. The other was appointed for the 
senate, where they assembled for the de- 
spatch of public business. 

Curia lex, De Comitiis, enacted by M. 
Curius Dentatus, the tribune, forbidding 
the convening of the Comitia for the elec- 
tion of plebeian magistrates, without a 
previous permission from the senate. 

Curiatii, a family of Alba, carried to 
Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and entered 
among the patricians. The three Curiatii 
who unsuccessfully engaged the Horatii 
belonged to this family. See Horatii. 

Curio, I., Caius was elected pra?tor 
a.u.c. 632, and is praised by Cicero for 
his oratorical powers. — II. C. Scribonius, 
elected consul with C. Octavius a.u.c. 677; 
and having obtained the province of Ma- 
cedonia, a.u.c. 681, gained a triumph over 
the Dardani. He is enumerated among 



the orators by Cicero. — III. C. Scribo- 
nius, son of the preceding, tribune of the 
people, and intimate friend of Caesar, 
whose life he is said to have saved as he 
returned from the senate house, after the 
debates about Catiline's accomplices. 
Though of profligate habits, he possessed 
great energy of character, and, on the 
breaking out of the civil war, Caesar made 
him governor of Sicily; but having crossed 
over to Africa to engage Juba and the fol- 
lowers of Pompey, he was defeated and 
slain. 

CuRiosoLiTiE, people of Gaul, forming 
part of the Armoric states. Their territory 
lay to the north-east of the Veneti, and 
corresponds to the modern St. Malo. 

Curium, a town of Cyprus, on the 
southern coast, at a small distance from 
which is a cape which bears the name of 
Curias. The town probably answers to 
Episcopia, the promontory Capo delle Gatte. 
Curium was founded by an Argive colo- 
ny, and was one of the nine royal cities of 
Cyprus. 

Curius Dentatus, Manius, a Roman, 
celebrated for his valour, noble sentiments, 
disinterestedness, and simplicity of life. 
He was raised thrice to the consulship, and 
enjoyed twice the honour of a triumph. 
He defeated the Samnites, Sabines, and 
Lucanians, and gained the decisive victory 
over Pyrrhus near Tarentum, e. c. 272, 
which drove the latter from Italy and 
paved the way for the future conquests of 
Rome. Numerous anecdotes are told by 
the ancient writers of his simple and frugal 
manners. 

Curtia, the name of a patrician family 
which migrated with Tatius to Rome. 

Curtius, M., I., a Roman youth, who 
devoted himself to the god Manes for his 
country, about b. c. 360. A wide gap, 
called afterwards Curtius lacus, had sud- 
denly opened in the forum, and the oracle 
had said that it never would close until 
the most precious possession of the Romans 
was thrown into it. On this, Curtius de- 
manded of his countrymen whether they 
possessed any thing so valuable as their 
arms and courage ? They yielded a silent 
assent to the question; on which, arrayed 
in full armour, and mounted on his horse, 
he plunged into the chasm, and the earth 
closed immediately over him. From Livy, 
however, and Festus, it would seem that 
a lake, called Curtius lacus, afterwards 
occupied the spot. — II. Q,. Rufus. See 

Q.UINTUS. 

Curulis Magistratus, the name given 
to a class of magistracies which conferred 
the privilege of using the sella curulis, or 



cus 



CYB 



189 



chair of state. These magistrates were 
the dictator, consuls, praetors, censors, and 
curule sediles. Persons whose ancestors, 
or themselves, had borne any curule office, 
were called nobiles, and had the jus imagi- 
num. Those who were the first of the 
family that had raised themselves to any 
curule office were called homines novi, new 
men, or upstarts. The term is derived 
from Cures, a town of the Sabines, whence 
the custom is said to have been borrowed. 

Cuss^i, or Cossjei, a nation occupying 
the southern declivity of the mountains 
which separated Susiana from Media. 
They were a brave people, and frequently 
compelled the kings of Persia to purchase 
a passage over these mountains for them. 
Together with the Carduchi, they are sup- 
posed to be the ancestors of the modern 
Curds. 

Cusus, Vag, or Gran, a river of Hun- 
gary, falling into the Danube. 

CutilLe, a town of the Sabines, east of 
Reate, famed as an aboriginal city of great 
antiquity, and celebrated for its lake, Pozzo 
Ratignano, and the floating island on its 
surface. This lake was farther distin- 
guished by the appellation of the Umbilicus, 
" Navel," (i. e. centre,) of Italy. 

Cyane, a fountain Nymph of Sicily, of 
whom three different legends are told. 
She is said by Ovid to have attempted in 
vain to stop the car of Pluto when he was 
carrying away Proserpine : but the irritated 
god made a passage for himself through 
the very waters of the fountain over which 
she presided. Claudius represents her as 
an attendant of Proserpine, who wept her- 
self into a fountain, through grief at the 
loss of her mistress ; while Diodorus Si- 
culus describes Cyane as a fountain which 
sprung from the opening through which 
Pluto descended with Proserpine into 
Hades. The modern name of the fountain 
is Pisma. 

CyaneuE, two small rugged islands, at 
the entrance of the Euxine sea; one near 
the European, the other near the Asiatic 
side. It was fabled that they floated about, 
and sometimes united to crush "to pieces 
those vessels which chanced to be passing 
through the straits. Pliny has given the 
origin of this legend, in saying that it arose 
from their appearing, like all other objects, 
to move forwards or from each other, when 
seen from a vessel in motion itself. It 
was decreed by the fates that they should 
become fixed whenever a vessel succeeded 
in passing through them ; a prediction 
which was accomplished by the Argo in 
the celebrated expedition to Colchis. To 
the name Cyaneae is frequently joined 



Symplegades ('Xv/xirXTjydSes), " Dashers," 
in allusion to their supposed collision, when 
vessels attempted to pass through. Homer 
calls them UkayKral, " Wanderers." 

Cyaraxes, or Cyaxares, king of the 
Medes, grandson of Dejoces, son of Phra- 
ortes, and father of Astyages. He first ap- 
pears in history in connection with a body 
of Scythians who had taken refuge in his 
dominions, and to whom he intrusted the 
education of the Median children. These 
Scythians had been in the habit of present- 
ing the monarch with some of the game 
killed in the chase ; but having returned 
several times empty-handed, he gave vent 
to his anger, and punished them severely, 
on which they killed one of the children 
under their care, and, having prepared 
the body like game, served it up to the 
monarch, and fled into Lydia. The king 
of Lydia having refused to give up the 
fugitives, a war ensued which lasted five 
years ; but, in the sixth year, the combat- 
ants were separated by an eclipse of the 
sun, and soon afterwards a reconciliation 
was effected, at the instance of the kings 
of Babylon and Cilicia. Cyaxares then 
turned his arms against the Assyrians, by 
whom his father had been killed, defeated 
them, and laid siege to Nineveh. But he 
was prevented from taking the city by 
an inroad of the Scythians, who overran 
great part of Asia, and kept possession of it 
for twenty-eight years. At last Cyaxares, 
having, by artifice, either destroyed or 
expelled them, recovered his possessions, 
took Nineveh, and reduced the Assyrians 
to subjection. He died in the 40th year of 
his reign. Cyaxares has been sometimes, 
though erroneously, identified with the 
Ahasuerus of Scripture. 

Cybebe, a name of Cybele, used by the 
poets. The form Cybelle is also employed. 

Cybele, a celebrated Grecian and Roman 
goddess, daughter of Ccelus and Terra, 
distinguished by the epithet, " Great mo- 
ther of the gods," and, from some re- 
semblance in attributes, identified by the 
Greeks with Rhea, the wife of Cronos or 
Saturn, and by the Romans with Ops, 
Tellus, Bona Dea, Vesta, &c. She is 
said to have been of Asiatic origin, and 
was considered as a personification of the 
earth and its productive powers. The 
chief seat of her worship was Phrygia, 
whose lofty regions were her chosen haunt, 
and hence, the epithets by which she is 
generally distinguished are derived from 
the Phrygian mountains of Berecynthus, 
Dindymene, and Ida. She was repre- 
sented under the form of a matron crowned 
with towers, seated in a chariot drawn 



190 



CYB 



CYD 



by lions, attended by her favourite Atys. 
(See At vs.) The rites of Cybele were 
brought into Greece at an early period, 
probably before b. c. 500. Her worship 
was introduced into Rome near the close 
of the second Punic war, when a solemn 
embassy was sent to Attalus, king of Per- 
gamus, to request her celebrated image 
which had fallen from heaven, and which 
was preserved at Pessinus. (See Pessinus.) 
The monarch having yielded a ready com- 
pliance, the statue was conveyed to Rome, 
where a stately temple was built to receive 
her, and an annual festival, called Mega- 
lesia, instituted in her honour, in the cele- 
bration of which her priests called Cory- 
bantes, Galli, &c, filled the air with 
dreadful shrieks and howlings, mixed 
with the confused noise of drums, tabrets, 
bucklers, and spears. (See Galli; Cory- 

b ANTES.) 

Ctbistra, a town of Cappadocia, in 
the district of Cataonia, at the foot of Mt. 
Taurus, chiefly celebrated for being the 
head quarters of Cicero during his pro- 
consulship in Cilicia. The precise site of 
Cybistra has not been identified. 

Cyclades, a name applied by the ancient j 
Greeks to the cluster (kvkXos, circle,) \ 
of islands which encircled Delos ; at first j 
only twelve in number, afterwards increased j 
to fifteen. These were Andros, Ceos, Ci- j 
molos, Cythnos, Gyaros, Melos, Myconos, j 
Naxos, Olearos, Paros, Prepesinthos, Seri- j 
phos, Siphnos, Syros, and Tenos. The 
Cyclades were first inhabited by the Phoe- ; 
nicians, Carians, and Leleges, whose pira- 
tical habits rendered them formidable to j 
the cities on the continent, till they were j 
conquered and finally extirpated by Mi- j 
nos. They were subsequently occupied 
f&r a short time by Polycrates, tyrant of 
Samos, and the Persians; but, after the 
battle of Mycale, became dependent on the I 
Athenians. 

Cyclici poet-iE, the name given to a 
succession of minor bards, who followed 
Homer, and wrote merely on the Trojan 
war, and the adventures of the heroes who 
had taken part in it, thus confining them- 
selves as it were to one range (kvk\os) of j 
subjects. From the hackneyed nature of 
these themes, the term cyclicus came at 
length to denote " a poet of little or no 
merit." 

Cyclopes, were, according to Hesiod, 
three sons of Ccelus and Terra, with only 
one eye, in the middle of the forehead, j 
whence their name, (kvkAos, aty). They j 
were called Arges, Brontes, and Steropes, i 
and their occupation was to forge the J 
thunderbolts of Jupiter. These seem ori- 



I ginally to have been quite distinct from 
the Cyclopes of Homer, and of other an- 
cient poets, by whom they are represented 
as forming a distinct and savage race of 
men, and inhabiting the island of Sicily, 
with Polyphemus for their king. (See 
Polyp hem us.) From their vicinity to 
Mt. JEtna, they have been supposed to be 
the workmen of Vulcan, and, in addition 
to thunderbolts of Jupiter, to have fabri- 
cated the shield of Pluto, and the trident • 
of Neptune. They were reckoned among 
the gods, and we find a temple dedicated 
to their service at Corinth, where sacrifices 
were solemnly offered. They are some- 
times said to have been cast into Tartarus 
by their father, and sometimes to have 
been destroyed by Apollo, for having forged 
the thunderbolts of Jupiter, with which 
his son jEsculapius was killed. In regard 
to what are termed Cyclopian walls, sup- 
posed to have been, from their massy 
structure, the works of a giant race, it is 
now well ascertained that they were erect- 
ed by the ancient Pelasgi, and should 
consequently be called Pelasgian. 

Cycn us, I. , a son of Mars, who was in the 
habit of plundering those that brought sa- 
crifices to Apollo ; but having one day en- 
gaged with Hercules, who was passing the 
temple of the god, he was killed by the hero, 
and when his father Mars, who witnessed 
his death, attempted to avenge him, he was 
severely wounded in the thigh. — II. A 
son of Neptune, invulnerable in every part 
of his body. Achilles fought against him, 
but when he saw that his darts were of no 
effect, he threw him on the ground and 
smothered him, when Neptune suddenly 
changed him into a bird of the same name. — 
III. A son of Stheneleus, and king of the 
Ligurians, who was so deeply affected at 
the death of his relation Phaethon, and the 
fate of his sisters, that in the midst of his 
lamentations, he was metamorphosed into 
a swan. 

Cydias, a painter of Cythnos, one of 
the Cyclades, whose picture of the Argo- 
nauts decorated the portico of the temple of 
Neptune at Rome, where it was placed by 
Agrippa. Hortensius, the orator, had pre- 
viously purchased it for 144,000 sesterces. 
He lived about the 1 04th Olympiad. 

Cydippe. See Acontius. 

Cydxus, a river of Cilicia Campestris. 
rising in Mt. Taurus, and falling into the 
sea a little below Tarsus, which stood on 
its banks. Alexander nearly lost his life 
by bathing in the Cydnus when over- 
heated ; and it is famous in history for 
being the scene of the splendid pageant of 
the meeting between Antony and Cleo- 



CYD 



CYN 



191 



patra. It is now called the Tersoos, and 
is at present navigable only by the smallest 
boats. 

Cydonia, or Cydonis. the most ancient 
city in the island of Crete, founded by the 
Cydones of Homer, who are supposed to 
have been indigenous. But Herodotus 
ascribes its origin to a party of Samians, 
who, having been exiled by Polycrates, 
settled in Crete, after they had expelled 
the Zacynthians. Six years afterwards, 
the Samians were conquered by the j£gi- 
netaa and Cretans, and reduced to cap- 
tivity, when the town probably reverted to 
its ancient possessors, the Cydonians. Its 
inhabitants were the best of the Cretan 
archers. From Cydonia the quince-tree 
was first brought into Italy, and thence 
the fruit was called malum Cydonium, " Cy- 
donian apple." The ruins of this ancient 
city are to be seen on the site of Jerami. 

Cydrara, a city of Phrygia, supposed 
to have been identical with Laodicea. 

Cyllarus, a celebrated horse of Castor, 
according to some ; but, according to 
Virgil, of Pollux. It was, in all proba- 
bility, the common property of both. 

Cyllene, L, the port of Elis, capital of 
the district of Elis in the Peloponnesus, 
supposed to be Chiarenza. — II. The 
loftiest and most celebrated mountain of 
Arcadia, on the borders of Achaia. It 
was said to take its name from Cyllen, son 
of Elatus, and was, according to the poets, 
the birthplace of Mercury (thence called 
Cyllenius), to whom a temple was dedi- 
cated on the summit. The modern name 
is Zyria, or Chelmos. 

Cylon, one of the Attic Eupatridte 
or nobles, who married the daughter of 
Theagenes, prince of Megara, and with his 
assistance attempted to gain the supreme 
authority at Athens. He seized the 
Acropolis (Olym. 42.) ; but the vigorous 
measures of the other Eupatrids com- 
pelled him to seek safety in flight ; while 
the unfortunate accomplices of his am- 
bition were put to the sword. 

Cyma, or CymjE. See Cuma. 

Ctmothoe, one of the Nereides, whom 
Virgil represents as assisting the Trojans 
with Triton, after the. storm with which 
iEolus had visited their fleet. 

Cyn^egirus, the brother of JEschylus, 
celebrated for his courage. After the 
battle of Marathon, he pursued the flying 
Persians to their ships, and seized one of 
their vessels with his right hand, which 
was immediately severed by the enemy : 
on this he seized the vessel with his left 
hand ; and when he had lost that also, he 
still kept his hold with his teeth. 



C YN.iETHiE, a town of Arcadia, on the 
Crathis, supposed to have stood near the 
modern Calabryta. It was a member of 
the Acha?an league ; but was betrayed 
into the hands of the JEtolians during 
the social war by some exiles. The in- 
habitants of Cynsetha? made an exception 
to the general love of the Arcadians for 
music ; and to their contempt for this 
science the misfortunes which overtook 
them were generally ascribed. 

Cynesii and Cynet^e, the most western 
inhabitants of Europe, living beyond the 
Celtse. 

Cynici, a sect of philosophers, so called 
from Cynosarges, where Antisthenes, 
founder of the sect, lectured, or from the 
Greek term kvoiv, a dog, in allusion to the 
snarling humour of their master. It was 
formed for the purpose of providing a 
remedy for the moral disorders of luxury, 
ambition, and avarice ; the great aim of its 
adherents being to inculcate a love of 
virtue, and to produce simplicity of man- 
ners. The rigorous discipline of the first 
Cynics degenerated afterwards into the 
most absurd severity. Of this sect the most 
distinguished member was Diogenes. 

Cynisca, a daughter of Archidamus, 
king of Sparta, who was the first of her 
sex that obtained a prize at the Olympic 
games for her skill as a charioteer. 

Cyno, the name of the herdsman's wife 
who nurtured and brought up Cyrus the 
Great, when exposed in infancy. 

Cynoscephalje, eminences in Thessaly, 
south-east of Pharsalus, where the Romans 
under T. Q,. Flamininus gained a victory 
over Philip, king of Macedon, and put an 
end to the first Macedonian war : they are 
described by Plutarch as hills of small 
size, with sharp tops ; and the name pro- 
perly belongs to those tops, from their 
resemblance to the heads of dogs, kvvwv 

Cynoscephali, a nation of India, which 
was said to have the heads of dogs, whence 
the name. It has been generally supposed 
that the Cynoscephali Avere nothing more 
than a species of large ape or baboon. 
Heeren, however, thinks they were the 
Parias, or lowest caste of Hindoos, the 
appellation of Cynoscephali being a figura- 
tive allusion to their degraded state. 

Cvnos, the chief maritime city of the 
Locri Opuntii, said to have been long the 
residence of Deucalion and Pyrrha, the 
latter of whom was buried there. Its 
ruins have been seen near Lebanitis. 

Cynosarges, a place in the suburbs of 
Athens, so called from the mythological 
story of a white dog, kvoov dpybs, which, 



192 



CYN 



CYP 



when Dioraus was sacrificing to Hercules, 
the guardian of the spot, snatched away 
part of the victim. Besides possessing 
several temples in honour of Hercules, 
Alcmene, and others, it was chiefly cele- 
brated for its gymnasium, in which foreign- 
ers or citizens of half-blood used to perform 
their exercises, and for being the place 
where Antisthenes, the founder of the 
Cynic sect, held his lectures. 

Cynossema (dog's tomb), a promontory of 
the Thracian Chersonesus, where Hecuba 
was changed into a dog, and buried. The 
site is said to be now occupied by the 
Turkish fortress of the Dardanelles, called 
Kelidil-Bahar. 

Cynosura, I., a Nymph of Ida in 
Crete, and one of the nurses of Jupiter, 
who changed her into the star which bears 
her name. It is identical with Ursa 
Minor. — II. A promontory of Attica, 
formed by the range of Pentelicus, now 
Cape Cuvala. — III. Another promontory 
of Attica, facing the north-eastern ex- 
tremity of Salamis. 

Cynthus, a mountain of Delos, on 
which Apollo and Diana were born, 
whence the epithets Cynthius and Cynthia 
respectively applied to them. It is now 
Monte Cintio, 

Cynurenses, a small tribe of the Pelo- 
ponnesus, on the shore of the Sinus Argo- 
licus, and bordering on Laconia, Arcadia, 
and Argolis. Frequent disputes arose 
between the Spartans and the Argives for 
the possession of their territory. Hero- 
dotus styles them Ionians. 

Cypariss^, or Cyparissia, I., a town of 
Messenia, near the mouth of the Cyparis- 
sus, in the centre of the Sinus Cyparis- 
sius. The river and gulf are now called 
Arcadia and gulf of Arcadia respectively, 
from the modern town, which occupies 
the site of Cyparissia. — II. A town of 
Laconia, in the vicinity of the Asopus ; 
whose site is now occupied by the fortress of 
Rupino or Rampano, sometimes also called 
Castel Kyparissi. 

Cyparissus, a son of Telephus of Cea, 
who, having killed a favourite stag of 
Apollo, by whom he was beloved, was so 
deeply affected that he pined away, and 
was changed into a cypress-tree. 

Cvprianus, one of the most respected 
fathers of the Church, was born either at 
Carthage or in its vicinity, in the beginning 
of the third century of our era. He taught 
rhetoric in the schools of Carthage for 
some years with great reputation. Having 
been converted to Christianity, a. d. 246, 
he was in the following year ordained a 
presbyter in the Christian Church, and on 



the death of Donatus, bishop of Carthage, 
was unanimously chosen to succeed him. 
He was subjected to great persecution 
under Decius, Valerian, and Gallienus ; 
and was ultimately sentenced to be be- 
headed a. d. 258, — a fate which he bore 
with great firmness and magnanimity. His 
works were translated into English, with 
notes, by Marshall, in 1717. 

Cyprus, a large island in the Mediter- 
ranean sea, south of Cilicia, and west of 
Syria. It was called by several names ; 
Acamis, from one of its promontories ; 
Amathusia, Paphia, Salaminia, from three 
of its ancient cities ; Macaria, or " the 
Fortunate Isle," from its fertility, mild 
climate, and beautiful scenery ; Collinia, 
from its many hills ; Sphecia, from its 
ancient inhabitants, the Spheces ; Cerastia, 
from the number of small capes by which 
its coasts are surrounded ; iErosa, from its 
copper mines. Cyprus was originally co- 
lonised by the Phoenicians ; but fell suc- 
cessively into the hands of the Persians, 
Greeks, Egyptians, and Romans. Of its 
numerous and flourishing cities mentioned 
by Strabo, almost even the ruins have dis- 
appeared. It was famous for its fertility, 
and the variety and excellence of its pro- 
ducts ; but it owed its chief celebrity in 
antiquity to its being the favourite resi- 
dence of Venus, to whose service many of 
its cities and mountains were consecrated, 
but more especially Paphos, Amathus, Cy- 
thera, and Idalia. In modern times Cy- 
prus retains its character for fertility ; the 
chief productions being cotton, timber, 
oranges, and wine. The inhabitants were 
much given to pleasure and dissipation. 

Cypselides, name of three princes as 
descendants of Cypselus. 

Cypselus, I., a native of Corinth, and 
son of Eetion, who, having expelled the 
Bacchiada?, seized on the sovereign power, 
about b. c. 659, and reigned thirty years. 
He was succeeded by his son Periander. 
Previously to the birth of Cypselus, the 
oracle having declared that he was des- 
tined to overthrow the Bacchiada?, the 
latter took measures for his destruction 
soon after he was born ; but his mother 
saved his life by concealing him in a 
coffer (Kvxl/ekr)), whence he received his 
name. — II. The eldest son of Periander, 
king of Corinth, and grandson of the pre- 
ceding, incapacitated by mental imbecility 
from succeeding to the crown. — III. A 
king of Arcadia, who gave his daughter in 
marriage to Cresphontes the Heracleid, 
and thus saved his dominions from the 
sway of the Dorians when they invaded 
the Peloponnesus. 



CYR 



CYR 



193 



Cyrenaica, a country of Africa, east 
of the Syrtis Minor, and west of Marma- 
rica, corresponding to the modern Barca, 
and considered by the Greeks a sort of ter- 
restrial paradise. One of its chief natural 
productions was the herb called silphium, 
which formed a great article of trade, and 
was so valuable to the country that it was 
always engraved on the medals of Cyrene. 
It was called Pentapolis, from its having 
five towns of note in it, Barce, Berenice, 
Cyrene, Ptolemais, Tauchira. All of these 
exist at the present day under the form of 
towns or villages, and their names are 
scarcely changed from what we may sup- 
pose the pronunciation to have been among 
the Greeks, Barca, Bernic, Kurin, Tolla- 
mata, and Taukera. See Barca ; Cyrene. 

Cyrenaici, the philosophers of a school 
founded at Cyrene, a Greek colony on the 
northern coast of Africa, by Aristippus, a 
disciple of Socrates. They held, with the 
Epicureans, that pleasure was the only 
good, and pain the only evil, and were not 
at such pains as the latter to prove that 
the first could only be the result of vir- 
tuous conduct. Perhaps the best expo- 
sition of their principles is to be gathered 
from the Epistles and Satires of Horace, 
who was himself a zealous disciple of this 
school. 

Cyrene, L, a daughter of the Peneus, of 
whom Apollo became so enamoured, that 
he carried her to that part of Africa called 
Cyrenaica, where she brought forth Aris- 
tasus. — II. A celebrated city of Libya, 
capital of Cyrenaica, founded by a colony of 
Greeks from Thera under Battus, b.c. 631. 
In the neighbourhood was a copious 
spring of excellent water, which the Do- 
rian colonists are said to have called the 
fountain of Apollo, and named Cyra 
(Kvprj) ; and from this arose, most pro- 
bably, the name Cyrene. The city of Cy- 
rene rose rapidly into importance ; but in 
the third generation of its founders a sepa- 
ration took place between the king and his 
brother, Arcesilaus III., who founded the 
city Barca ; and the rivalries and jealousies 
that ensued terminated eventually in the 
destruction of the one and the loss of the 
independence of the other. About B.C. 
450, the government of Cyrene appears to 
have been changed into a republic. It 
subsequently fell under the power of the 
Carthaginians, Alexander the Great, and 
the Ptolemies, in whose family it remained 
till it was bequeathed to the Romans, 
b. c. 97, by Apion, an illegitimate son of 
Ptolemy Physcon. Cyrene was cele- 
brated for the zeal with which she culti- 
vated the polite literature and arts of the 



Greeks ; and could boast of having given 
birth to many distinguished persons, 
among whom were Aristippus, the founder 
of the Cyrenaic sect, Callimachus, and 
Carneades. The numerous ruins of tombs 
and amphitheatres found in the vicinity of 
its site attest the splendour of the ancient 
city. 

Cyrillus, I., one of the early fathers 
of the Church, born at Jerusalem a. d. 
315. He succeeded Maximus in the epis- 
copate of his native city, a. d. 350 ; and 
his installation was marked by a celes- 
tial phenomenon, in commemoration of 
which the Greek Church has a festival 
on the seventh of May. His hostility 
to the Arians involved him in nume- 
rous controversies, and led repeatedly to 
his deposition. But he was ultimately 
recalled by Gratian, and, after eight years 
of tranquillity, died a. d. 386, in his se- 
venty-first year, and the thirty-first of his 
episcopate. — II. Bishop of Alexandria, in 
the fifth century, succeeded his uncle Theo- 
philus in that dignity a. d. 41 2 ; and after 
distinguishing himself by zeal bordering 
upon cruelty against heretics, died at Alex- 
andria a. d. 444. 

Cyrnos, the Greek name of Corsica. 
See Corsica. 

Cyropolis, also called Cyreschata, a 
large city of Asia, on the banks of the 
Iaxartes, founded by Cyrus. Alexander 
destroyed it and built in its stead a city, 
called by Roman geographers Alexandria 
Ultima, and by the Greeks 'AAe^a^Speia 
'Ecr^aT77. The modern Cogend is supposed 
to answer to its site. Another city of the 
name of Cyropolis is said to have been 
founded by Cyrus in Media. 

Cyrrhestica, a district of Syria, north- 
east of Antiochia, so called from its capital 
Cyrrhus. 

Cyrrhus, I., a city of Macedonia, in 
the vicinity of Pella. — II. A city of Syria, 
the capital of a district named after it Cyr- 
rhestica. It derived its name from the 
Macedonian Cyrrhus, and is now called 
Corns. 

Cyrus, I., founder of the Persian mo- 
narchy, was the son of Cambyses and 
Mandane, daughter of Astyages, king of 
Media. The whole of his early history is 
involved in great difficulty, owing to the 
discrepant statements of the ancient his- 
torians respecting him ; but the story as 
told by Herodotus has been noticed under 
Astyages. Having grown up to boyhood 
as the alleged son of the shepherd who 
had preserved his life, his daring spirit led 
to an opportunity of his being introduced 
to Astyages, who discovered his real ori- 

K 



194 



CYR 



CYZ 



gin ; and shortly afterwards the circum- 
stances of his exposure having been com- 
municated to Cyrus by Harpagus, who 
had been the instrument of Astyages, the 
former roused the Persians to revolt from 
the Medes, and succeeded in dethroning 
his grandfather, b. c. 560. From this 
victory the empire of Media became tri- 
butary to the Persians. Cyrus made war 
against Croesus, king of Lydia, whom he 
conquered, b. c. 548, and subdued the 
eastern parts of Asia, invaded the kingdom 
of Assyria, and took the city of Babylon, 
by drying the channels of the Euphrates, 
and marching his troops through the bed 
of the river, while the people were cele- 
brating a grand festival. He afterwards 
marched against Tomyris, queen of the 
Massagetas, a Scythian nation, and was de- 
feated in a bloody battle, b. c. 530. The 
victorious queen, who had lost her son in 
a previous encounter, was so incensed 
against Cyrus, that she cut off his head 
and threw it into a vessel filled with hu- 
man blood, exclaiming, " Take then thy 
fill." Authorities, however, differ as much 
about the death of Cyrus as about his birth. 
Thus Xenophon states that he died a na- 
tural death ; but it must be remembered 
that the " Cyropasdia" was not intended 
to contain the exact history of Cyrus, but 
to delineate the model of a perfect prince. 
— II. The Younger Cyrus, younger son of 
Darius Nothus, and brother of Artaxerxes. 
Artaxerxes having succeeded to the throne 
at the death of Nothus, Cyrus attempted 
to assassinate him, but his plot was disco- 
vered, and he would have been punished 
with death, had not his mother Parysatis 
saved him by her tears and entreaties. The 
sentence was commuted into banishment to 
the province of which Cyrus had been ap- 
pointed satrap by his father. But the dis- 
grace and ignominy to which he had been 
exposed excited in Cyrus a desire of re- 
venge ; and in furtherance of this end, he 
took the field with an army of 100,000 
Barbarians, and 13,000 Greeks. Having 
come up with Artaxerxes at Cunaxa, an 
engagement took place in which victory 
would have declared for Cyrus, had he 
not been carried away by his desire of en- 
gaging his brother in single combat, which 
led to his being killed by a common sol- 
dier ; and the Barbarians, panic struck at 
his death, deserted the Greeks, who then 
made the memorable retreat called the re- 
treat of the ten thousand. (See Arta- 
xerxes.) — III. Kur, a large river of Asia, 
which rises in Iberia and, after receiving 
the Araxes in the great plain of Shirvan, 
falls into the Caspian, 



Cyta, a town of Colchis, famous for 
poisonous herbs, and for being the birth- 
place of Medea, hence surnamed Cytceis. 

Cythera, Ceriffo, an island on the coast 
of Laconia in Peloponnesus ; particularly 
sacred to Venus, thence surnamed Cythe- 
rcea, and who rose, as some suppose, from 
the sea, near its coasts. Steph. B. says 
that the island derived its name from a 
Phoenician named Cytherus, who settled 
in it. Before his arrival it was called 
Porphyris or Porphyrissa, from the quan- 
tity of purple fish found on its shores. It 
is now one of the Ionian islands. 

Cythnos, also called Ophiussa and Dry- 
opis, now Thermia, an island between 
Ceos and Seriphus, in the Mare Myrtoum, 
colonised by the Dryopes. Its cheese was 
highly esteemed, and it was celebrated for 
being the birthplace of the painter Cy- 
adias. 

Cytineum, the most considerable of the 
four cities of Doris in Greece, situated 
west of Parnassus, and on the borders of 
the Locri Ozola?. 

Cytorum, Quitros or Kitros, an ancient 
city of Paphlagonia, supposed to have 
been founded by a colony of Milesians. 
In its vicinity was a mountain, named 
Cytorus, Kotru, which produced a beauti- 
fully veined species of box-tree. 

Cyzicus, I., an ancient city of Asia Minor, 
built on a cognominal island in the Pro- 
pontis, near the coast of Mysia, which was 
joined to the main land by two bridges. 
It was founded by a colony of Milesians 
about eight centuries, b. c. ; and in pro- 
cess of time became a flourishing commer- 
cial city, and celebrated not more for its 
beauty and opulence than for the wisdom 
of its political institutions and the firmness 
of its government. It became early al- 
lied to Rome ; and on account of the skill 
and bravery the inhabitants displayed in 
sustaining an arduous siege against Mi- 
thridatts, king of Pontus, by both sea and 
land, the Romans granted to them their 
independence, and greatly enlarged their 
territory. Under the emperors, Cyzicus 
continued to prosper greatly, and in the 
time of the Byzantine sway it was the 
metropolis of the Hellespontine province. 
It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 
a. d. 943. Cyzicus gave birth to several 
historians, philosophers, and other writers. 
The coins of this place, called Kv^itcqvol 
<TTa.T7jpes, were so beautiful as to be deemed 
a miracle of art. Proserpina was wor- 
shipped as the chief deity of the place, and 
the inhabitants had a legend among them, 
that their city was given by Jupiter to this 
goddess, as a portion of her dowry. The 



D A IE 



DiED 



195 



ruins of Cyzicus now pass by the name of 
Atraki. The island of Cyzicus has now 
become a peninsula. — II. A king of the 
Dolionians, a people who were fabled to 
have been the first inhabitants of the district 
of Cyzicus in Mysia. He was killed in a 
night encounter by the Argonauts, whom 
he had mistaken for enemies. 



D 

T>xm, Dahje, or Dai, a roving nomadic 
people, on the borders of the Caspian sea. 
Their country corresponds to the modern 
Dahistan. 

Dacia, a large country of Europe, cor- 
responding nearly to Wallachia, Transyl- 
vania, Moldavia, and that part of Hungary 
which lies east of the Tabiscus, Teiss, 
one of the northern branches of the Da- 
nube. Trajan added this country to the 
Roman empire ; but Aurelian by a treaty 
abandoned it to the Goths, on which occa- 
sion he named the province south of the 
Danube, to which his forces were with- 
drawn, Dacia Aureliani. (See Mcesia. ) 
That part bordering on the Danube, Ri- 
pensis, and that sequestered in the interior 
country under the name of Mediterranea, 
were afterwards distinguished in Dacia. 
This last was probably the same with what 
was more anciently termed Dardania. The 
Daci of the Romans are the same Avith the 
Getae of the Greeks : and Davus (from 
Dacus) and Geta are the usual names of 
slaves in Greek and Roman plays. The 
Daci were successively subdued by the 
Sarmatae, the Goths, and the Huns ; and 
lastly, by the Saxons, who were driven 
from their own country by the arms of 
Charlemagne. 

Dacicus, a surname of Trajan, from his 
conquest of Dacia. 

Dactyxi. See Id^i. 

Djedala, a mountain and city of Caria, 
near the confines of Lycia, so called from 
Daedalus, who, being stung by a snake in 
crossing the small river Ninus, died and was 
buried here. — II. A name given to Circe, 
from her being cunning and ingeniously skilful 
(ScuSaAos), like Daedalus. — III. A festival 
celebrated in Bceotia in honour of Hera. 
Its origin is as follows : — Juno, after a 
quarrel with Jupiter, had retired to Eubcea; 
the god, anxious for her return, consulted 
Cithaeron, king of Plataea, who advised 
him to dress a statue in woman's apparel, 
carry it in a chariot, and publicly report 
that it was Plataea, daughter of Asopus, 
whom he was going to marry. The advice 
was followed ; Juno, informed of her hus- 



band's future marriage, repaired in haste 
to meet the chariot, and was easily united 
to him, when she discovered the artful 
measures used to effect a reconciliation. 
In remembrance of this reconciliation the 
Plateeans instituted the festival of the Dse- 
dala, the name by which statues and other 
works of art were designated. This fes- 
tival was of two kinds ; one celebrated by 
the Plataeans alone every seventh year was 
called the Lesser Dcedala ; the other, called 
the Great Daedala, was celebrated by all 
the Boeotians every sixty years, to comme- 
morate the exile of the Plataeans during that 
period from their country. The lesser 
Dcedala were observed by the Plataeans in 
a large gro-ve, where they exposed pieces 
of boiled flesh, and carefully observed 
whither the crows which came to prey on 
them directed their flight. All the trees 
on which any of these birds alighted were 
cut down, and worked into statues or 
dcedala. During the greater Dcedala, a 
woman in the habit of a bridesmaid ac- 
companied a statue (made in the manner 
described above) dressed in female gar- 
ments on the banks of the Eurotas. 

D^dalus, in fabulous history, the great 
grandson of Erechtheus, king of Athens, 
is celebrated as the most ancient statuary, 
architect, and mechanist of Greece. To 
him is ascribed the invention of the saw, 
the axe, the plummet, and many other 
tools and instruments ; and to such a de- 
gree did he excel in sculpture, that his 
statues are fabled to have been endowed 
with life. For the alleged murder of his 
nephew he was obliged to quit Athens, 
whence he repaired to Crete, then under the 
sway of Minos, by whom he was favour- 
ably received. Here he constructed the 
famous labyrinth, on the model of the 
still more famous one of Egypt ; but, 
having assisted the wife of Minos in an in- 
trigue with Taurus (see Minotaur), he 
was, by a strange fatality, confined to this 
very labyrinth along with his son Icarus. 
By means, however, of wings, which he 
formed of linen or feathers and wax, Dae- 
dalus and his son contrived to make their 
escape. The former pursued his aerial 
journey, and arrived safely in Sicily ; but 
the latter, having soared too near the sun, 
in consequence of which the wax that fast- 
ened the wing was melted, dropped into 
and was drowned in the sea (thence called 
the Icarian). In Sicily Daedalus continued 
to prosecute his ingenious labours, and lived 
long enough to enrich that island with vari- 
ous works of art. From the plastic powers 
of Daedalus, the ancient poets used to regard 
his name as synonymous with ingenious. 
K 2 



196 



DJEM 



DAM 



Daemon, a term of uncertain meaning, 
said to be derived from the Greek Sarf/Licov, 
intelligent, but generally applied to a spiri- 
tual agent of good or evil, favourable or un- 
friendly to mankind. The Greeks applied 
this term originally to the deified spirits of 
departed heroes, whom they supposed to 
have some influence in promoting the good 
of mankind, and therefore considered as 
objects of adoration. By later writers they 
were divided into many classes, some minis- 
ters of punishment and revenge ; some free- 
ing from evils already befallen, and some 
warding off their approach ; and they were 
sometimes distinguished by the general 
names Cacoda?mon and Agathodaemon 
(from kukos, bad, and ayaSos, good), accord- 
ing as their influence was evil or beneficent. 
Analogous to the daemons of the Greeks 
were the genii of the Romans, though 
there were peculiar and characteristic fea- 
tures about the latter which show them to 
have been of different origin. Among 
the Romans, every man, house, or city had 
an attendant genius. The genius of every 
man was mortal like himself, accompanied 
him into life, and conducted him in all 
its vicissitudes. Hence the worship of 
the genius was closely connected with all 
domestic ceremonies and feelings ; and 
death was typified by the figure of a ge- 
nius with a lamp reversed. 

Dagon (Heb. dag, a Jisli), one of the 
principal divinities of the ancient Phoeni- 
cians and Syrians, and more especially of 
the Philistines. The origin, attributes, 
and even the sex of this divinity, are all 
wrapt in the most profound obscurity ; 
but the sacred writers concur in assigning 
to him such a degree of authority as must 
place him on a level with the Jupiter of 
the Greeks and Romans. The reverence 
in which he was held by the Philistines, 
and the remarkable circumstance attend- 
ing his downfal, will be found fully de- 
tailed in Judges xvi. and 1 Samuel v. ; but 
we cannot refrain from transferring to our 
pages Milton's graphic sketch of the lead- 
ing features of his history : — 

" Next came one 

Who mourned in earnest when the captive ark 
Maimed his brute image, head and hands lopt off 
In his own temple, on the grunsel edge, 
When he fell flat and shamed his worshippers : 
Dagon his name, sea monster, upward man, 
And downward fish ; yet had his temple high 
Reared in Azotus, dreaded through the coast 
Of Palestine, in Gath and Ascalon, 
And Accaron and Gaza's frontier bounds." 

The Samson Agonistes, as is well known, 
exhibits the great importance of this di- 
vinity ; and the 

" solemn feasts, 

With sacrifices., triumph, pomp, and games," 



celebrated to his honour by the Phi- 
listines. 

Dalmatia, part of Illyricum, between 
the rivers Titius and Drinus, and the ranges 
of the Bibian mountains and Seardus. 
The Dalmates, a valiant but barbarous 
race of Thracian origin, gave name to this 
province. The Romans destroyed their 
capital Dalminium b. c. 1 1 9 ; but the whole 
country was not subjugated till the time 
of Augustus. Dalmatia gave birth to 
several of the Roman emperors. It con- 
tained many splendid cities and structures ; 
and after the new division of the Roman 
provinces by Constantine, it became one 
of the most important parts of the em- 
pire. 

Dalmatics, nephew of Constantine the 
Great, from whom he received the title of 
Csesar. He commanded against the Goths 
in Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece ; and 
afterwards fell in a tumult of his own sol- 
diers a. d. 338. 

Dalminium, capital of Dalmatia, taken 
and destroyed by the Roman general 
Figulus, b. c. 119. 

Damascena, a name given to the region 
around Syria in Damascus. 

Damascius, a philosopher of Damascus, 
who commenced his studies at Alexandria 
under Ammoricus, and completed them at 
Athens under Marinus and Isidorus, whose 
successor he is said to have become. He 
was the last professor of New Platonism 
at Athens. Some fragments of his works 
still remain. 

Damascus, a rich and ancient city of 
Damascene in Syria, beautifully situated in 
a valley, still called Gouteh Demesk, or 
" the Orchard of Damascus," and watered 
by a river called by the Greeks Bardine 
or Chrysorrhoas, " the golden Stream," 
now Baradi. Damascus is mentioned -in 
Gen. xiv. 15., as existing 1913 years b. c, 
and was then, as subsequently, probably 
the capital of an independent Syrian king- 
dom. It was subdued by David (2 Sam. 
viii. 6.) but recovered its independence, 
if not earlier, at least during the reign of 
Solomon (1 Kings xi. 24. ). It then be- 
came the capital of the kingdom of Ben- 
nahad and his successors, and remained so 
till its subjugation by Tigleth Pileser 
(b. c. 742), a little before the downfal of 
its rival Samaria. From this time it fol- 
lowed the fortunes of the rest of Syria, 
falling successively into the power of the 
Persians, Greeks, and Romans. As a 
Roman city it attained great eminence, 
and figures very conspicuously in the 
history of the Apostle Paul. Damascus 
is remarkable as being the only city of the 



DAM 



DAN 



197 



East which has not dwindled from its 
former greatness. Its population seems to 
be as great now as ever (150,000) ; while 
Nineveh, Babylon, and Palmyra have 
wholly disappeared, and Antioch, Aleppo, 
and others are only shadows of their an- 
cient glory. 

Damasippus, I., pra?tor during the con- 
sulship of Papirius Carbo and the younger 
Marius, a. u. c. 671. As a follower of the 
Marian party, he indulged in cruel excesses 
against the opposite faction, and those sus- 
pected of favouring it ; and was put to 
death by Sylla. — II. A dealer in antiques 
and curiosities, who, after losing his all 
in unfortunate speculations, assumed the 
name and habit of a Stoic philosopher. 

Damnii, an ancient nation of Scotland, 
whose country answered to Clydesdale 
Renfrew, and Stirling. 

Damnojui, or Dumnonii, people of 
Britain, whose country answered to De- 
vonshire and Cornwall. 

Damo, daughter of Pythagoras, who 
devoted her life to perpetual celibacy, and 
induced others to follow her example. 
Pythagoras at his death entrusted her with 
all the secrets of his philosophy, and gave 
her the unlimited care of his compositions, 
under the promise that she would never 
part with them. 

Damocles, a flatterer of Dionysius the 
elder of Sicily. Having admired the tyrant's 
wealth, and pronounced him the happiest 
man on earth, Dionysius asked him to un- 
dertake the charge of royalty, and be con- 
vinced of a sovereign's happiness. Da- 
mocles ascended the throne, and, while he 
gazed in admiration on the wealth and 
splendour which surrounded him, he per- 
ceived a sword hanging over his head by 
a horse-hair ; which so terrified him, that 
he begged Dionysius to remove him from 
a situation which exposed his life to such 
fears and dangers. 

Damon, I., a poet and musician of 
Athens, intimate with Pericles, and distin- 
guished for his knowledge of government 
and love of discipline. He was banished for 
his intrigues about b. c. 430. — II. A Py- 
thagorean philosopher, intimate with Phin- 
tias or Pythias. The latter, being condemn- 
ed to death by Dionysius, obtained leave to 
go and settle his domestic affairs, on promise 
of returning at a stated hour to the place 
of execution, Damon pledging himself 
to undergo the punishment to be inflicted 
on him, should he not. return in time. 
The day appointed for the return of 
Phintias arrived ; but he did not make his 
appearance, and Damon was in the act of 
being led to execution, when the absent 



friend, who had been unavoidably detained, 
presented himself to the eyes of the ad- 
miring crowd; and Dionysius was so 
struck with the fidelity of those two friends, 
that he remitted the punishment, and en- 
treated them to permit him to share their 
friendship and enjoy their confidence. 

Damo fhil a, a poetess of Lesbos, wife of 
Pamphillus and friend of Sappho. 

Damoxenus, a boxer of Syracuse, ex- 
cluded from the Nemean games for killing 
his opponent Creugas in a pugilistic en- 
counter. Having agreed to receive from 
his opponent each a blow without flinch- 
ing, Damoxenus struck Creugas on the 
side, in such a way that his nails penetrated 
his bowels and killed him. 

Dana, a large town of Cappadocia, in 
the vicinity of the Cilician Gates. 

Danae, daughter of Acrisius, king of 
Argos, who confined her in a brazen tower, 
the oracle having foretold that his daugh- 
ter's son would put him to death. But 
Jupiter, enamoured of the maiden, poured 
through the roof of her prison, under the 
form of a golden shower ; and Danae in 
consequence became the mother of a son, 
whom she called Perseus. On the dis- 
covery of the birth, Acrisius enclosed his 
daughter and her child in a coffer and 
threw them into the sea ; but the wind 
drove the bark to the coasts of the island 
of Seriphus, where it was picked up by 
some fishermen, and carried to Polydectes, 
king of the place, whose brother Dictys 
educated the child, and tenderly treated 
the mother. Polydectes fell in love with 
her; but, afraid of her son, sent him to 
conquer the Gorgon, pretending that he 
wished Medusa's head to adorn the nuptials 
he was going to celebrate with Hippo- 
damia, daughter of GEnomaus. When 
Perseus had victoriously finished his ex- 
pedition, he retired to Argos with Danae, 
to the house of Acrisius, whom he inad- 
vertently killed. Some suppose that it 
was Prcetus, brother of Acrisius, who in- 
troduced himself to Danae in the brazen 
tower ; and, instead of a golden shower, it 
was maintained that the keepers of Danae 
were bribed by the gold of her seducer. 
Virgil mentions that Danae came to Italy 
with some fugitives of Argos, and founded 
a city called Ardea. 

Danai, a name given to the people of 
Argos, and promiscuously to all the Greeks, 
from Danaus their king. 

Danaides,50 daughters of Danaus, king 
of Argos. (See Danaus.) When their 
uncle iEgyptus came from iEgypt with 
his 50 sons, they were promised in mar- 
riage to their cousins ; but before the cele- 
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bration of their nuptials, Danaus, informed 
by an oracle that he was to be killed by 
one of his sons-in-law, made his daughters 
wlemnly promise that they would murder 
their husbands. They were provided with 
daggers by their father, and all, except 
Hypermnestra, stained their hands with 
the blood of their cousins the first night 
of their nuptials ; and each presented him 
with the head of her husband. Hyperm- 
nestra was summoned to appear before 
her father and answer for her disobedience ; 
but the unanimous voice of the people de- 
clared her innocent : in consequence of her 
honourable acquittal, she dedicated a temple 
to the Goddess of Persuasion. The sisters 
were purified of this murder by Mercury 
and Minerva, by order of Jupiter ; but 
according to the more received opinion, 
condemned in hell to fill with water a ves- 
sel full of holes, so that the water ran out 
as soon as poured into it, and therefore 
their labour was infinite, and punishment 
eternal. 

Danaperis, Dnieper, another name for 
the Borysthenes. 

Danastus, another name of the Tyras 
or Dniester. 

Danaus, a son of Belus and Anchinoe : 
succeeded his father on the throne of Libya, 
his brother JEgyptus having received A- 
rabia as his inheritance. A difference hav- 
ing arisen between the brothers, Danaus 
set sail with his fifty daughters in quest of 
a settlement ; and arrived safe on the coast 
of Peloponnesus, where he was hospitably 
received by Gelanor, king of Argos, who 
voluntarily resigned to him his crown. In 
Gelanor, the race of the Inachidae was ex- 
tinguished, and the Belides began to reign 
at Argos in Danaus. The harrowing deed 
which he enjoined on his daughters has 
been noticed elsewhere. Danaus at first 
persecuted Lynceus, who alone had been 
spared from the butchery, with unremitted 
fury, but afterwards became reconciled to 
him and made him his successor. He died 
about b. c. 1425, after a reign of fifty years, 
and after death was honoured with a splen- 
did monument. According to iEschylus, 
Danaus left iEgypt, not to be present at 
the marriage of his daughters with the 
sons of his brother, a connexion deemed 
unlawful and impious. 

Dandari and Dandaridje, a Scythian 
or Sarmatian people of Asia, near Mt. 
Caucasus. 

Danubius, the largest river of Europe, 
except the Rha, Volga ; called in German 
Donau, by us Danube. It rises on the 
mountains of the Black Forest, and, after 
a course of 1 700 miles, in which it receives 



SO navigable rivers, the largest of which 
is the ffinus, Inn, and 1 20 smaller streams, 
falls into the Black Sea. It is of irregular 
width ; its waters are extremely muddy ; 
and its mouth choked up with multifa- 
rious deposits. The ancients gave the name 
of Ister to the eastern part of this river 
after its junction with the Savus, Saave ; 
but they were imperfectly acquainted with 
the whole course of the stream. It formed 
for a long period the northern boundary of 
the Roman empire in this quarter. This 
river was an object of worship to the Scy- 
thians : the river god is represented on a 
medal of Trajan, and on his column at 
Rome. 

Daphne, now Safnas, a city of iEgypt, 
near Pelusium, on the route to Memphis. 

Daphne, I., daughter of the Peneus, or 
Ladon, by the goddess Terra. She was 
beloved by Apollo, but, resisting all his 
attempts to excite in her a reciprocal at- 
tachment, she at. last betook herself to 
flight. On being pursued by the god, she 
invoked the earth to swallow her up, when 
she was immediately changed into a laurel 
tree, which was ever after sacred to Apollo, 
and regarded as the symbol of fame and 
glory. — II. Famous grove near Antioch, 
consecrated to voluptuousness and luxury, 
with a temple sacred to Apollo and Diana ; 
now Beit-el- Mar, " House of Water." 

Daphnephoria, a festival in honour of 
ApoFo, celebrated every ninth year by the 
Boeotians ; from &a.(pvr\(p6pos, " laurel- 
bearer. " 

Daphnis, a shepherd of Sicily, son of 
Mercury by a Sicilian nymph. He was 
educated by the Nymphs, taught by Pan 
to sing and play on the pipe, and inspired 
by the Muses with the love of poetry. 
He became attached to a Naiad, but, 
proving unfaithful to her, lost his sight, 
agreeably to her prediction. He is re- 
presented by Theocritus as pining away 
in death, and refusing to be comforted : 
but Ovid says he was changed into a rock. 
From the celebrity of this shepherd, the 
name has been appropriated to express a 
person fond of rural employments. He is 
supposed to have been the inventor of pas- 
toral poetry. 

Daphnus, a town of the Locri Opuntii, 
on the sea-coast, at the mouth of a river 
of the same name, into which the body of 
Hesiod was thrown after his murder. 

Daradus, a river of Africa, rising on 
Mt. Mandras, and falling into the Atlantic ; 
supposed to be the Senegal. 

Dardania, I., a district of Troas, so 
called from its inhabitants the Dardani, 
who derived their name from Dardanus, 



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who built here the city Dardania. — II. 
Country of Illyria in Dalmatia, the capital 
of which bore the same name. 

Dardanides, name given to iEneas, as 
descended from Dardanus ; in the plural, 
applied to the Trojan women. 

Dardanis, or Dardanium, Cape Ber- 
bieri, or Kepos Bnrun, a promontory of 
Troas, called so from the small town of 
Dardanus, near Abydos. Two castles built 
on each side of the strait by the emperor 
Mahomet IV. gave the name of Darda- 
nelles to the place. 

Dardanus, I., son of Jupiter and Elec- 
tra, daughter of Atlas. His brother Jasion 
having been struck dead by lightning, for 
his presumption in attempting to gain the 
love of Demeter, Dardanus left Samothrace 
in sorrow, and passed over to the opposite 
continent, which was ruled by Teucer, son 
of the Scamander and an Idaean nymph. 
Being hospitably received by the king, who 
gave him his daughter Batieia in marriage, 
he founded the city Dardanus, on the skirts 
of Ida, and on the death of Teucer called 
the whole country Dardania, and became 
the founder of the kingdom of Troy. The 
epoch of the arrival of Dardanus on the 
coast of Asia is too remote to be ascer- 
tained with precision. Homer reckons five 
generations between Dardanus and Priam : 
Viz. Dardanus, father of Erichthonius, father 
of Tros, father of Ilus, father of Laome- 
don, father of Priam. 

Dares, L, a Trojan priest mentioned by 
Homer, and supposed to have written the 
history of the Trojan war ; a work, how- 
ever, which is now satisfactorily proved to 
have emanated from an Englishman, named 
Joseph Iscanus (of Exeter), who lived in 
the twelfth century. — II. One of the 
companions of iEneas, descended from 
Amycus, celebrated as a pugilist, and 
killed by Turnus in Italy. 

Daricus, a Persian gold coin, (so called 
from Darius, the name of several Persian 
sovereigns), having upon the obverse an 
archer crowned, and kneeling upon one 
knee, and on the left a quadrata incusa, 
or deep cleft. This coin had an extensive 
circulation, not only in the Persian Empire, 
but also in Greece. Its value, if computed 
from the drachma, i s 16s. 3d. of our money ; 
but, if reckoned in comparison with our 
gold money, is equal to 1Z. Is. lO^d. The 
darics in the British Museum weigh a 
little more than 128 grains respectively. 
There were also some silver coins of this 
name, but improperly so called. 

Darius, I., a noble satrap of Persia, son 
of Hystaspes, and thence called Hystaspis, 
who conspired with six other noblemen 



to dethrone Smerdis, who had usurped 
the crown of Persia after the death of 
Cambyses. Having accomplished their 
purpose, the conspirators agreed that he 
whose horse neighed first, after the rising 
of the sun, should be appointed king. If 
we believe Herodotus, who gives two ac- 
counts of the matter, Darius obtained the 
crown through an artful contrivance of his 
groom ; but it is more probable that, in 
consequence of his relationship to the royal 
family, his election to the throne was the 
unanimous act of the other conspirators. 
Darius was twenty-nine years old when he 
ascended the throne, and soon distinguished 
himself by his military accomplishments ; 
died b. c. 485, after a reign of thirty-six 
years, in his sixty-fifth year, entitled to the 
praise of wisdom, justice, and humanity, 
compared with the generality of eastern 
despots. — II. The second king of Persia 
of that name, also called Ochus or Nothus, 
because the illegitimate son of Artaxerxes. 
He married Parysatis, his sister, a cruel 
and ambitious woman, by whom he had Ar- 
taxerxes Mnemon, Amestris,and Cyrus the 
Younger; and carried on many wars with 
success, under the conduct of his generals 
and his son Cyrus. He died b. c. 404, 
after a reign of nineteen years, and was 
succeeded by his son Artaxerxes. — III. 
The third of that name, the last king of 
Persia, surnamed Codomanus, son of Ar- 
sanes and Sysigambis ; descended from 
Darius Nothus. The eunuch Bagoas 
raised him to the throne, in hopes that he 
would be subservient to his will, but pre- 
pared to poison him, when he saw him 
aim at independence. But Darius, having 
discovered his perfidy, made him drink the 
poison prepared against his life. The reign 
of Darius was early disturbed by the inva- 
sion of Alexander ; but he did not take 
the command of his army in person until 
after the battle of Granicus had been fought, 
and Alexander had advanced into Cilicia. 
He then proceeded to meet him with a 
force ill adapted to contend with such an 
enemy ; and, at the battle of Issus, he fled 
with such precipitation that he left behind 
him his bow, shield, and mantle. His 
camp was plundered, and his mother, wife, 
and children fell into the hands of the 
conqueror. In vain, after this, did Darius 
supplicate for an accommodation ; Alex- 
ander went on in the career of victory, and, 
in a second pitched battle, at Gaugamela, 
commonly called the battle of Arbela, 
Darius again fought, and again disgrace- 
fully fled. He now lost Babylon, Susa, 
Persepolis, and all his treasures, and sought 
for personal safety at Ecbatana ; but his 
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misfortunes had alienated the minds of his 
subjects, and he was seized by Bessus, 
one of the satraps of Alexander, governor 
of Bactriana. Alexander closely pursued 
the usurper and his captive beyond the 
Caspian straits. On reaching the camp of 
Bessus, at the close of the pursuit, Darius 
was found extended on his chariot, pierced 
with many darts. Alexander covered the 
dead body with his own mantle, honoured 
it with a magnificent funeral, continued 
his kindness to the unfortunate family of 
Darius, and even married his daughter. 
Darius has been accused of imprudence, 
for the imperious and arrogant manner in 
which he wrote his letters to Alexander in 
the midst of his misfortunes. In him the 
empire of Persia was extinguished, 228 
years after it had been first founded by 
Cyrus the Great. — IV. Son of Artaxerxes, 
declared successor to the throne as the 
eldest prince ; conspired against his father's 
life, and was capitally punished. 

Dascylium, Diaskillo, a city of Bithynia, 
in the district Olympessa, named by Mela 
and Pliny Dascylos. 

Datames, a satrap of Cappadocia in the 
reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon. His suc- 
cess excited the envy of the courtiers, who 
determined to ruin him ; but, apprised of 
their intentions, Datames resolved to quit 
the king's service, and make himself inde- 
pendent. He was treacherously killed by 
Mithridates, who had invited him, under 
pretence of entering into the most invio- 
lable connexion and friendship, b. c. 362. 

Datis, a general of Darius L, sent with 
an army of 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse 
against the Greeks, in conjunction with 
Artaphernes. He took Eretria, but. was 
defeated at the battle of Marathon by 
Miltiades. 

Datos, a city which originally belonged 
to Thrace, but was afterwards transferred 
to Macedonia, when the empire was ex- 
tended on that side. It was proverbially 
rich, on account of its mines of gold. 

Daulis, a city of Phocis, celebrated 
as the scene of the tragic story of Philo- 
mela and Procne. Strabo asserts that the 
word Daulos, " thick forest," had been ap- 
plied to this district from its woody cha- 
racter. Daulis was the more ancient name ; 
afterwards changedto Daulia and Daulium. 
The Daulians surpassed in strength and 
stature all the other Phocians. Its site re- 
tains the name of Daulia. 

Daunia, a country of Italy, forming 
part of Apulia. The Daunii appear to 
have been one of the earliest Italian tribes 
with whom the Greeks became acquainted. | 
Its name is supposed to be derived from j 



Daunus, father-in-law of Diomedes, who 
settled here after the Trojan war; but more 
ancient accounts ascribe it to Daunus, an 
Illyrian chief. 

Daunus, son of Pilumnus and Danae, 
and father of Turnus. He came from II- 
lyricum into Apulia, where he reigned 
over part of the country, from him called 
Daunia. 

Davus, the name of a slave in the works 
of the Roman comedians. See Dacia. 

Decapolis, a country of Palestine, which 
originally formed part of the kingdom of 
Israel, but was afterwards reckoned to 
Syria. The name is derived from the ten 
cities (Se'/ca noAets) contained in it having 
formed a confederation to oppose the As- 
monaan princes, by whom the Jewish na- 
tion was governed until the time of Herod. 
After his death they passed into the hands 
of the Romans. Their names were Scy- 
thopolis, Hippos, Gadara, Dion, Pella, 
Gerasa, Philadelphia, Canatha, Capitolias, 
and Gadora. Pliny, instead of the two 
last, gives Damascus and Raphana. 

Decebalus, a warlike king of the Daci, 
who successfully warred against Domitian, 
but being afterwards conquered by Trajan, 
successor of Nerva, he killed himself, a. r>. 
105, and his head was brought to Rome. 

Decelea, a borough and fortress of 
Attica, about 1 25 stadia from Athens. 
Hawkins gives the modern name of the 
spot on which its ruins stand as XwpionAei- 
Si'a. 

Decemviri-, ten magistrates of absolute 
authority among the Romans. The privi- 
leges of the patricians having raised dissatis- 
faction among the plebeians, who, though 
freed from the power of the Tarquins, saw 
that the administration of justice depended 
on the will and caprice of their superiors, 
without any written statute to direct them, 
three ambassadors were sent to Athens 
and all the other Grecian states, to collect 
the laws of Solon, and other celebrated 
legislators. On their return, it was agreed 
that ten new magistrates, Decemviri, should 
be elected from the senate, to put the pro- 
ject into execution. They were invested 
with the badges of the consul, in the en- 
joyment of which they succeeded by turns. 
Under the decemviri the laws were pub- 
licly approved of as constitutional, and ra- 
tified by the priests and augurs in the most 
solemn manner. These laws, ten in num- 
ber, were engraved on tables of brass ; two 
were afterwards added, and they were called 
the laws of the twelve tables, leges duodecim 
tabularum, and leges decemvirales. In the 
third year after their creation the decem- 
virs became odious on account of their 



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tyranny. The attempt of Ap. Claudius to 
ravish Virginia was followed by the total 
abolition of his office. The people were so 
exasperated against them, that they de- 
manded them from the senate to burn 
them alive. Consuls were again appointed, 
and tranquillity re-established in the state. 
Besides these extraordinary commissions, 
there was a body of decemviri chosen for 
judicial purposes to preside over and sum- 
mon the centumviri, and to judge certain 
causes by themselves. There were like- 
wise decemviri appointed from time to 
time to divide lands among the military. 

Decextius. See Magnentius. 

Decius, I., Mus, a Roman consul, who, 
after many exploits, devoted himself to 
the Manes for the safety of his country, in 
a battle against the Latins, b. c. 338. His 
son, Decius, imitated his example, and de- 
voted himself in his fourth consulship, 
when fighting against the Gauls and Sam- 
nites, b. c. 296. His grandson also did the 
same in the war against Pyrrhus and the 
Tarentines, b. c. 280. —II. (C. M. Q. Tra- 
janus,) a native of Pannonia, who was sent 
by the emperor Philip to appease a sedi- 
tion in Moesia ; but who, instead of obeying, 
assumed the imperial purple. The em- 
peror marched against him, and a battle 
was fought near Verona, which terminated 
successfully for Decius, Philip being slain 
in the conflict, a. d. 249. From this period 
is dated the commencement of the reign 
of Decius, which lasted about two years, 
during which he proved a cruel persecutor 
of the Christians. He signalised himself 
against the Persians, but was slain in an 
action with the Goths, who had invaded 
his dominions, a. d. 251. 

Decumates agri, lands in Germany, 
along the Danube, which paid the tenth 
part of their value to the Romans. 

Decurio, a subaltern officer in the 
Roman armies, who commanded a decuria, 
which consisted of ten men, and was the 
third part of a turma, or the thirtieth part 
of a legio, of horse, composed of 300 men. 
Each decurio had an optio or deputy under 
him. Decurio was also the name of a 
senator in the provinces or colonies of the 
Roman empire. 

Dejanira, daughter of GZneus, king of 
iEtolia, who promised to give her in mar- 
riage to the strongest of his competitors. 
Hercules obtained the prize. As she was 
once travelling with her husband, they 
were stopped by the Evenus, and the Cen- 
taur Nessus offering to convey her safe to 
the opposite shore, the hero consented. 
But no sooner had Nessus gained the 
bank than he attempted to carry her away 



in the sight of her husband, who aimed a 
poisoned arrow at the seducer, and mor- 
tally wounded him. Nessus, wishing to 
avenge his death on his murderer, gave 
Dejanira his tunic, covered with blood, 
poisoned and infected by the arrow, observ- 
ing that it had the power of securing a 
husband's love. She accepted the present, 
and afterwards, in a fit of jealousy, sent 
him the Centaur's tunic, which instantly 
caused his death, upon which she destroyed 
herself. 

Deidamia, the daughter of Lycomedes, 
king of Scyros, who became the mother of 
Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, by Achilles, 
when he was disguised at her father's court 
in women's clothes, under the name of 
Pyrrha. 

Deioces, son of Phraortes, by whose 
means the Medes delivered themselves 
from the yoke of the Assyrians. He pre- 
sided as judge among his countrymen; and 
his great popularity and love of equity 
raised him to the throne, b. c. 700. He 
was succeeded by his son Phraortes, after 
a reign of fifty-three years. 

DEiop£iA,the fairest of the nymphs that 
attended on Juno. The goddess promised 
her in marriage to the god iEolus, if he 
would destroy the fleet of jEneas, whicli 
was sailing for Italy. 

Deiotarus, tetrach of Galatia ; after- 
wards appointed to the throne of Armenia 
Minor by Pompey ; and confirmed by the 
senate. In the civil wars, having sided 
with Pompey, he was deprived of his Ar- 
menian possessions by Ca?sar, but allowed 
to retain the title of king, and the other 
favours conferred on him by the Romans. 
Shortly after, he was accused of having 
made an attempt on the life of Cassar 
when the latter was in Asia, and was suc- 
cessfully defended by Cicero in the presence 
of the emperor. After Caesar's death, he 
recovered by bribery his forfeited terri- 
tories. He intended also to join Brutus, 
but the general to whom he committed 
his troops went over to Antony, which 
saved him his kingdom. 

Deiphobe, a Sibyl of Curase, daughter of 
Glaucus, and the guide of iEneas to the 
infernal regions. See Sibylla. 

Deiphohus, son of Priam and Hecuba. 
He married Helen after the death of his 
brother Paris ; but his wife betrayed him 
by introducing into his chamber her first 
husband, Menelaus, who killed him. 

Delia, I., festivals and games celebrated 
every five years at Delos, in honour of 
Apollo. The origin of this quinquennial 
festival is involved in obscurity ; but it is 
known that the Athenians took part in* 
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them at an early period. These festivals 
must not be confounded with the annual 
festival, also in honour of Apollo, which 
was instituted by Theseus, who before 
going to Crete made a vow to Apollo, that 
if he and his companions returned safe, he 
would send an annual delegation to the 
natal island of the god. This festival lasted 
thirty days, during which Athens was 
purified, and no criminal could be put to 
death till the return of the vessel. — II. A 
surname of Diana from her having been 
born in Delos : Apollo, for the same rea- 
son, being called Delius. 

Delium, a maritime city of Boeotia, 
north of the mouth of the Asopus, cele- 
brated for its temple of Apollo, and for a 
battle which took place in its vicinity be- 
tween the Athenians and Boeotians, in 
which the former were totally defeated 
Its ruins have been discovered near the 
village of Dramisi. 

Delminium. See Dalminium. 

Delos, a small but celebrated island of 
the iEgean, situated nearly in the centre 
of the Cyclades. It had a variety of names, 
such as, Asteria, Pelasgia, Chlamydias, 
Lagia, Pyrpilis, Scythias, Mydia, and Or- 
tygia. According to ancient tradition, it 
was originally a floating island, but became 
fixed by the command of Jupiter, in order 
to form an asylum for Latona, who was 
on the eve of giving birth to Apollo and 
Diana. It was originally peopled by the 
Pelasgi, b. c. 1500. Four hundred years 
later the Cretans established in it the wor- 
ship of Apollo, which in the course of 
time attracted a vast concourse of strangers 
from all parts of Greece and Asia ; and 
the religious festivals (see Delia) being 
accompanied by a kind of fair, it soon be- 
came a place of great commercial import- 
ance. On the destruction of Corinth by 
the Romans, many of its principal mer- 
chants sought an asylum in Delos, which 
acquired a large portion of the traffic that 
had been driven from the former. Such 
was its character for sanctity that it com- 
manded the respect even of barbarians ; 
and the Persian admirals who ravaged the 
other islands would riot even touch at De- 
los, but sent to offer a most sumptuous 
sacrifice to the Delian Apollo. After the 
Persian war, the Athenians made it the 
treasury of the Greeks, and ordered that 
all meetings relative to the confederacy 
should be held there. It was finally de- 
vastated by the generals of Mithridates, 
and remained ever after in a state of deso- 
lation. It was situated in the centre of a 
plain, watered by the small river Inachus, 
and the lake Trochreides. The island is 



now called Delo or SdiUe, and is so covered 
with ruins and rubbish, as to admit of little 
or no cultivation. 

Delphi, more anciently called Pytho, 
the capital of Phocis, and the seat of the 
most celebrated oracle of antiquity, was 
built on the southern declivity of Mt. 
Parnassus, in the form of an amphitheatre. 
The origin of the oracle at Delphi is wrapt 
in obscurity. By some authors it is 
ascribed to chance ; but many incline to 
believe that it owed its origin to certain 
exhalations, which, issuing from a cavern 
on which it was situated, threw all who ap- 
proached it into convulsions, and during 
their continuance communicated the power 
of predicting the future. Be this as it may, 
these exhalations were soon invested with 
a sacred character ; and as their reputation 
extended, the town of Delphi insensibly 
arose around the cavity from which they 
issued. The responses were delivered by 
a priestess called Pythia, who sat upon a 
tripod placed over the mouth of the ca- 
vern, and, after having inhaled the vapour, 
by which she was thrown into violent con- 
vulsions, gave utterance to the wished-for 
predictions, either in verse or prose, which 
were then interpreted by the priests. Ori- 
ginally the consultation of the oracle was a 
matter of great simplicity ; but in process 
of time, when the accuracy of the predic- 
tions became known, a series of temples, 
each more magnificent than its predecessor, 
was erected on the spot. Immense multi- 
tudes of priests and domestics were con- 
nected with the oracle ; and to such a 
height of celebrity did it attain, that it 
wholly eclipsed all the other oracles of 
Greece. The position of the oracle was 
the most favourable that could well be 
imagined. Delphi formed at once the seat 
of the Amphictyonic council and the centre 
of Greece, and, as was universally believed, 
of the earth. Hence, in every case of 
emergency, if a new form of government 
was to be instituted, war to be proclaimed, 
peace concluded, or laws enacted, it came 
to be consulted, not only by the Greeks, 
but even by the neighbouring nations ; 
and thus the temple was enriched by an 
incredible number of the most valuable pre- 
sents and the most splendid monuments, 
and the town of Delphi rose to be one of 
the most wealthy and important of the 
cities of Greece. As it was well known 
that the riches of all Greece were concen- 
trated in the temple at Delphi, this sacred 
repository became frequently an object of 
plunder. It was successively plundered 
by the Phocians under Philomelus, by the 
Gauls under Brennus, by Sylla ; and Nero 



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is said to have deprived it of no fewer than 
500 bronze statues. But in spite of all the 
rapacity to which it was exposed, the oracle 
continued to utter its responses long after 
the seat of empire had been transferred 
from Greece to Rome ; and it was only 
when Constantine the Great removed the 
sacred tripods to adorn the hippodrome of 
his new city, that the responses of the oracle 
ceased to be delivered. The village Castro 
occupies the site of Delphi. 

Delphus, a son of Apollo and Celseno, 
said to have been the founder of Delphi. 

Delta, the name given to the lower 
portion of Egypt, comprised between the 
eastern or western branches of the Nile, 
from its resemblance to the form of the 
Greek letter A. 

Demades, an Athenian orator and de- 
magogue, contemporary with Demosthenes. 
Though of obscure origin, having been, it 
is said, a sailor in early life, his eloquence 
and energy of character obtained him great 
influence at Athens. He fought against 
Philip at Chasronea, and, being taken pri- 
soner, was kindly treated by the victor, 
and from this period he became the tool 
of Macedon. He advocated the interests 
of Philip, flattered Alexander, sided with 
Antipater, and, in a word, is described by 
Plutarch as the man who, of all the dema- 
gogues of the day, contributed most to the 
ruin of his country. He was ultimately 
put to death, along with Cassander, in re- 
venge for the opprobrious terms which he 
had used respecting Antipater in an inter- 
cepted letter which had fallen into the 
hands of the former, b. c. 318. He is said 
to have been a man of great wit, but of 
greater profligacy. A fragment of one of 
his speeches is extant. 

Demaratus, I., the son and successor of 
Ariston on the throne of Sparta, b. c. 526. 
Being deposed through the intrigues of 
his colleague, Cleomenes, on the ground 
of illegitimacy, he found an asylum with 
king Darius, and subsequently with 
Xerxes. — II. A rich Corinthian citizen, 
of the family of the Bacchiadae, who, when 
Cypselus usurped the sovereignty of Co- 
rinth, migrated to Italy and settled at Tar- 
quinii, b. c. 658. He is said to have in- 
troduced alphabetic writing and a know- 
ledge of the fine arts into Etruria. His 
son Lucumo afterwards migrated to Rome, 
and became monarch, under the name of 
Tarquinius Priscus. — III. A native of 
Corinth, between whom and Philip of 
Macedon there existed a tie of hospitality. 
After Alexander's conquest of Persia, De- 
maratus, then advanced in years, made a 
voyage to the East, in order to see the 



conqueror ; but died soon after, and was 
honoured with a magnificent funeral. 

Demeter (Gr. drj or yrj,the earth, and 
fj.7]T7]p, mother), the Grecian goddess whose 
attributes corresponded with those of the 
Roman Ceres, and with whom she is 
always identified. See Ceres. 

Demetria, an annual festival instituted, 
b. c. 307, by the Athenians in honour of 
Demetrius Poliorcetes. It was held in the 
month Munychon, which was afterwards 
named Demetrion, and consisted of solemn 
processions, games, and sacrifices; and to 
gratify the vanity of Demetrius, who liked 
to hear himself compared to Dionysius, 
its name was changed into Dionysia. 

Demetrias, a city of Thessaly, on the 
Sinus Pelasgicus or Pagasasus, at the 
mouth of the Onchestus. It owed its 
name and origin to Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
b. c. 290 ; and the advantages of its si- 
tuation attracted such a number of people 
that the neighbouring towns were thinned 
of inhabitants, and it became the principal 
city in the country. After the battle of 
Cynoscephalas, it became the chief town of 
the Magnesian republic, and the seat of 
government, and after the battle of Pydna 
it fell under the power of the Romans. 

Demetrius, I., surnamed Poliorcetes, 
" besieger of cities," the son of Antigonus 
and Stratonice, was born b.c. 337, and one of 
the successors of Alexander the Great. At 
the age of twenty-two, being sent by his 
father against Ptolemy, who invaded Sy- 
ria, he was defeated near Gaza, but soon 
repaired his loss by a victory over one of 
the generals of the enemy. With a fleet 
of 250 ships he then sailed for Athens, in 
the view of restoring the popular form of 
government, which had been overthrown 
by Cassander ; and, notwithstanding the 
popularity of the governor, Demetrius 
Phalereus, he accomplished his object, 
and received from the Athenians the 
most fulsome and even impious adulation. 
In the following year he gained a great 
naval victory over Ptolemy, and captured 
Cyprus, on which his father assumed the 
title of king. He subsequently attacked 
Rhodes, and though in pressing the siege 
he displayed his mechanical genius in 
the construction of formidable machines, 
at the lapse of a twelvemonth he was com- 
pelled to abandon the enterprise, and en- 
tered into an alliance with the inhabitants. 
After this expedition he drove the Mace- 
donians from Greece, restored the whole 
country to freedom, and in return for his 
services was proclaimed chief of the 
Greeks, as Alexander and Philip had been, 
in the Grecian States assembled in the 
k 6 



204 



DEM 



DEM 



Peloponnesus. But his great success at 
length raised the jealousy of the other suc- 
cessors of Alexander, Seleucus, Cassander, 
and Lysimachus, who united to destroy 
Anti-gonus and his son. Their hostile 
armies having met at Ipsus, b. c. 301, An- 
tigonus was killed in the battle; and De- 
metrius retired to Athens, but was refused 
admittance into the city. Demetrius, how- 
ever, having partially retrieved his affairs 
by the marriage of his daughter Stratonice 
to his enemy Seleucus, forced Athens to 
surrender, and pardoned the inhabitants. 
He was making rapid progress in the re- 
duction of the rest of Greece, when he was 
called off by the information that Ptolemy 
and Lysimachus had stripped him of his 
remaining possessions in Asia. Next year, 
however, upon the death of Cassander, em- 
bracing the opportunity of interfering in 
the affairs of Macedon, which was afforded 
by the dissensions of his sons, Antipater and 
Alexander, he cut off the latter, and took 
possession of the crown, which he held for 
seven years. Being now ambitious to 
regain his father's dominions, he made 
great preparations for invading Asia ; but 
his popularity had long been on the wane, 
and he was now deserted by his troops, 
who proclaimed Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. 
He then fled into Greece, brought to- 
gether a large body of adherents, and, 
leaving such places as continued faithful 
to him to his son Antigonus, embarked for 
Asia with about 1 1 ,000 men. Being un- 
successful, however, in all his attempts, he 
was at last obliged to seek an asylum with 
his son-in-law Seleucus, who detained him 
in honourable captivity till his death, which 
took place three years afterwards b. c. 286, 
in consequence of his debauchery and in- 
temperance. His remains were given to 
Antigonus, honoured with a splendid fu- 
neral pomp at Corinth, and thence con- 
veyed to Demetrias. His posterity re- 
mained in possession of the Macedonian 
throne till the age of Perses, when the 
kingdom fell into the hands of the Romans. 
— II. Son of Antigonus Gonatas, and 
grandson of Demetrius Poliorcetes, suc- 
ceeded his father b. c. 243. Before his 
accession to the throne he distinguished 
himself by driving Alexander of Epirus 
out of Macedonia, and also stripping him 
of his own dominions. As sovereign, he 
gained victories over the iEtolians and the 
Achasans under their able general Aratus, 
and, after a reign of ten years, was suc- 
ceeded by his son Philip III. — III. Son 
of Philip VI., king of Macedon, delivered 
as an hostage to the Romans, from whom, 
on his liberation, he obtained great con- 



cessions for his father. When he returned 
to Macedonia, he was falsely accused by 
his brother Perses of aspiring to the crown, 
and his father too credulously consented to 
his death, b. c. 170. — IV. Soter, king of 
Syria, and son of Seleucus Philopater, 
passed his early life as a hostage to the 
Romans. After the death of Seleucus, 
Antiochus Epiphanes, the deceased mo- 
narch's brother, usurped the kingdom of 
Syria, and was succeeded by his son An- 
tiochus Eupator. Meanwhile Demetrius 
effected his escape from Rome, by the aid 
of Polybius the historian, and, finding a 
party in Syria willing to support his 
claims, he attacked and defeated Eupator, 
and was acknowledged king by the Ro- 
mans, b. c. 1 62. Having freed the Baby- 
lonians from the tyranny of Timarchus 
and Heraclides, he was honoured with the 
surname of Soter ; but the iron rule he 
bore over his own subjects excited their 
hatred to such a degree that they trans- 
ferred their allegiance to Alexander Ba- 
la, son of Antiochus Epiphanes, in an 
engagement with whom Demetrius was 
cut off in the twelfth year of his reign. — 
V. Son of the preceding, surnamed Ni- 
cator or Conqueror, with the assistance of 
Ptolemy, king of Egypt, whose daughter 
Cleopatra he had married, expelled Alex- 
ander Bala, and possessed himself of his 
father's throne, b. c. 1 46. But giving him- 
self up to luxury and voluptuousness, he 
suffered his kingdom to be governed by 
his favourites, and was at last expelled 
by his subjects, and taken prisoner by the 
Parthians, upon whom he had ventured 
to make war. While in captivity he mar- 
ried a daughter of Mithridates; and his 
former wife Cleopatra gave her hand to 
Antiochus Sidetis, who then mounted the 
throne of Syria ; but his death, which took 
place soon afterwards, cleared the way for 
the return of Demetrius who, however, 
had not profited by adversity, for he was 
once more expelled by Alexander Zebina, 
and, having taken refuge in Tyre, was slain 
by the orders of his first wife, Cleopatra, 

b. c. 126 VI. Surnamed Eucasrus, or 

the Fortunate, was the fourth son of An- 
tiochus Grypus. After expelling Antio- 
chus Eusebes from Syria, b. c. 93, he 
shared his kingdom with his brother Phi- 
lip ; but the latter soon afterwards in- 
vaded his dominions, and Demetrius was 
defeated, but found an honourable capti- 
vity in Parthia, where he died. — VII. Pe- 
pagomenus, a medical writer, who lived 
during the reign of Michael VIII. 
(Palaeologus.) Two treatises ascribed 
to him are still extant. — VIII. Pha- 



DEM 



DEM 



205 



lereus (three syllables, $a\7ipevs,) a native 
of Phalerum in Attica, and the last of 
the more distinguished orators of Greece, 
was the son of Phanostratus, who had been 
slave to Timotheus and Conon. He first took 
part in public affairs b. c. 320 ; and was 
condemned to death with Phocion, b. c. 317, 
for espousing the Macedonian cause, but 
saved himself by flight, and was soon af- 
terwards named governor of Athens by 
Cassander. This office he held for ten 
years, during which he so gained the af- 
fections of his countrymen, that they are 
said to have raised to him 360 statues. 
But when the Athenians were offered their 
liberty by Demetrius Poliorcetes, with 
their usual fickleness, they drove him igno- 
miniously from Athens, b. c. 306, and would 
even have deprived him of life, had he not 
effected his escape, first to Thebes and af- 
terwards to Alexandria, where he found an 
hospitable reception from Ptolemy Soter. 
The latter having consulted him as to the 
choice of a successor, Demetrius was in 
favour of the monarch's eldest son, but the 
king eventually decided for the son whom 
he had by a second wife, Berenice; and 
when Ptolemy II., therefore, came to the 
throne, he revenged himself on the unlucky 
counsellor, by exiling him to Upper Egypt, 
where he put an end to his own life by the 
bite of an asp, b. c. 284. A list of works 
which he wrote has been given by Dio- 
genes ; but of these only a treatise on rhe- 
toric has heen preserved. — IX. A Cynic 
philosopher of Corinth, who came to Rome 
during the reign of Nero, where he ob- 
tained the highest reputation as a teacher 
of philosophy. The freedom with which 
he censured public manners led to his ban- 
ishment ; but after the death of Nero he 
returned to Rome, where he was again 
banished by Vespasian, and, though once 
more recalled under Titus, he was finally 
removed under Domitian, and Avithdrew to 
Puteoli. 

Democedes, a celebrated physician of 
Crotona, son of Calliphon, and intimate 
with Polycrates. He was carried as a 
prisoner from Samos to Darius, king of 
Persia, where he acquired great riches, 
and much reputation by two cures upon 
the king and his spouse. But his love of 
his native country remained undiminished, 
and he at length found means of escaping 
to Crotona, where he finally settled, and 
married the daughter of Milo. 

Democritcjs, a celebrated philosopher, 
born at Abdera, a city of Thrace, about 
from b. c. 460 to b. c. 494. His love 
for philosophy was first excited by the 
instructions of the magi whom Xerxes 



[ had left at Abdera, in return for the hos- 
pitable treatment his army had received 
| from the father of Democritus. After his 
father's death he travelled over Europe, 
Asia, and Africa, in pursuit of wisdom. 
It is doubtful whether he ever visited 
Athens ; but it is certain that he must at 
some period of his life have been a disciple 
of Leucippus. On his return to Abdera 
he delivered lectures to his countrymen, 
and so entirely gained their confidence, 
that he was called to the head of af- 
fairs ; which, however, he soon afterwards 
abandoned, in order to devote himself, 
without interruption, to philosophical pur- 
suits. It is difficult to separate the alle- 
gorical from the real in the life of Demo- 
critus. Thus, when it is stated that to 
withdraw himself entirely from the con- 
templation of external objects, he put out 
his eyes, nothing more is implied than that . 
such was the intensity of his application 
to study, that he neglected every thing 
else. His immeasurable superiority to his 
contemporaries in every branch of know- 
ledge, whether speculative or practical, 
induced them to regard him as superhu- 
man, and this is probably the best clue to 
the numerous absurd stories that are told 
respecting him. He was the founder of 
the Atomic theory, which was nearly a 
century later renewed by Epicurus; and 
as he was said to laugh at the follies and 
vanities of mankind, he has been generally 
characterised as the " laughing philoso- 
pher." He died b. c. 361. Of his numerous 
writings recorded by Diogenes Laertius, 
only a few fragments remain, and these are 
by many not considered authentic. 

Demodocus, I., a musician at the court 
of Alcinous, who sang in the presence of 
Ulysses. — II. A Trojan chief, who came 
with iEneas into Italy, where he was killed. 

Demoleon, I. , a Centaur killed by The- 
seus at the nuptials of Pirithous. — II. A 
son of Antenor, killed by Achilles. 

Dehonax, a Cynic philosopher of Cy- 
prus, contemporary with Lucian, who 
wrote his life, and described him as one of 
the best philosophers he ever knew. He 
lived chiefly at Athens, where he died at 
the age of ninety, and was honoured with 
a public funeral. 

Demophoon. See Phyllis. 

Demosthenes, I., the most celebrated 
orator of antiquity, was born at Paeania, 
a borough of Attica, b. c. 385, in the first 
year of the 99th Olymp. His father, 
whom he lost in his eighth year, was a 
rich manufacturer of arms ; but his guar- 
dians wasted a large portion of his property. 
Meanwhile Demosthenes attended the 



206 



DEM 



DEM 



lectures of Plato, Eubulides, and Isaeus ; 
and on attaining his majority he com- 
menced a prosecution against his guardians 
for the recovery of his property, and gained 
his cause, without, however, recovering 
more than a moiety of his demands, b. c. 
S64. His success emboldened the youthful 
orator to speak in public ; but the physical 
disadvantages under which he laboured, 
his feeble voice, indistinct articulation, and 
ungraceful gestures exposed him to general 
ridicule. Downcast, but not overwhelmed, 
Demosthenes now put in operation the 
most untiring diligence and care to re- 
move his impediments to success. His 
stammering he sought to cure by speaking 
with pebbles in his mouth ; the distortion 
of his features was removed by watching 
his countenance in a looking-glass ; he 
frequently climbed up hills that his voice 
might acquire force and energy ; and he 
declaimed on the sea shore to accustom 
himself to the noise and tumult of a public 
assembly. To devote himself more closely 
to study, he shut himself up in a cave for 
months together ; and in this retirement, 
with his own hand, he copied and re- 
copied the history of Thucydides seven 
or eight times, as a model for his own 
style. On emerging from his retirement, 
he adopted the profession of an advocate ; 
and the ability which he then displayed, 
while it formed his principal means of 
support, soon raised him to the first politi- 
cal importance at Athens. His penetra- 
tion enabled him easily to divine the 
ambitious plans of Philip of Macedon ; 
and during fourteen years the Athenian 
orator devoted himself unceasingly to the 
task of frustrating his designs. The first 
of his noble orations, known by the name 
of Philippics, was delivered on the Ma- 
cedonian monarch seizing the Pass of 
Thermopylae, and urged upon the Athe- 
nians the necessity of fitting out a large 
military and naval armament, and carrying 
war into the enemy's dominions ; but, 
though the Athenians approved of his 
advice, they refused to act upon it ; and 
it was not till Philip had defeated Kersi- 
bleptes the Thracian, that they found them- 
selves obliged to commence hostilities. 
Philip, however, succeeded in possessing 
himself of Olynthus, notwithstanding the 
exertions of Demosthenes, b. c. 347. We 
subsequently find him associated with 
iEschines in two embassies to the Mace- 
donian monarch, in which he is said to 
have displayed little dignity and presence 
of mind ; and, on his return, calling not 
only upon Athens, but upon all Greece, 
to prepare for a contest. At length his 



wishes were crowned with success. Philip, 
who had been compelled, chiefly by the 
exertions of Demosthenes, to raise the 
siege of Byzantium and Perianthes, having 
returned to Greece, was chosen general of 
the Amphictyonic army, and suddenly 
seized upon Elateia, the key of Boeotia. 
Great was the dismay of the Athenians at 
this unexpected step. But, at the insti- 
gation of Demosthenes, it was resolved 
that a fleet of two hundred sail should he 
equipped, the army marched into Eleusis, 
and ambassadors sent to all the states of 
Greece to unite their efforts in the cause 
of independence. He himself departed 
for Thebes, where he was completely suc- 
cessful ; and within six weeks from the 
seizure of Elateia, a combined army was 
assembled to oppose the Macedonian army ; 
but the battle of Chaeronea, b. c. 338, 
proved adverse to the hopes of Demo- 
sthenes, and left Philip undisputed master 
of the destinies of Greece. The personal 
courage of Demosthenes failed him in this 
battle ; but he was subsequently called 
upon by his fellow-citizens to pronounce 
the customary funeral oration over those 
who had fallen, became soon afterwards 
purveyor of Athens, and was prosecuting 
his schemes for the aggrandisement of his 
native country, when the news arrived 
that Philip had been assassinated, b. c. 336. 
Demosthenes is said to have displayed an 
unbecoming joy at the murder of Philip ; 
but if he had augured more favourably 
for the destinies of his country from this 
event, his anticipations were doomed to 
disappointment, for the first measures of 
the new sovereign struck such terror into 
the Athenians, that they were obliged to 
send an embassy to Alexander, in the hope 
of averting his wrath. Alexander was 
easily moved to foreigners. Soon after he 
entered upon his Eastern expedition ; and 
the year in which he became monarch of 
the East witnessed the most remarkable 
trial and oratorical combat which ever oc- 
curred. (See JEschines.) A short time 
after this splendid victory over iEschines, 
he was accused of having accepted a bribe 
from Harpalus, a Macedonian governor, 
and condemned to imprisonment and to 
pay a fine of fifty talents ; but his escape 
was connived at, and he fled to iEgina, 
whence he continued to pour forth pro- 
testations of his innocence. After the 
death of Alexander he was recalled, and 
his entry into Athens marked by every 
demonstration of joy. A new league, of 
which Demosthenes was the soul, was 
formed among the Grecian cities against the 
Macedonians ; but the confederacy was 



DEO 



DIA 



207 



broken up by Antipater, and the death of 
Demosthenes decreed. Thereupon he re- 
tired to the island of Calauria, off the 
coast of Argolis, and, being pursued by 
the satellites of Antipater, terminated his 
life in the temple of Neptune, by poison, 
at the age of above sixty. — II. An Athe- 
nian general, sent to succeed Alcibiades in 
Sicily. He attacked Syracuse with Nicias, 
but his efforts were ineffectual ; and, after 
many calamities, he fell into the enemy's 
hands. — III. Father of the orator Demo- 
sthenes, a rich manufacturer of arms. 

Deo, a name given to Ceres, derived 
from the Gr. to find, in allusion, as is com- 
monly said, to her search for, and discovery 
of, her daughter Proserpine ; but there are 
various interpretations attached to it. 
Proserpine was thence called by the Greek 
poets Deolne. 

Derbe, a city of Asia Minor, in Ly- 
caonia, near Isauria. It was the residence 
of the robber chieftain Antipater Derbaeus, 
and is supposed to be derived from Darb, 
a gate, the spot being still designated by 
the term Alah-dag, signifying the pass of 
the high mountains. 

Derbices, a people near Caucasus, whose 
territories are variously pointed out, but 
who are generally supposed to have occu- 
pied part of the modern Chorasan. They 
killed those who had reached their 70th 
year. 

Derceto, and Dercetis, a goddess of 
Syria, supposed to be identical with Atar- 
gatis, of which word Derceto is apparently 
a corruption. She was represented as a 
beautiful woman above the waist, and as a 
fish from the waist downwards. The 
origin of the peculiarity of her form has 
been narrated by Diodorus. The ancient 
fish worship of the Syrians is sometimes 
supposed to have an astronomical basis. 

Dercyllidas, a celebrated general of 
Sparta. Pie took nine different cities in 
eight days, and freed Chersonesus from 
the inroads of the Thracians by building 
a wall across the country. His exploits 
range over a period of years, and he was 
ultimately superseded in the command, 
B. c. 412. 

Dertona, Tortona, a considerable city 
of Liguria, about twenty miles west of 
Asta. As a Roman colony, it was sur- 
named Iulia, as we learn from ancient 
inscriptions. 

Dertose, Tortosa, a city of the Iler- 
caones in Spain, a short distance from the 
mouth of the Iberus. 

Deucalion, one of the most prominent 
personages in the earliest traditions of the 
Greeks, was the son of Prometheus and 



Clymene or Pandora, the father or brother 
of Hellen (the reputed founder of the Greek 
nation), and king of Thessaly. In his age 
the whole earth was overwhelmed with a 
deluge, on account of the impiety of the 
human race ; and Deucalion, by the advice 
of his father, having made an ark, entered 
into it with his wife Pyrrha, and thus saved 
themselves. The vessel was tossed about 
during nine days, but at last stopped on 
Mt. Parnassus, where Deucalion remained 
till the waters had subsided. As soon as 
the waters had retired, Deucalion and his 
wife consulted the oracle of Themis how 
they should repeople the earth, and were 
directed to throw behind them the bones 
of their grandmother, i. e. the stones of the 
earth. The stones thrown by Deucalion 
became men, those by Pyrrha women. 
The deluge of Deucalion, as described by 
the ancient writers, was merely local ; and 
it was not until the time of Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, when the Hebrew Scriptures be- 
came known to the Greeks, that some 
features borrowed from the universal 
deluge of Noah were incorporated with 
the story of the Thessalian flood. The 
deluge of Deucalion is supposed to have 
happened b. c. 1548. 

Deva, Chester, I., a city of the Cornavii 
in Britain, on the Seteia, Dee, and the sta- 
tion of the 20th legion. — II. A river of 
Britain, now Dee, from which the cities of 
Old and New Aberdeen derive their name. 
— III. Dee, a river in Britain, on the 
north-western coast, flowing into Wigton 
Bay, the ancient Jena iEstuarium. 

Dia, I., one of the appellations of 
Naxos, an island in the iEgean sea, famous 
for the birth and worship of Bacchus. 
(See Naxos.) — II. Standia, a small island 
off the coast of Crete, immediately op- 
posite to Gnossus. 

Diadumenianus. See Macrinus. 

DiuEUS, a strategus of Megalopolis and 
general of the Achaean league, b. c. 146, 
who, after the death of Critolaus, with a 
force of twenty thousand men, attempted 
to defend Corinth against Mammius the 
Roman general, but being defeated, fled to 
Megalopolis, and, having told of the defeat, 
put his wife to death to save her from 
disgrace and slavery, and then terminated 
his own life by poison. 

Diagoras, I., a native of the island of 
Melos, and follower of Democritus, who 
redeemed him from slavery, and trained 
him up in the study of philosophy. His 
name has been transmitted with infamy to 
posterity, as that of an avowed advocate 
for the rejection of all religious belief. A 
price being set on his head, he fled to 



208 



DIA 



DIG 



Corinth, where he died, b. c. 416. — II. An 
athlete of Rhodes, whose victory at the 
Olympic games, b. c. 462, was celebrated 
by Pindar in an ode which is still extant. 
The same poet relates various other vic- 
tories of Diagoras ; and Aulus Gellius 
states he died from joy at seeing his three 
sons crowned on the same day with victory 
at the Olympic games. 

Dialis, a priest of Jupiter at Rome, 
first instituted by Numa. See Flajien. 

Diamastigosis, a festival at Sparta in 
honour of Diana Orthia, airo rod fj.a.(jriyovv, 
from whipping, because boys, called Bo- 
monicae, were whipped before the altar of 
the goddess. 

Dxana, in mythology, the Latin name 
of the goddess known to the Greeks by 
the name of Artemis ("ApTeftis), the 
daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and sister 
of Apollo. She was the virgin goddess 
~~ of the chase, and also presided over health. 
The sudden deaths of women were attri- 
buted to her darts, as those of men were 
to the arrows of Apollo. In later times 
she was confounded with various other 
goddesses, as Hecate, Lucina, Proserpina, 
and Luna. In the two last of these cha- 
racters she was said to appear in the nether 
world and in heaven respectively, while on 
earth she assumed the character of Arte- 
mis ; whence she was called the three- 
formed goddess. Her power and func- 
tions in these characters have been happily 
expressed in the couplet — 

" Terret, lustrat, agit,_Proserpina, Luna, Diana, 
Ima, suprema, feras, sceptro, fulgore, sagitta." 

She was generally represented as a healthy 
active maiden in a huntress's dress, with 
a handsome but ungentle expression of 
countenance. The homage rendered to 
Diana was so extensive that the silversmith 
who remarked that she was worshipped in 
all Asia and the world can scarcely be 
accused of exaggeration. A catalogue of 
the various places where temples were 
erected in her honour would comprise 
every city of note in the ancient world. 
Among others may be mentioned Ephesus, 
Abydos, Heraclea, Aulis, Eretria, Samos, 
Bubastus in Egypt, Delos (whence she 
was termed Delia), and Mount Aventine 
at Rome. But of all her temples, that at 
Ephesus was the most celebrated. It was 
t erected at the joint expense of all the states 
of Asia ; and according to the accounts of 
ancient authors, it must have surpassed in 
splendour all the structures of antiquity, 
and fully deserved to be regarded as one 
of the wonders of the world. A small 
statue of the goddess, or, as she was termed 



by her votaries, the " Great Diana of the 
Ephesians," which was commonly supposed 
to have been sent from heaven, was here 
enshrined and adorned with all that wealth 
and genius could contribute. The fate of 
this temple is well known. On the day 
that Alexander the Great was born, it was 
set on fire by Eratostratus, from a mor- 
bid desire to transmit his name, even 
with infamy, to posterity. This edifice 
was afterwards rebuilt on a plan of si- 
milar magnificence; and it remained in 
full possession of its wealth and reputa- 
tion till the year 260 a. d. , when it was 
completely destroyed during an invasion of 
the Goths. Diana was also called Agro- 
tera, Aricia, Cynthia, Delia, Orthia, Tau- 
rica, &c. ; and she was supposed to be 
identical with the Isis of the Egyptians, 
whose worship was introduced into Greece, 
with that of Osiris, under the name of 
Apollo. 

Dian^ Fanum, a promontory of Asia 
Minor in Bithynia ; near which was a 
temple of Jupiter Urius, dispenser of 
favourable winds. 

Dianium, a promontory and town of 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the Medi- 
terranean coast. The modern name of 
the town is Denia, of the promontory, 
Cape St. Martin. It was one of the three 
towns on this coast, whose foundation was 
ascribed to the Massilians ; and was called 
by them Artemisium, from the Greek 
name of Diana, who had a temple here. 

Diasia, an annual festival held in honour 
of Jupiter, surnamed MeiAi'xjoy. outside of 
the walls of Athens. It was accompanied 
with feasting and rejoicings, and, like most 
other festivals, ended in a fair. 

Dibio, Dijon, a city of Gaul in the 
territory of the Lingones, either founded 
or fortified by the emperor Aurelian. 

Dic^a, a town of Thrace in the territory 
of the Bistones. 

DiCiEARCHiA. See Puteoli. 

Dic^eabchus, a native of Messana in 
Sicily, and a pupil of Aristotle. He 
wrote several works on geography and 
history, of which the few fragments that 
remain are given in Hudson's Geographi 
Grceci Minores. 

Diceneus, an Egyptian philosopher in 
the age of Augustus, who travelled into 
Scythia, and by his instructions not only 
softened the wildness and rusticity of the 
king's manners, but also gained such an 
influence over the multitude, that they 
destroyed the vines which grew in their 
country, to prevent the scenes of dissipation 
which the wine occasioned among them. 
Dictator, a Roman magistrate, appointed 



DIC 



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209 



on special occasions to supersede the consuls, 
invested with regal authority. This officer 
was first chosen during the Roman wars 
against the Latins. The consuls being 
unable to raise forces for the defence of 
the state, because the plebeians refused to 
enlist, if they were not discharged from 
all the debts contracted with the patri- 
cians, the senate found it necessary to 
elect a new magistrate with absolute 
power. His power, however, continued 
only for six months, and was never pro- 
longed, except in extreme necessity. The 
dictator could lay out none of the public 
money without authority of the senate, 
or order of the people ; neither was he 
allowed to ride on horseback without 
permission of the people. He was called 
dictator, because dictus, i. e. named by the 
consul, or quoniam dictis ejus parebat 
populus, "because the people implicitly 
obeyed his command." One of the con- 
suls, by order of the senate, named as 
dictator whatever person of consular dig- 
nity he thought proper, after having taken 
the auspiees, usually in the dead of night. 
As his power was absolute, he could 
proclaim wari levy forces, conduct them 
against an enemy, and disband them at 
pleasure. He punished as he pleased ; 
there being no appeal from his decision, 
at least in later times. A dictator was 
chosen chiefly when the state was in im- 
minent danger from foreign enemies, or 
inward seditions ; but they were also 
frequently chosen for merely ceremonial 
purposes, as for holding the Comitia. 
This office became odious by the per- 
petual usurpations of Sylla and J. Caesar ; 
and after the death of the latter, the Ro- 
man senate, on the motion of the consul 
Antony, passed a decree, which for ever 
forbade a dictator to exist in Rome. The 
dictator, as soon as elected, chose a sub- 
ordinate officer, called his master of horse, 
magister equitum. The dictatorship was 
originally confined to the patricians, but 
the plebeians were afterwards admitted to 
share it. Titus Lartius Flavus was the 
first dictator, a. u. c. 253. Such are the 
received opinions as to the Roman dic- 
tators; but Niebuhr has opened some new 
views upon this subject, which are now 
generally adopted. According to Niebuhr, 
the object aimed at in the institution of 
the dictatorship was to evade the Valerian 
laws, and to re-establish the unlimited 
authority of the patricians over the ple- 
beians ; for the appeal to the common- 
alty granted by these laws was from the 
sentence of the consuls, and not from that 
of this new magistrate, But this un- 



limited power did not extend over the 
patricians. 

Dicte, a mountain of Crete, now Sethia, 
or Lasthi, which, from being covered 
throughout a great part of the year with 
snow, was denominated by Strabo, Pliny, 
and Ptolemy, " White Mountain." This 
mountain was consecrated to Jupiter, 
hence called Dictaeus, as well as from a 
cave which was there, in which he had 
been concealed from Saturn. Crete was 
sometimes styled " Dictaea arva." 

Dictynna, a Nymph of Crete, who is 
supposed to have invented fishing nets 
(d'tKTva), and on this account to have 
changed her name Britomartis into Dic- 
tynna. But a more probable statement 
will be found under Britomartis. 

DlCTYNNiEUM, Or DlCTAMNUM PROMON- 

torium, a promontory on the northern 
coast of Crete, forming the termination 
of a chain called Tityrus by Strabo. On 
its summit was placed a celebrated tem- 
ple of the Nymph Britomartis or Dic- 
tynna. 

Dictys, I., a Cretan who accompanied 
Idomeneus to the Trojan war, the history of 
which he is supposed to have written. The 
work is said to have been discovered in the 
reign of Nero, in a tomb near Gnossus which 
had been opened by an earthquake, to have 
been written in Phoenician, and translated 
into Greek by Praxis or Eupraxides ; but 
there can be no doubt that the whole story 
was invented to impose on the emperor, 
and that Praxis was himself the original 
author of the work. The Greek original 
is lost, but the Latin version of Q. Septi- 
mius is still extant. — II. A brother of 
Polydectes, king of Seriphus, in whose 
stead he was made king by Perseus, on 
account of the insult Polydectes had offered 
to Danae. 

Didia lex, de Sumptibus, a law enacted 
by Didius, a. u. c. 610, to restrain the 
expenses attending public festivals, and 
limit the number of guests. It extended 
the sumptuary laws to all the Italians, and 
ordained that not only the masters of the 
feast, but also the guests, should incur a 
penalty for their offence. 

Didius, Julianus, a wealthy Roman, 
who, after the murder of Pertinax, bought 
the empire which the Praetorians had ex- 
posed to sale, a. d. 193. He had passed 
through all the most important offices in 
the state ; and had been governor of Bi- 
thynia, Germania Inferior, and Dalmatia. 
Notwithstanding his elevation to the purple 
was confirmed by the servile senate, the 
people refused to acknowledge him ; and 
after a reign of sixty-six days, he was killed 



210 



DID 



DIN 



by a common soldier, and Severus pro- 
claimed emperor in his room. 

Dido, called also Elissa, daughter of 
Belus, king of Tyre, married Sichaeus, or 
Sicharbas, her uncle, priest of Hercules. 
Her brother, Pygmalion, who succeeded 
to the throne of Tyre after Belus, having 
murdered Sichaeus, to get possession of 
his riches, Dido, disconsolate for the loss 
of her husband, set sail in quest of a set- 
tlement with a number of Tyrians, to whom 
the cruelty of the tyrant had become odi- 
ous. During her voyage she visited the 
coast of Cyprus. Being driven by a storm 
on the African coast, she bought of the 
inhabitants as much land as could be co- 
vered by a bull's hide, fivpaa (see Byrsa) ; 
here the first settlement was made ; and as 
the city gradually increased around, and 
Carthage arose, Byrsa became the citadel. 
Her beauty, as well as the fame of her 
enterprise, gained her many admirers. 
Being at length sought in marriage by 
Iarbas, a neighbouring prince, with a de- 
nunciation of war if she refused, she was 
urged by her subjects to comply. Dido 
begged three months to give her decisive 
answer. Meanwhile she erected a funeral 
pile, as if wishing to appease the Manes 
of Sichaeus, to whom she had promised 
eternal fidelity ; and having ascended the 
pile in the presence of her people, stabbed 
herself with a sword. After her death 
she received divine honours. Virgil has 
deviated in many particulars from the au- 
thentic history of Dido, and in none more 
than in those of her death, which he re- 
presents as having been caused by the 
sudden departure of iEneas, of whom she 
was deeply enamoured. 

Didvmaon, an imaginary artist, cited by 
Virgil, famous for making suits of armour. 

Didymus, L, a grammarian of Alexan- 
dria, who lived in the reign of Augustus. 
He is said to have composed nearly 4000 
volumes, and was surnamed XaXKevrepos, 
brazen entrails, from his indefatigable in- 
dustry. Various other writers of this 
name are enumerated by Suidas. — II. A 
small village of Ionia, not far from Mile- 
tus, celebrated for a temple and oracle 
of Apollo, who was thence called Di- 
dymasus. It was also called Didymi. 

Dieneces, a Spartan, who, on hearing 
before the battle of Thermopylae, that the 
Persians were so numerous that their 
arrows would darken the light of the sun, 
observed, that it would be a great con- 
venience, for then they would fight in the 
shade. 

Diespiter, a surname of Jupiter, as the 
"father of light." 



Digentia, Licenza, a small but cele- 
brated stream, which watered Horace's 
farm, in the country of the Sabines. It 
discharges itself into the Anio. 

Dn, the Latin name for the ancient 
heathen divinities. Every object which 
caused terror, inspired gratitude, or be- 
stowed affluence, received the tribute of 
veneration. The number of deities has been 
divided into different classes, according to 
the will and pleasure of the mythologists. 
The Romans, generally speaking, reckoned 
two classes, the dii majorum gentium or 
dii consulentes, and the dii minorum gentium. 
The former were twelve in number. ( See 
Consentes.) In the class of the latter were 
ranked all the gods worshipped in different 
parts of the earth. Besides these, some 
were called dii selecti, sometimes classed 
with the twelve greater gods ; Janus, Sa- 
turn, the Genius, the Moon, Pluto, and 
Bacchus. There were also some called 
demi-gods, i. e. who deserved immortality 
for their exploits, and their uncommon 
services to mankind. Among these were 
Priapus, Vertumnus, Hercules, and those 
whose parents were some of the immortal 
gods. Besides these, all the passions and 
moral virtues were reckoned as powerful 
deities. According to Hesiod, there were 
no less than 30,000 gods which inhabited 
the earth. To these, succeeding ages have 
added an almost equal number ; indeed, 
they were so numerous, that we find tem- 
ples erected, and sacrifices offered, to un- 
known gods. In process of time, good and 
virtuous men, patrons of learning and sup- 
porters of liberty, and also thieves and 
pirates, were admitted among the gods : and 
the Roman senate courteously granted im- 
mortality even to the most cruel and aban- 
doned of their emperors. 

Dinarchus, the last of the ten Greek 
orators, was born at Corinth, about b. c. 
361. He attended the lectures of Theo- 
phrastus, and Demetrius Phalereus, at 
Athens, and seems to have followed the 
profession of the bar. Having been in- 
volved in a charge of conspiracy, he with- 
drew to Chalcis in Eubcea, b. c. 307 ; but 
returned after a lapse of fifteen years, and 
lived to a good old age. Some of his ora- 
tions are still extant, and, among others, 
one which led to the exile of Demosthenes 
in the affair of Harpalus. 

Dindymus, or - a, (orum,) a mountain 
of Galatia in Asia Minor, called by Man- 
nert Didymus, in allusion to its two sum- 
mits. Cybele was worshipped on Mt. 
Dindymus, hence called Dindymene. Din- 
dymus was also the name of a mountain 
near Cyzicus, on which was a temple 



DIN 



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211 



erected by the Argonauts in honour of 
Cybele. 

Dinia, Digne, a town of Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, capital of the Bodiontici. 

Dinocrates, an architect of Macedonia, 
who offered to cut Mt. Athos into a statue 
of Alexander. The monarch declined the 
offer, but took him to Egypt, and em- 
ployed him in beautifying Alexandria. 
He began to build a temple in honour of 
Arsinoe, by order of Ptol. Philadelphus, 
in which he intended to suspend a statue 
of the queen in the air, by means of load- 
stones attached to the ceiling ; but his 
death prevented the execution of the work. 

Dinostrates, a famous mathematician 
of the Platonic school, brother of Mene- 
chares, disciple of Plato, and particularly 
distinguished as the inventor of the quad- 
ratrix. 

Dioclea, I., festivals at Megara, in 
honour of Diocles, who died in the defence 
of a certain youth to whom he was ten- 
derly attached. There was a contention 
on his tomb, and the youth who gave the 
sweetest kiss was publicly rewarded with 
a garland. — II. Narenza, a town of Illy- 
ricum, in Dalmatia, not far from Narona, 
said to have been the birthplace of the 
emperor Diocletian. 

Diocletianopolis, a city of Macedonia, 
so called in honour of Diocletian, and sup- 
posed by Mannert to have been identical 
with Pella. 

DlOCLETIANUS, CAIUS VALERIUS, SUr- 

named Jovius, a celebrated Roman em- 
peror, born of an obscure family in Dal- 
matia, at the town of Dioclea, or Doclea, 
from which town he derived his first name. 
He served originally as a common soldier, 
and gradually rose to the office of general ; 
and on the death of Numerian, he was in- 
vested with the imperial purple by the 
soldiers, a. d. 284. Good sense and pru- 
dence were his distinguishing character- 
istics ; but he was no less conspicuous in 
courage ; and under his reign the Roman 
arms triumphed in Africa, Britain, Ger- 
many, and several parts of Asia. To aid 
him in the government of the empire he 
associated Maximian with him on the 
throne, a. b. 286, with the title of Au- 
gustus ; and a. d. 292, created two subor- 
dinate emperors, Constantius Chlorus and 
Galerius, whom he called Ccesars. The 
empire was thus divided into four parts : for 
himself, Diocletian reserved Thrace, Egypt, 
and the Asiatic provinces ; Galerius go- 
verned those on the Danube ; Maximian 
held Italy and Africa ; and to Constantius 
was assigned Spain, Gaul, and Britain. Re- 
turning to Rome, a. d. 303, he celebrated 



a great triumph for his numerous victo- 
ries ; but soon afterwards retired to Nico- 
media, where, after a reign of twenty-one 
years, he publicly abdicated the crown, 
a. n. 305, and retired to a private station. 
Maximian, his colleague, followed his 
example, but not from choice. Diocletian 
lived nine years after his abdication, in 
the greatest security and enjoyment at 
Salona, and died in the sixty-eighth year 
of his age, a. d. 313. Diocletian is the 
first sovereign who voluntarily resigned his 
power. His character would have been 
almost faultless, but for the sanguinary 
persecution of the Christians which he 
sanctioned, if not originated, in the last 
years of his reign. 

Diodorus, I., historian, surnamed Sicu- 
lus, because born at Agyrium in Sicily ; 
was a contemporary of Jul. Caesar, and 
Augustus. In early life he travelled into 
Asia, Africa, and Europe ; and ultimately 
established himself at Rome, where he 
published a general history in forty books, 
under the title of Historical Library. To 
this labour he consecrated thirty years of his 
life. Only a small part of this vast compil- 
ation has reached our time. — II. A native of 
Caria, disciple of the Megaric school, and a 
great adept in that species of verbal combat 
which prevailed among the philosophers of 
his sect. — III. A Peripatetic philosopher, 
with whom the uninterrupted succession of 
the Peripatetic school terminated. He 
was a native of Tyre, and a pupil of Cri- 
tolaus. — IV. An orator and epigram- 
matic poet of Sardis, contemporary with 
Mithridates, against whom he was charged, 
though unjustly, with conspiracy. — V. 
An historian and poet of Sardis, whom 
Strabo mentions to have lived subsequently 
to the former, and to have been a friend of 
his own. 

Diogenes, L, a celebrated Cynic phi- 
losopher of Sinope. His father, a banker, 
being convicted and obliged to leave the 
country for debasing the public coin, re- 
tired to Athens with his son, who speedily 
became the disciple of Antisthenes. the 
founder of the Cynics. His disregard of 
the conveniences and luxuries of life soon 
gained him notoriety. He wore a coarse 
cloak, carried a wallet and staff, exposed 
himself to the extremes of heat and cold with 
indifference, and lived upon the simplest 
diet, casually supplied by the hand of charity. 
In his old age, when sailing from Athens to 
iEgina, he was carried by pirates to Crete, 
and sold as a slave to Xeniades, a wealthy 
Corinthian, who placed his children under 
his care, and, in requital for his services, 
gave him his liberty. The last years of his 



212 



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DIO 



life were spent in the Cranion, a gymnasium 
near Corinth, where he is said to have died 
on the same day as Alexander the Great, 
b. c. 323, in the ninetieth year of his age. 
Many apophthegms and anecdotes of Di- 
ogenes have been preserved ; but great 
doubts are entertained of their authen- 
ticity. Even his famous interview with 
Alexander the Great, in which the mo- 
narch is said to have postponed the philo- 
sopher only to himself, is not considered to 
have a historical basis. — II. A native of 
Apollonia, pupil of Anaximenes, and con- 
temporary of Anaxagoras. He entertained 
nearly the same philosophical opinions as 
his master. — III. Laertius, so called from 
his native city, Laertes in Cilicia, well 
known as the author of Lives of the Phi- 
losophers, in ten books, still extant. He 
is supposed to have lived in the reign of 
Severus or Caracalla, and to have been 
attached to the Epicurean sect ; but 
nothing can be averred with certainty 
respecting him. The most useful edition 
of his works is that of Hubner, 2 vols. 8vo. 
Leipsic, 1828 — 1831. 

Diomeda, daughter of Phorbas, whom 
Achilles brought from Lemnos as his mis- 
tress, after the loss of Briseis, 

DlOMEDEiE INSULiE. See DlOMEDIS IN- 
SULJE. 

Diomedes, son of Tydeus and Deiphyle, 
king of iEtolia, and one of the bravest of 
the Greek chiefs in the Trojan war. 
Among his exploits, he is said to have 
engaged Hector and ^Eneas in single com- 
bat ; wounded Mars, iEneas, and Venus ; 
in concert with Ulysses carried off the 
horses of Rhesus and the Palladium ; and 
procured the arrows of Philoctetes. At 
his return from the siege of Troy, he 
missed his way in the darkness of the 
night, and landed in Attica, where his 
companions plundered the country, and 
lost the Trojan Palladium. During his 
long absence, his wife iEgiale, having for- 
got her marriage vows, he resolved to 
abandon his native country, the seat of his 
disgrace, and came to that part of Italy 
called Magna Grascia, where he built Ar- 
gyrippa, and married the daughter of 
Daunus, king of the country. According 
to one account, he died in extreme old 
age ; but a certain tradition makes him to 
have perished by the hand of his father- 
in-law. His death was greatly lamented 
by his companions, who, in the excess of 
their grief, were changed into birds re- 
sembling swans : but Ovid and Virgil 
have given a different version of the fable. 
Altars were raised to Diomedes as to a 
god. — II. A king of the Bistones in 



Thrace, son of Mars and Cyrene, who fed 
his mares with human flesh. It was one 
of the labours of Hercules to destroy 
Diomedes, and bring his mares to Eurys- 
theus. This task the hero accomplished 
successfully : but there are different ver- 
sions of the story. 

Diomedis INSULiE, small islands op- 
posite the Sinus Urias, near the coast of 
Apulia, celebrated as the scene of the 
metamorphosis of Diomede's companions 
into birds, and of the disappearance of 
that hero himself. Of these islands, the 
largest is now called Isola San Domino, 
the other S. Nicolo. 

Dion, I., a celebrated Syracusan, who, 
deriving an ample inheritance from his 
father Hipparinus, became a disciple of 
Plato, who had been invited to the court 
of Syracuse by the elder Dionysius. He 
was nearly connected by marriage with 
Dionysius, by whom he was so much es- 
teemed as to be employed on several em- 
bassies. At the accession of the younger 
Dionysius, Plato was again, at Dion's re- 
quest, invited to Sicily ; but on his at- 
tempting, by means of the philosopher, to 
eradicate the arbitrary principles of Diony- 
sius, his enemies succeeded in awakening 
suspicions of his views in the tyrant's 
breast, and procured his banishment. Dion 
then returned to Greece, when, on receiving 
intelligence that his estates had been con- 
fiscated, and his wife compelled to marry 
one of Dionysius's adherents, he resolved 
to expel the tyrant. Encouraged by his 
friends, he assembled a body of troops, and 
with a small force sailed to Sicily, where 
he was received by the people with accla- 
mation, and called to the throne. But his 
austere manners soon lost him the favour 
of his fickle countrymen, and he was sup- 
planted by Heraclides, a Syracusan exile, 
and obliged to make his retreat to Leon- 
tini. He soon afterwards regained the 
ascendancy ; but an Athenian, a supposed 
friend, formed a conspiracy against his 
life ; and he was assassinated in his fifty- 
fifth year, b. c. 354. His death was uni- 
versally lamented by the Syracusans, and 
a monument raised to his memory. — II. 
Cassius Cocceianus, son of Cassius Apro- 
nianus, a Roman senator, born at Nica?a 
in Bithynia, a. d. 155. His name was 
Cassius, but he assumed the two other 
names, from being descended on the mo- 
ther's side from Dion Chrysostom. The 
greater part of his life was passed in public, 
employments, having been a senator under 
Commodus ; governor of Smyrna ; and af- 
terwards consul, and proconsul, in Africa 
and Pannonia. Alexander Severus enter- 



DIO 



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213 



tained the highest esteem for him, and ap- 
pointed him his colleague in the consulship. 
When advanced in years, he returned to 
his native country, where he published a 
Roman history, in eighty books, the fruit 
of his researches and labours for twenty- 
two years. A considerable portion of it is 
still extant. — III. A Stoic and Sophist, 
surnamed Chrysostomus, from the beauty 
of his style, was a native of Prusa in Bi- 
thynia. He passed the early part of his 
life in travelling, and subsequently ac- 
companied Vespasian to Rome, but being 
afterwards suspected of conspiring against 
Domitian, he fled into Moldivia, where he 
is said to have earned his subsistence by 
manual labour. His eloquence was mainly 
instrumental in securing the throne for 
Nerva, on the murder of Domitian ; and 
he enjoyed the favour both of this emperor 
and his successor Trajan. His last years 
were spent in Bithynia, where he died at 
the age of eighty. 

Dion^a, a surname of Venus, as the 
daughter of Jupiter and Dione. 

Dione, an ocean Nymph, daughter of 
Nereus and Doris, and mother of Venus 
by Jupiter, according to Homer and others. 
According to Knight, Dione is the female 
AI2 or ZET2; and therefore associated with 
him in the most ancient temple of Greece 
at Do dona. 

Dionysia, festivals celebrated in various 
parts of Greece, but chiefly in Attica, in 
honour of Bacchus or Dionysus. They 
were four in number, distinguished by the 
following titles: — 1 . The Country Dio- 
nysia (rd KO.T frypovs). 2. Those in Lym- 
nae (a part of the city of Athens, where 
they were held), which were also called 
Lensean (ret Kr)vaia, from \r)i>os, a wine- 
press"). 3. Anthesteria (Avdearripia, from 
Anthesterion, the name of the Attic month 
corresponding to our January, in which 
they were celebrated) ; and, 4. The Great 
Dionysia (ja /j.4ya\a). At all these fes- 
tivals the chief amusements consisted in 
the representation of stage plays ; but the 
last was the most celebrated, as then, before 
the face of all Greece, the great tragic con- 
tests were held, no expense being spared 
to render the decorations and accompani- 
ments as splendid as art could make them: 
for on these exhibitions a great portion of 
the revenues drawn from the tributary 
states was expended, besides the private 
property of the persons appointed to su- 
perintend them, they being not only under 
the protection of the state, but a principal 
object of its care. The worship of Dio- 
nysus was almost universal among the 
Greeks in Asia as well as in Europe, arnd 



the general character of his festivals was 
extravagant merriment and enthusiastic 
joy, which manifested themselves in dif- 
ferent ways. His worshippers imitated 
the poetical fictions concerning Bacchus ; 
clothed themselves in fawns' skins, fine 
linen, and mitres ; carried thyrsi, drums, 
pipes, and flutes ; crowned themselves with 
garlands of ivy, vine, fir, &c. Both sexes 
joined in the solemnity, and ran about the 
hills and country, dancing in ridiculous 
postures, and filling the air with hideous 
shrieks and shouts, crying aloud, Evoe 
Bacche! Io! Io! Evoe! Iacche! Io Bacche! 
Evohe! The festivals of Dionysus, called 
Bacchanalia by the Romans, were intro- 
duced from Greece into Etruria, and thence 
by an easy transfer to Rome, where for a 
time they were carried on in secret, and 
during the latter period of their existence 
at night. But such were the enormities 
practised at their celebration, that the se- 
nate, b.c. 185, issued a celebrated decree, 
abolishing them at Rome and throughout 
Italy. These festivals must not be con- 
founded with the Liberalia, also celebrated 
at Rome, in honour of Bacchus. See Li- 
beralia. 

Dionvsias, Beled-Kerun, a town of 
Egypt, at the south-western extremity of 
the lake Moeris. 

Dionysiopolis, I., a town of Lower 
Moesia, near the Euxine Sea. Pliny says 
that it was also called Crunos, but Mela 

makes Crunos the port of Dionysiopolis 

II. A city of India, supposed by Mannert 
to be the same with the modern Nvghr. 

Dionysius, I., or the Elder, a celebrated 
tyrant of Syracuse, raised to that high 
rank from the station of a simple citizen, 
was born b. c. 430. He was son-in-law 
of Hermocrates, whose banishment he 
shared for a time ; but being afterwards 
recalled, he soon procured himself to be 
nominated one of the generals ; and, under 
pretence of raising a force to resist the 
Carthaginians, obtained a decree for re- 
calling all the exiles. He was now 
called to take the chief command; and, 
by his lavishness towards the soldiers, 
and similar acts of policy, he soon found 
means of accomplishing his ambitious 
views, and became tyrant of Syracuse in 
his twenty-seventh year, b. c. 404. After 
bringing a short war with Carthage to a 
termination, quelling various revolts, and 
reducing under his sway several cities of 
Sicily, he once more attacked the Cartha- 
ginians, and carried his arms into Italy, 
plundering the temple of Agylla in Etru- 
ria, and committing numerous other sacri- 
I legious acts. With the resources obtained 



214 



DIO 



DIO 



in these expeditions, he was preparing 
himself for a new expedition to Italy, 
when a fresh Carthaginian armament 
landed in Sicily, b. c. 383, and defeated 
Dionysius, whose brother Leptines fell in 
the battle. A peace followed, of which 
Carthage dictated the conditions, and which 
lasted fourteen years, during which Diony- 
sius remained the undisturbed ruler of 
Syracuse, and one half of Sicily, with part 
of southern Italy. During this period, he 
sent colonies to the coasts of the Adriatic, 
and his fleets navigated both seas. His 
court, too, was frequented by many dis- 
tinguished philosophers and poets, and, 
among others, by Plato. He twice sent 
some of his poems to be recited at the 
Olympic games, but they were hissed by 
the assembly. He was, however, more 
successful at Athens; for a tragedy of 
his obtained the prize, and the news of his 
success almost turned his brain. In a de- 
bauch with his friends, he ate and drank 
so iutemperately that he fell senseless, and 
soon after died (some say he was poisoned 
by his physicians, at the instigation of his 
son), b. c. 367, in the sixty -fourth year of 
his age, having been tyrant of Syracuse 
thirty-eight years. — II. The second of 
that name, surnamed the Younger, was 
son of Dionysius I., by Doris, his second 
wife. His father, whom he succeeded, 
had left the state in a prosperous condi- 
tion; but young Dionysius had neither 
his abilities nor his prudence and expe- 
dience. He followed at first the advice of 
Dion, who, although a republican in prin- 
ciple, had remained faithful to his father, 
and who, anxious to direct the inexperienced 
son for the good of his country, invited 
his friend Plato to Syracuse, about b. c. 
364. Dionysius received the philosopher 
with great respect ; and, in deference to 
his advice, reformed for a while his loose 
habits, and the manners of his court. But 
a faction, headed by Philistus, who had 
always been a supporter of the tyranny of 
the elder Dionysius, succeeded in pre- 
judicing the son against both Dion and 
Plato, the former of whom was exiled, 
under pretence that he had made dis- 
graceful overtures to Carthage respecting a 
peace ; and the latter returned to Athens. 
After the departure of Plato, Dionysius 
gave himself up to every kind of debauchery 
and cruelty ; but having, among other acts, 
confiscated the property of the exiled Dion, 
and compelled his wife to marry another, 
he was ultimately assailed by the latter 
(see Dion), forced to retire to the citadel 
in Ortygia ; and, after some resistance, in 
which Philistus, his best supporter, was ; 



taken prisoner and put to death, he 
quitted Syracuse by sea and retired to 
Locri, the country of his mother, where 
he had connections and friends. Dion 
having been treacherously murdered, se- 
veral tyrants succeeded each other in Sy- 
racuse, until Dionysius himself came and 
retook it about b. c. 346. But upon his 
return, his cruelty and profligacy drove 
away a great number of people, who emi- 
grated to various parts of Italy and Greece, 
while others joined Iketas, tyrant of Leon- 
tini, and a former friend of Dion. The 
latter having sent messengers to Corinth 
to request assistance against Dionysius, 
Timoleon, at the head of a Corinthian 
force, landed in Sicily b. c. 344, notwith- 
standing the opposition of the Carthagi- 
nians, and of Iketas, who acted a perfidious 
part on the occasion ; and having entered 
Syracuse, soon after obliged Dionysius to 
surrender. Dionysius was then sent to Co- 
rinth, where he spent the rest of his life 
in the lowest society. — III. Halicar- 
nasseus, or Halicarnassensis, a native of 
Halicarnassus, born in the first century 
b. c. He came to Rome b. c. 29, and 
sojourned in that capital for twenty-two 
years, which he employed in acquiring 
the Latin language, and in collecting ma- 
terials for a work which he published 
in twenty books, under the title of " An- 
cient History of Rome." He also wrote 
numerous valuable criticisms and other 
works of a similar character. His works 
have passed through numerous editions, 
one of the best of which is by Hudson, 

Oxon. 1704, 2 vols, folio IV. A tyrant 

of Heraclea in Pontus, in the age of Alex, 
the Great. After the death of the con- 
queror and of Perdiccas, he married Ames- 
tris, niece of king Darius, assumed the 
title of king, and died in his 55th year, 
deeply lamented by his subjects. — V. 
A native of Charax, in Susiana, who lived 
at the end of the third century of our era. 
He was surnamed Periegetes, from a geo- 
graphical poem which he published, in- 
titled " Description of the Habitable 
World." — VI. A Christian writer, called 
Areopayita, from being a member of the 
Areopagus at Athens. He was converted 
to Christianity by St. Paul's preaching ; 
was appointed first bishop of Athens by 
St. Paul, and is reported to have suffered 
martyrdom under Domitian. A large 
number of writings which passed under 
his name have been collected and published 
at different times, but they are now gene- 
rally considered spurious. — VII. Exiguus, 
" the Little," on account of the smallness 
of his stature, a Scythian monk of the sixth 



DIO 



DIV 



215 



century, who became an abbot at Rome. 
He drew up a body of canons and a col- 
lection of decretals, which are to be found 
in Justell's Bibliotheca Juris Canonici 
Veteris ; and to him is sometimes ascribed 
the mode of computing the time of Easter, 
which others attribute to Victorinus, and of 
dating from the birth of Christ. — VIII. 
A Greek poet and musician, author of the 
words and music of three Hymns addressed 
to Calliope, Apollo, and Nemesis. 

Diophantes, a mathematician of Alex- 
andria, who, according to the most received 
opinion, was contemporary with Julian. 
He wrote an Arithmetic, in thirteen books, 
and died in his 84th year. 

Diores, a friend of JEneas, who had 
engaged in the games exhibited by iEneas 
on his father's tomb in Sicily, and was 
killed by Turnus. 

Dioscorides, I., a disciple of Isoerates, 
who wrote, 1. A work on the Government of 
Lacedsemon. 2. Commentaries or Historic 
Memoirs. 3. On the Manners in Homer. — 

II. A poet of Alexandria, some of whose 
writings are preserved in the Anthology. — 

III. A native of Anazarbus in Cilicia, who 
lived in the reign of Nero, and is cele- 
brated as the author of the best ancient 
work on Materia Medica. He was at- 
tached to the army, and either in a military 
capacity, or subsequently, travelled through 
Greece, Italy, Asia Minor, and other 
countries, where he collected materials for 
his works. He received the surname of 
Phacas, having on his person a spot re- 
sembling a lentil, ($afC7j), and was the 
most celebrated botanist of antiquity. 

DlOSCORIDI INSULA, or DlOSCORLDA, So- 

cotora, an island at the south of the en- 
trance of the Arabic Gulf, celebrated for 
its aloes. 

Dioscuri, sons of Jupiter, a name given 
to Castor and Pollux, in whose honour 
festivals called Dioscuria were celebrated 
in many parts of Greece, but chiefly at 
Sparta, and at Cyrene. The Athenian fes- 
tival in honour of the Dioscuri was called 
Anaceia, from Anaces, a name given to 
Castor and Pollux. 

Dioscurias, Iskuriah, a maritime town 
of Colchis, afterwards called Sebastopolis. 
Mela says it was founded by Castor and 
Pollux, when they accompanied Jason to 
Colchis, in the Argonautic expedition. 

Diospolis, I., Magna, a famous city of 
Egypt. (See Theb^.) — II. Parva, a city 
of Egypt, west of Tentyra, and the capital 
of the Nome Diospolites. Its site is in 
the vicinity of the village of Hon. — III. 
A town of Asia Minor in Bithynia, on the 
coast of the Euxine — IV. A city of Pa- 



lestine, called also Lydda, in an extensive 
plain, near Jerusalem. It was destroyed 
by the Saracens, who at a later period 
built, two geographical miles east of its 
site, the modern Ramlat. 

Dir^e, I., a name given to the Furies. 
See Furies. — IL Called also Dire and 
Dira, now Straits of Bab-el-mandeb. The 
Gr. name expresses a passage straitened in 
the manner of a neck (Seipj). 

Dirce, wife of Lycus, king of Thebes, 
after he had divorced Antiope. Her 
cruelties to Antiope so excited the indig- 
nation of Amphion and Zethus, whom the 
latter had borne to Jupiter, that they tied 
her by the hair to a wild bull, and let the 
animal drag her over rocks and precipices, 
till the gods, pitying her fate, changed her 
into a fountain in the neighbourhood of 
Thebes. 

Dis, a name given to Pluto, the god of 
hell. See Pluto. 

Discordia, the Roman goddess of Dis- 
cord, equivalent to the Eris of the Greeks, 
was the daughter of Nox, and sister of 
Nemesis, the Parcse, and Death, and was 
driven from heaven by Jupiter, because she 
caused continual quarrels. When the nup- 
tials of Peleus and Thetis were celebrated, 
the Goddess of Discord was not invited, and 
the neglect so irritated her, that she threw 
an apple into the midst of the gods, with 
the inscription " Detur pulchriori." This 
apple caused the ruin of Troy, and infinite 
misfortunes to the Greeks. (See Paris.) 
She is represented with a pale ghastly 
look, with torn garments, and her head 
generally entwined with serpents. 

Dithyrambus, a species of Greek lyrical 
poem in honour of Bacchus, which derived 
its name from At9vpa/j.fsos, one of the appel- 
lations of that deity : a word of uncertain 
meaning and etymology. The style of this 
poetry was very bold, often passing into 
bombast ; so much so indeed as to become 
proverbial for the latter quality. The 
most celebrated Dithyrambic writer was 
Pindar ; none of whose compositions in 
this line, however, have come down to us, 
or indeed any other poems of this class. In 
modern times the term is indiscriminately 
employed to designate odes of an impe- 
tuous and irregular character. 

Dium, Stan-Dia, one of the principal 
cities of Macedonia, situated at the foot 
of Mt. Olympus, and not unfrequently 
the residence of the Macedonian monarchs. 
It suffered greatly during the social war 
from an incursion of JEtolians ; but after- 
wards became a Roman colony, termed by 
Pliny Colonia Diensis. 

Divitiacus, a nobleman of the JEdui, 



216 



DIV 



DOL 



who had great influence with Caesar, in con- 
sequence of his steady attachment to the 
Romans. 

Divodurum, the capital of the Medio- 
matrici, a people of Belgic Gaul, along the 
Mosella, Moselle. Its name was afterwards 
changed to that of the people itself, and is 
now Metz. 

Dodona, I., a celebrated city and oracle 
of Epirus, situated, most probably, in the 
valley of Joannina, though its exact po- 
sition has never been ascertained. The 
temple of Dodona owed its origin to the 
Pelasgi at a period much anterior to the 
Trojan war. Herodotus states, that it was 
the most ancient oracle of Greece, and re- 
presents the Pelasgi as consulting it on 
various occasions ; hence the title Pelasgic, 
assigned to Jupiter, to whom the temple 
was dedicated. The responses of the oracle 
Were delivered from the sacred oak or 
beech. Its reputation was at first confined 
to the inhabitants of Epirus, Acarnania, 
iEtolia, and the western parts of Greece ; 
but its fame was afterwards extended, not 
only throughout Greece, but also through- 
out great part of Asia. Among the se- 
veral offerings presented to the temple, one 
dedicated hy the Corcyreans is particularly 
noticed. It was a brazen figure placed 
over a cauldron of the same metal, and 
holding in its hand a whip, the lash of which 
consisted of three chains, each having an 
astragalus fastened to the end of it ; these, 
when agitated by the wind, struck the 
cauldron, and 400 vibrations could be 
counted before it ceased. Hence arose 
the various proverbs of the Dodonean 
cauldron, and Corcyrean lash. It was said 
by others, that the walls of the temple 
were composed of many cauldrons, conti- 
guous to each other, so that, by striking on 
one, the sound was conveyed to all the 
rest. But this account is not so much to 
be depended on as the other. During the 
social war, Dodona was almost entirely 
destroyed in an irruption of the iEtolians, 
under their praetor Dorimachus, then at 
war with Epirus. The oracle never re- 
covered from this disaster, but the city 
existed till the eighth century of our era, 
when it was the seat of a Christian bishop. 
— II. A city and oracle of Thessaly. It 
has given rise to much controversy whether 
Homer refers to this or the oracle above- 
mentioned. Several writers on the anti- 
quities of Thessaly acknowledge a city Do- 
dona, or Bodona, in that country : whence 
the opinion that the oracle of Jupiter was 
afterwards transferred to Epirus. 

DoDONiEus, a surname of Jupiter from 
Dodona, 



Dodone, I., a daughter of Jupiter and 
Europa. — II. A fountain in the forest of 
Dodona. 

Dodonides, priestesses, who gave oracles 
in the temple of Jupiter in Dodona. Ac- 
cording to some traditions the temple was 
originally inhabited by the seven daugh- 
ters of Atlas, who nursed Bacchus ; but 
in later ages the oracles were delivered 
by three old women. 

Dolabella, P. Corn., a Roman who 
married Tullia, the daughter of Cicero. 
During the civil wars he warmly espoused 
the interest of J. Caesar, under whom he 
fought at the battles of Pharsalia, Africa, 
and Munda. He was nominated consul 
by Caesar ; and after his murder, he re- 
ceived the government of Syria as his pro- 
vince. Cassius opposed his views, and 
Dolabella, for violence, and the assassina- 
tion of Trebonius, one of Caesar's mur- 
derers, was declared an enemy to the re- 
public. When besieged by Cassius in 
Laodicea, he killed himself, in his twenty- 
seventh year. The family of the Dola- 
bellae distinguished themselves at Rome, 
and one of them, L. Corn., conquered 
Lusitania, b. c. 99. 

Dolicha, I., a town of Thessaly, south- 
east of Azorus. — II. Doluc, a town of Sy- 
ria, north-west of Zeugma. 

Dolon, a Trojan, only son of the herald 
Eumedes, famous for swiftness. He was 
sent by Hector to spy the Grecian camp 
by night, and being seized by Diomedes 
and Ulysses, revealed the situation and 
schemes of his countrymen, with the hopes 
of escaping with his life ; but he was put 
to death by Diomedes as a traitor. 

Dolonci, a people of Thrace, who re- 
ceived Miltiades as their king. See Mil- 
tiakes. 

Dolopes, a people in the south-eastern 
angle of Thessaly, formed by the chain of 
Pindus, or rather Tymphrestus, on one 
side, and Mount Othrys, branching out of 
it, on the other. By the latter mountain 
they were separated from the iEnianes ; 
while to the west they bordered upon 
Phthiotis, with the inhabitants of which 
country they were connected as early as 
the siege of Troy. The Dolopians sent 
deputies to the Amphictyonic council : 
they presented earth and water to Xerxes, 
and furnished some troops for the expe- 
dition undertaken by that monarch into 
Greece ; and at a later period they became 
subjects of Jason, tyrant of Pherae. We 
afterward find Dolopia a frequent subject 
of contention between the JEtolians, who 
had extended their dominion to the borders 
of this district, and the kings of Mace- 



DOM 



DON 



217 



donia. Hence the frequent incursions 
made by the former people into this 
part of Thessaly when at war with the 
latter power. Dolopia was finally con- 
quered by Perseus, the last Macedonian 
monarch. 

Domitia, I. (Gens), a celebrated plebeian 
family at Rome, consisting of two branches, 
the Calvini and Ahenobarbi, the latter of 
whom, in the person of Nero, attained to 
imperial power. — II. (lex), de Religione, 
enacted by Domitius Ahenobarbus the tri- 
bune, A. u. c. 650, restoring to the people 

the right of electing priests III. Lepida 

aunt of Nero, was accused of sorcery by 
the intrigues of Agrippina, who was jea- 
lous of her influence over the emperor, and 
put to death, a. d. 54. — IV. or Domi- 
tilla, daughter of one Flavius Liberalis, 
wife of Vespasian, and mother of Titus, 
Domitian, and Domitilla. She died before 
Vespasian was invested with imperial 
power. — V. Longina, daughter of Cor- 
bulo, a famous general of Nero. She 
married JElius Lamia, but was afterwards 
raised to the throne by Domitian, by whom 
she had had a . daughter. Her familiari- 
ties with the mime Paris having roused 
the emperor's jealousy, she was driven 
from the palace ; but she was afterwards re- 
called, and is said to have been concerned 
in the conspiracy by which Domitian was 
cut off. She died during the reign of 
Trajan. 

Domitianus, Titus Flavius, second son 
of Vespasian, was born at Rome, a. d. 51. 
On the death of Vespasian, he endea- 
voured to foment troubles in the empire, 
and share the succession with Titus. The 
latter, however, generously forgave him, 
and made him his colleague in the consul- 
ship, always declaring that he intended 
him for his successor. On the death of 
Titus, a. d. 81, he ascended the throne. The 
beginning of his reign was marked by mo- 
deration and a display of justice bordering 
upon severity. He affected great zeal for 
the reformation of public morals, com- 
pleted several splendid buildings begun by 
Titus, and, among others, an odeum, or 
theatre for musical performances. But 
after the first three or four years of his 
reign, he threw off the mask, and the 
natural wickedness of his character dis- 
played itself more and more every day. 
His suspicious temper made him afraid 
of every man of merit and popularity, 
and while he mercilessly sacrificed many 
to his fears, his avarice led him to put 
to death a number of wealthy persons 
for the sake of their property. It would 
be impossible within our limits to give 



even an outline of his various crimes. 
Twenty pages of Dion Cassius are filled 
with the recital of his murders, his vices 
and his follies. But he was no less dis- 
tinguished for the viciousness than for the 
vanity of his character. With the single 
exception of Agricola's triumph in Bri- 
tain, the Roman armies in every part of the 
globe sustained during his reign great hu- 
miliation ; yet he held numerous triumphs 
for his victories, and assumed different sur- 
names in commemoration of them. At 
length the increasing suspicions of the ty- 
rant, which threatened the life of every 
one around him, and which were stimu- 
lated by the predictions of astrologers and 
soothsayers, led to a conspiracy being 
formed against him ; and he was cut off in 
his apartments, after a desperate struggle, 
in his forty-fifth year, and in the fifteenth 
of his reign. On the news of his death, 
the senate elected M. Cccceius Nerva em- 
peror, and issued a decree that the name 
of Domitian should be struck out of the 
Roman annals, and obliterated from every 
public monument. 

Domitius, I., the first of the Domitian 
family at Rome that bore the surname of 
Ahenobarbus, lived about the beginning 
of the sixth century u. c. — II. Son of 
the preceding, was plebeian aedile a. u. c. 
558, praetor a. u. c. 560, and consul ten 
years later. — III. Cn. Ahenobarbus, a 
Roman consul, b. c. 122, who conquered 
Bituitus the Gaul, left 20,000 of the enemy 
on the field of battle, and took 3000 pri- 
soners. On his return to Rome he ob- 
tained a triumph, nr I V. Lucius Aheno- 
barbus was quaestor b. c. 66, and consul 
b. c. 54. His whole public career was 
marked by hostility to Caesar; and he 
finally fell in the flight after the battle of 
Pharsalia. — V. Cn. Ahenobarbus, son of 
the preceding, whom he rivalled in his 
antipathy to Caesar. He joined the party 
of Brutus and Cassius, but after the battle 
of Philippi went over to the triumvirs, was 
pardoned, and obtained the consulship 

a. u. c. 722. He subsequently attached 
himself to Octavius in opposition to An- 
tony. — VI. Cn. Ahenobarbus, who mar- 
ried Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, 

b. c. 28, by whom he became father of 
Nero. He is infamous for his ferocity, 
brutality, and crimes. 

Donatus, ^Elius, I., a celebrated gram- 
marian, born about a. d. 333. He was pre- 
ceptor of St. Jerome, and wrote Commen- 
taries on Virgil and Terence, and a work 
upon grammar, which long enjoyed great 
celebrity. — II. A bishop of Numidia, in 
the fourth century, who, according to some 

L 



218 



DON 



DOR 



writers, founded the sect of Donatists, 
which grew out of a schism produced by 
the election of a bishop of Carthage. He 
was deposed and excommunicated a. d. 31 3 
and 314. — III. A bishop of Carthage a.d. 
316. He continued the schism produced 
by his namesake, which led to a persecu- 
tion under Constans, in which the impe- 
rial arms triumphed, and Donatus died in 
exile about a. d. 355. According to St. 
Augustine, this prelate maintained an 
inequality of Persons in the Trinity. 

Donysa, Raclia, an island in the Icarian 
sea, one of the Sporades, famous for its 
green marble. 

Dores, one of the branches of the great 
Hellenic race, commonly supposed to have 
derived their origin from Dorus, a son of 
Hellen, and whose first seats appear to 
have been about Mount Olympus, whence 
they migrated southwards, and settled in 
the district named from them Doris, be- 
tween Mount CEta and Parnassus. (See 
Doris. ) Herodotus mentions five succes- 
sive migrations of this race ; but the last 
and the greatest was the migration of the 
Dorians to the Peloponnesus, called in 
history " the return of the Heraclidae," and 
which is stated to have occurred b. c. 1104. 
(See Heraclidae.) This important event 
changed the whole character of the Pelo- 
ponnesus. The new settlers founded a 
military and landed aristocracy, and de- 
stroyed every trace of the manners and 
institutions of their predecessors ; while 
the conquered people, driven out of the 
Peloponnesus, retired into Attica, where 
the ancient seeds of Oriental customs and 
religion had been preserved. Athens be- 
came the capital of the Ionian cities ; 
Sparta of the Dorian. From that period 
begins afresh, on a new stage, the animated 
contest of these two races, who have left 
the stamps of their peculiar genius in the 
two legislative codes of Solon and Lycur- 
gus. The Pelasgian or Ionian character 
is to be recognized in the elegance of the 
manners of Attica, its love of art and desire 
of amusement ; the Grecian or Dorian cha- 
racter is to be seen in the rude severity and 
unbending and fierce patriotism of Sparta. 
Here a powerful aristocracy, there a stormy 
democracy ; on the one hand agriculture, 
an exuberant soil, and numerous and well 
disciplined armies ; on the other, com- 
merce, adventurous enterprises, the wealth 
of industry, and great naval power. The 
natural discrepancy of the two races was 
exhibited, besides, in the Peloponnesian 
war. Sparta triumphed in the field of 
battle ; but Athens owed to the genius of 
her artists and her writers much nobler 



and more lasting triumphs than those of 
arms. The martial kingdom of Philip and 
Alexander issued forth from the heart of 
the Dorians ; but the Athenian schools of 
philosophy reigned no less over the minds 
of men. The originally broad distinctions 
of the two races gradually wore away, 
however, in the amalgamating process of a 
uniform civilisation; and when the Romans 
formed Greece into a province of their 
great empire, they left there but one peo- 
ple, one religion, one language, and one 
common degradation. 

Dorias, a river of India extra Gangem, 
said to correspond either to Pegu or to 
Zangan. 

Dorion, an ancient town of Messenia, 
where Thamyris, the musician, challenged 
the Muses to a trial of skill. Homer 
assigns Dorion to the dominions of Nestor ; 
but Hesiod removes the scene of the story 
of Thamyris to Dotium in Thessaly. 

Doris, a country of Greece, south of 
Thessaly, from which it was separated by 
the range of Mt. CEta. It was a territory 
of small size, being only about forty miles 
in length ; but the country, though moun- 
tainous, had several beautiful plains, and 
was very fruitful. (See Dores.) — II. A 
colony of the Dorians in Asia Minor, on 
the coast of Caria, who formed themselves 
into six independent states, confined within 
the bounds of as many cities, Camirus, Cos, 
Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Ialyssus, and Lin- 
dus. Other cities in the tract, called from 
them Doris, belonged to their confede- 
racy; but the inhabitants of these six, as 
genuine Dorians, were alone admitted into 
the temple at Triope, where they exhibited 
games in honour of Apollo Triopius. 
When Agasicles of Halicarnassus won the 
prize, a brazen tripod, he carried it to his 
own house, instead, as was invariably the 
custom, of consecrating it in the temple of 
the god ; and the city of Halicarnassus 
was ever afterwards excluded from the 
Dorian confederacy, and from that time the 
Dorians were known by the name of the 
five cities, Peniapolis, no longer by that 
of Hexapolis. — III. Goddess of the sea, 
daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, and wife 
of Nereus, by whom she had fifty daugh- 
ters called Nereids. Her name was used 
to express the sea itself. — IV. A daughter 
of Xenetus of Locri, second wife of Dio- 
nysius the Elder, of Sicily, and mother 
of Dionysius II. 

Doriscus, a plain of Thrace, near the 
mouth of the Hebrus, where Xerxes num- 
bered his forces. 

Dorsennus, more correctly Dossennus, 
a Roman Comic poet and writer of Atel- 



DOR 



DRU 



219 



lane fables, who enjoyed no mean reputa- 
tion as a popular dramatist. 

Dorso, C. Fabius, a Roman who, when 
Rome was in possession of the Gauls, issued 
from the Capitol, then besieged, to go and 
offer, on Mount Quirinalis, a state sacrifice 
enjoined on the Fabian house. Having 
finished his sacrifice, he returned to the 
Capitol unmolested by the enemy, who 
were astonished at his boldness. 

Dorus, a son of Hellen, See Dores. 

DortLuEum and Doryl^us, Eshi-shehr, 
a city of Phrygia, on the confines of Bi- 
thynia. 

Doson, a surname of Antigonus III., 
because he promised and never performed ; 
Suktwu, about to give. See Antigonus 

ni. 

Draco, I., a celebrated lawgiver of 
Athens, who flourished about b. c. 621. 
When archon, he made a code of laws, 
which, on account of their severity, were said 
to be written in characters of blood. By 
them, idleness was punished with as much 
severity as murder, and death was de- 
nounced against the one as well as the 
other. But the Athenians could not en- 
dure the rigour of this code, and the legis- 
lator was obliged to withdraw to the 
island of iEgina, where he was suffocated 
in the theatre beneath the number of 
cloaks and garments which the people of 
the island, according to the usual mode of 
expressing approbation among the Greeks, 
showered on him. 

Drances, a friend of Latinus, and an 
obstinate opponent of the violent measures 
which Turnus adopted against the Tro- 
jans. 

Dranq^;. See Zarang^t. 

Dravus, Drave, a river of Germany, 
rising in the Norican Alps, and falling 
into the Danube, near Comacum. Ptol. 
calls it the Darus. 

Drepanum or Drepana, Trapani, a 
town of Sicily, north of Lilybseum, near 
Mt. Eryx, where iEneas buried Anchises. 
It was founded by Hamilcar in the be- 
ginning of the first Punic war ; and next 
to Lilybaeum it formed the most important 
maritime city held by the Carthaginians in 
Sicily. Drepanum was so called from the 
curvature of the shore in its vicinity re- 
sembling a scythe (Ppeiravov.') — II. A town 
of Bithynia, on the Sinus Astacemis, called 
by Constantine the Great, Hellenopolis. — 
HI, A promontory on -the Sinus Arabi- 
cus, below Arsinoe, now Ras Zafrane. 

Drilo, a river of Illyricum, falling into 
the Adriatic at Lissus. It is the largest 
of the Illyrian rivers. 

Dromus Achillis, a promontory near 



the mouth of the Borysthenes. Achilles, 
having entered the Euxine with a hostile 
fleet, after ravaging the coast, landed on 
this promontory, and exercised himself 
and his followers in running and other 
gymnastic sports. The modern name is 
Kossa Oscharigatsh. 

Druentius and Druentia, Durance, a 
river of Gaul, rising among the Alpes 
Cottia?, and falling into the Rhodanus, 
Rhone, three miles from Avenio, Avignon. 

Druids, the ministers of religion among 
the ancient Gauls and Britons. Britain 
was the great school of the Druids ; and 
the island Mona, now Anglesey, was their 
chief settlement. The natives of Gaul and 
Germany, who wished to be thoroughlv 
versed in Druidism, resorted to this island 
to complete their studies. The Druids 
were held in the greatest veneration by 
the people. They could declare war and 
make peace, and their power extended be- 
yond private families, for they could de- 
pose magistrates and kings, if their actions 
deviated from the laws of the state. They 
were entrusted with the education of youth, 
and taught the doctrine of the metempsycho- 
sis and the immortality of the soul. In their 
sacrifices they often immolated human vic- 
tims to their gods, a custom which the Ro- 
mans in vain attempted to abolish. Their 
office was open to every rank and station. 
The chief information we have respecting 
the Druids is derived from Csesar ; though 
they are also mentioned by Strabo, Tacitus, 
Pliny, and other writers. Lucan has left 
a splendid description of their sacred groves 
in the second Book of the Pharsalia. Upon 
this simple superstructure numerous inge- 
nious theories of the origin of the Druids 
have been raised by the moderns, upon 
which our limits preclude us from entering. 
We may, however, remark, that the name 
Druid, which was so long regarded as of 
Greek derivation (dpvs, an oak,) is now 
supposed to be of Eastern origin, being 
derived from an Arabic term signifying 
poor. On the introduction of Christianity 
the Druids were gradually extirpated ; but 
the ancient Culdees are sometimes said to 
have been a remnant of this order. 

Drusilla, I., Livia, a daughter of Ger- 
manicus and Agrippina, born at Augusta 
Treverorum, Treves, a. d. 15. She lived in 
incestuous intercourse with Caligula before 
she was seventeen, was subsequently twice 
married, and died, after a brief career of 
vice and infamy, in her twenty-third year. 
Divine honours were paid to her memory 
by Caligula, and medals struck to her me- 
mory. — II. A daughter of Agrippa, king 
of Judaea, remarkable for her beauty. Her 
l 2 



220 



DRU 



DUI 



first husband was Epiphanes, son. of Anti- 
ochus, king of Commagene ; but she soon 
transferred her affections and her hand to 
Azizus, king of Emesa ; and having subse- 
quently renounced Judaeism, she married 
Felix, governor of Judaea, with whom she 
was present at Caesarea when St. Paul was 
brought before him. Drusilla is erro- 
neously said by Tacitus to have been the 
grand-daughter of Antony and Cleopatra. 

Drusus, a surname given to the family 
of the Livii, because one of them killed a 
Gaulish leader of that name. Virgil men- 
tions the Drusi among the illustrious Ro- 
mans, perhaps more particularly because 
the wife of Augustus was of that family. 
The plebeian family of the Drusi produced 
eight consuls, two censors, and one dic- 
tator. Of this family the most distin- 
guished individuals were, I., M. Livius, 
son of Caius Livius Drusus, who was 
elected tribune of the people, b. c. 123, and 
for his opposition to the measures of the 
Gracchi received the name of Patronus 
Senatus. He was afterwards raised to the 
consulship ; and in his old age, when de- 
prived of sight, delivered lectures on civil 
law. — II. M. Livius, son of the pre- 
ceding, and grandfather of Livia, wife of 
Augustus, was a man of great eloquence 
and upright intentions ; but having, as tri- 
bune of the people, a. u. c. 662, proposed a 
large extension of the franchise, he was mur- 
dered as he entered his house by an unknown 
assassin, though attended by a number of 
clients. — III. Claudius Nero, son of Tib. 
Claudius Nero and Livia, and brother of 
the emperor Tiberius, was born b. c. 38, 
three months after his mother's marriage 
with Augustus. Assisted by his brother 
Tiberius, he subjugated the Rhaeti and 
Vindelici, b. c. 17. He next served in 
Gaul, with honour, under Augustus, and 
subsequently, in four successive campaigns 
in Germany, advanced the Roman arms as 
far as the Elbe. He was honoured with an 
ovation, and was elected successively praetor 
and proconsul ; but died on his return 
from his fourth German campaign near 
the Rhine, in his thirtieth year, in conse- 
quence of a fall from his horse. His re- 
mains were conveyed to Rome and buried 
with great solemnity, Augustus and Tibe- 
rius pronouncing the funeral orations ; and 
the surname of Germanicus was conferred 
on himself and his descendants. By his 
wife Antonia, daughter of Antony and 
Octavia, he left three children, Germanicus, 
Livia, and Claudius. — IV. A son of the 
emperor Tiberius and Vipsania, who served 
with intrepidity and courage in Illyricum 
and Pannonia. He was raised to the great- 



est honours of the state by his father. A 
blow given to Sejanus, the imperial fa- 
vourite, proved his ruin ; for, in conjunc- 
tion with Livia, wife of Drusus, Sejanus 
caused him to be poisoned, a. d. 23, and 
the murder was not discovered till eight 
years afterwards, when Livia was put to 
death. — V. Son of Germanicus and Agrip- 
pina, and brother of Nero and Caligula. 
He enjoyed offices of trust under Tiberius, 
who, however, in consequence of the false 
accusations of Sejanus, starved him to 
death, a. d. 33. 

Dryades, Nymphs who presided over 
the woods. The Dryades differed from 
the Hamadryades, because the latter were 
attached to some particular tree, with which 
they were born and died; whereas the 
Dryades were the goddesses of the trees 
and woods in general, and lived at large 
in the midst of them. Oblations of milk, 
oil, and honey, and sometimes a goat, were 
offered to them. The derivation of Ha- 
madryades is from afia, together with, and 
Spvs, an oak or a tree. 

Dryantiades, a patronymic of Lycur- 
gus, son of Dryas, king of Thrace, who 
cut his legs, as he attempted to destroy 
the vines, that no libations might be made 
to Bacchus. 

DRYMiEA, Dadi, a town of Phocis, on the 
Cephisus, north-east of Elateia, destroyed 
by the Persians under Xerxes. 

Dryope, I., daughter of Eurytus or 
Dryops, mother of Amphissus by Apollo, 
and wife of Andraemon. She was changed 
into a lote tree. — II. A nymph who be- 
came mother of Tarquitus by Faunus. 

Dryopes, a people of Greece, near 
Mts. OZta and Parnassus, so called from 
Dryope, daughter of Eurypylus. The 
inhabitants themselves advocated their fa- 
bulous origin from Apollo ; hence, when 
Hercules had overcome them, he carried 
them prisoners to Delphi, where he pre- 
sented them to their divine progenitor, 
who commanded the hero to take them to 
the Peloponnesus. Hercules obeyed, and 
gave them a settlement there near the 
Asinean and Hermionian territories ; hence 
the Asineans came to be blended with the 
Dryopes, whose name they also assumed. 
But according to Herodotus, they passed 
into Eubcea, and thence into the Pelopon- 
nesus and Asia Minor. 

Dubis, now Doubs or Doux, a river of 
Gallia, rising at the foot of Mt. Jura, and 
falling into the Arar, Saone. 

Dubris Portus, a town of Britain, sup- 
posed to be Dover. 

Duillia lex, a law enacted by M. 
Duillius, a tribune, a. u. c. 304, which 



DUI 



ECB 



221 



made it a capital crime to leave the 
Roman people without its tribunes, or to 
create any new magistrate, from which 
there was no appeal. 

Dcillius, C. Nepos, a Roman consul, 
the first who obtained a victory over the 
naval power of Carthage, b. c. 260. By 
means of grappling-irons, he so connected 
the ships of the Carthaginians with his 
own, that the contest became a sort of 
land-fight ; and, by this unexpected ma- 
noeuvre, he took eighty, destroyed thirteen, 
and obtained a naval triumph, the first 
ever enjoyed at Rome. Medals were 
struck in commemoration of this victory, 
and a column erected, Columna Rostrata, so 
called because adorned with beaks of ships. 

DclichIusi, the principal island in the 
group of the Echinades. Strabo contends 
that the Dolicha of his time, at the mouth 
of the Achelous, opposite to GEniadae, was 
the real Dulichium ; but the whole ques- 
tion as to its site is involved in obscu- 
rity. 

Dumxorix, a powerful chief among the 
^dui, who revolted from Caesar, and was 
in consequence put to death. 

Dtmius, Douro, a river of Spain, which 
rises in the chain of Mons Idubeda, and, 
after a course of 300 miles, flows into 
the Atlantic. At its mouth stood Calle, 
styled Portus Calles, by corruption Por- 
tugal. 

Dcrocasses, Dreux, a city of the Ebu- 
rovices in Gallia Lugdunensis, and chief 
residence of the Druids in Gaul. 

Durocotorum, Rheims, capital of the 
Remi, on the Vesle, one of the branches 
of the Axona, Aisne, 

Duumviri, an appellation among the 
Romans given to any magistrates elected 
in pairs to perform any function or class 
of functions. The chief Duumviri were 
the Duumviri Sacrorum, to whom were 
entrusted the care and interpretation of 
the Sibylline books. The Duumviri Mu- 
nicipales held almost consular power in 
the municipal cities. The Duumviri Na- 
vales were officers appointed to man, equip, 
and command the Roman navy. There 
were also other Duumviri created for 
special purposes. 

Dtmj;, also called Stratos, and Palaea, 
the last of The Achaean towns to the west. 
From being contiguous to Elis and iEto- 
lia, its territory was frequently laid waste 
by the united armies of those states. 

Dymas, I., a Trojan, who joined himself 
to -Eneas when Troy was taken; and, 
having dressed himself in the armour of 
one of the Greeks whom he had slain, was 
killed by his countrymen, who took him 



to be an enemy. — II. The father of He- 
cuba. 

Dvras, a river of Thessaly, said to have 
sprung from the ground in order to assist 
Hercules, when burning on the pile on 
Mount CEta. 

Dvris, the name given to Mt. Atlas by 
the neighbouring inhabitants. 

Dtrrachidm, Durazzo, a city of II- 
lyricum, previously called Epidamnus, 
which see. 



E. 

EIkus, a name of Janus among the an- 
cient Latins. 

Ebora, I., called also Liberalitas Julia, 
a city of Lusitania, south of the Tagus, 
north of the Anas. It is now Evora, chief 
city of the province of Alontejo. — II. A 
fortress in Hispania Baetica, on the east- 
ern bank of the Baetis. — III. A city of 
Hispania Tarraconensis, near the Tamaris, 
supposed to be identical with Muros, near 
the mouth of the Tambre, or with Obre at 
the mouth of the Tamaro. 

Eboracdm, York, a city of Britain, in 
the territory of the Brigantes. Next to 
Londinium, it was the most important 
city in the island ; and it formed a conve- 
nient post for the Romans during their 
continual struggles with the northern na- 
tions of Britain. Septimus Severus died 
here. Many vestiges of Roman power and 
magnificence are still traceable. 

Ebud^;, Hebrides, the western isles of 
Britain, Ptol. makes them five in number ; 
of which two properly bear the name of 
Ebudae, and the remaining three, Maleus, 
Epidium, and Ricina. Pliny calls them 
all Hebrides Insulas. 

Eburones, a nation of Belgic Gaul, 
whose territory corresponded to the mo- 
dern Liege, Under the conduct of Am- 
biorix, they defeated Sabinus and Cotta ; 
but Caesar inflicted a severe retaliation, 
and almost extirpated their race. Their 
capital was Aduatuca ; which was rebuilt 
by the Tungri, and is now Tongres. 

Ebusus, one of' the Pityusae, or Pine 
islands, named from the number of pine- 
trees with which they abounded. Ebusus 
was the largest of the number, and famous 
for vines, olives, large figs, and wool. Some 
call it simply Pityusa. By a slight cor- 
ruption it is now called Iviga, and still 
produces corn, wine, oil, &c. in abundance. 

Ecbatana, (orum,) I., more correctly 
Agbatana, the capital of Media, situated 
about twelve stadia from Mt. Orontes. It 
was surrounded by seven walls, which rose 
L 3 



222 



ECH 



EGN 



in gradual ascent, and were painted in 
seven different colours. The innermost, 
which was the most celebrated, contained 
the royal palace. It is supposed to have 
been founded by Dejoces, b. c. 690, though 
the eastern writers dated its foundation at 
least twelve centuries earlier. The Per- 
sian monarchs spent in Ecbatana the two 
hottest months of the year, and the great 
eminence which it attained under their sway 
was retained, amid all the changes of em- 
pire, down to the fourth century of our 
era. The site of Ecbatana has given 
rise to much discussion. Gibbon and Sir 
W. Jones contend for Tabriz ; but D' An- 
ville, Rennell, Mannert, and most of the 
more recent scholars of Europe, for Ham- 
viedan. — II. A city of Syria, at the foot 
of Mt. Carmel, supposed to coincide with 
Caiffa. It had a celebrated school of the 
Magi. 

Echidna, a celebrated monster sprung 
from the union of Chrysaor with Callir- 
rhoe, daughter of Oceanus, and repre- 
sented as a beautiful woman in the upper 
parts of the body, but as a serpent below 
the waist. She was the mother of Cer- 
berus, Hydra, Typhon, and other monsters 
of Grecian mythology. 

Echinades, islands formerly lying oppo- 
site the mouth of the Achelous, but which 
for the most part have become connected 
with the land by the alluvial deposits of the 
muddy waters of the river. Under the 
command of Megas they furnished a con- 
tingency of troops for the Trojan war. 

Echinussa. See Cimolus. 

Echion, one of those who sprang from 
the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus. He 
was one of the four that survived the con- 
flict that ensued, and assisted Cadmus in 
building Thebes. He married Agave, 
daughter of Cadmus, by whom he became 
father of Pentheus, and succeeded his 
father-in-law on the throne of Thebes ; 
hence the epithet " Echionian " applied by 
the poets to that city. 

Echionides, a patronymic given to 
Pentheus from his father Echion. 

Echo, a daughter of Aer and Tellus, 
who chiefly resided in the vicinity of the 
Cephisus. She was one of Juno's attend- 
ants ; but her loquacity having displeased 
Jupiter, of whose amours she had become 
cognisant, she was deprived of the power 
of speech by Juno, and only permitted to 
answer questions. Echo fell in love with 
Narcissus, and her love being slighted, 
she pined away, and was changed into a 
stone, which still retained the power of 
voice. 

Ectenes, the original inhabitants of 



Thebes, in Bceotia, exterminated by 2 
plague, and succeeded by the Hyantes. 

Edessa, I., a city of Mesopotamia, in 
the district of Osroene, on the banks of 
the small river Scirtus. It was once a 
place of great importance, and was famous 
for a temple of the Syrian goddess, which 
was one of the richest in the world. 
Edessa was called Calirrboe, from a foun- 
tain contained within it, which still exists. 
It was one of the numerous cities built bv 
Seleucus Nicator ; but at a later period it 
was seized by Ahgarus, and, together with 
its territory, erected into a kingdom, which 
h e transmitted to his posterity. 1 n later times 
it was termed Roba, or Orrboa, by abbre- 
viation Orha. The modern name is Orrhoa 
or Orfa. — II. Called also iEdessa and 
JEgse, a city of Macedonia, situated on the 
Via Egnatia, thirty miles west from Pella. 
It was originally the capital of Macedonia, 
and after the seat of power was transferred 
to Pella, it became theplaee of sepulture of 
the royal family. Philip was assassinated 
here. It is generally agreed that the town 
Vodina represents this ancient city. 

Edetani, a people of Spain, south of the 
Iberus, whose territory corresponds to the 
northern half of Valencia, and the south- 
western corner of Arragon. 

Edon, a mountain of Thrace, called also 
Edonus ; hence that part of Thrace which 
lies between the Strymon and Ness us is 
often called Edonis. 

Edoni or Edones, 3 people of Thrace, 
near the Strymon, whose name is often 
used to express the whole of the nation, of 
which they formed a part. 

Edonides, a name given to the priestesses 
of Bacchus, because they celebrated his 
festivals on Mt. Edon. 

Eetjon, I., father of Andromache, and 
king of Thebes in Troas ; hence Eetioneus, 
applied to his relations or descendants. — 
II. Commander of the Athenian fleet, 
conquered by the Macedonians under Cli- 
tus, near the Echinades. 

Egeria, a Nymph of Aricia in Italy, 
the wife and instructress of Numa. (See 
Nitma.) Ovid says that Egeria was so 
disconsolate at the death of Numa, that she 
melted into tears, and was changed into a 
fountain by Diana. Some regarded her as 
one of the Camoena? ; others maintain that 
she is identical with Lucina or Diana. 

Egesta. See iE-GEsxA. 

Egnatia or Gnatia, a maritime town 
of Apulia, which communicated its name 
to the consular way along the coast from 
Canusiumto Brundisiun. Its ruins are still 
apparent near the Torre oVAgnazza. and the 
town of Munopdi, 



EIO 

Eion, a port at the mouth of the Stry- 
mon, twenty-five stadia from Amphipolis. 
of which it formed the harbour. It is fa- 
mous in history for its gallant resistance 
to the Greeks under Cimon.. In the 
middle ages a Byzantine town was built 
on the site of Eion, now Contessa. 

El^ea, Ialea, the port of the city of 
Pergamus, said to have been founded by 
Mnestheus after the siege of Troy. 

Elagabalus, I., a surname of the sun 
at Emesa. — II. The name of a Roman 
emperor. See Emesa and Heliogabalus. 

Elaphebolia, a festival celebrated in 
Phocis and other parts of Greece in honour 
of Diana the Huntress. It was instituted 
in commemoration of an unexpected victory 
gained by the Phocians over the Thessa- 
lians ; and, in the celebration, a cake was 
made in the form of a deer, tKaspos, and 
offered to the goddess. 

Elatea, the most important of the 
Phocian cities, after Delphi, near which 
was the temple of Minerva Cranam. It 
was captured and burnt by Xerxes, but 
being afterwards restored was occupied by 
Philip of Macedonia, — an event which 
struck terror into the Athenians. During 
the Macedonian war, it was besieged and 
taken by the Romans. Its ruins are to be 
seen on the site called Elephta, on the left 
bank of the Cephisus. 

El aver, Alder, a river of Gaul, falling 
into the Liger below Nevers. 

Elea, a city of Lucania. See Velia. 

Electra, I., one of the Oceanides, wife 
of Atlas, and mother of Dardanus, by 
Jupiter. — II. A daughter of Atlas and 
Pleione, and one of the Pleiades. (See 
Pleiades). — III. A daughter of Aga- 
memnon, king of Argos. On the murder 
of her father, she rescued her brother 
Orestes from the hands of iEgisthus ; and, 
when he grew up to manhood, first incited 
him to revenge his father's death, by assas- 
sinating his mother Clytemnestra. She 
married Pylades, cousin and friend of 
Orestes, and became mother of two sons, 
Strophius and Medon. Her adventures 
and misfortunes formed the subject of two 
plays, one by Sophocles, the other by 
Euripides. 

Electrides, certain islands in the Adri- 
atic, named from the quantity of amber 
(electrum) they produced. But some his- 
torians doubt of their existence. 

Electryon, son of Perseus and Andro- 
meda, brother of Alcseus, father of Ale- 
mama, and king of Mycenae. See Amphi- 
tryon. 

Elei, the people of Elis in Peloponne- 
sus. See Elis. 



ELE 223 

Eleleus, a surname of Bacchus, from a 
Greek word signifying <: to excite." 

Elephantine, an island of Egypt, on the 
Nile, with a city of the same name. Pliny 
calls it Elephantis Insula. The island was 
remarkable for its fertility ; and as the cata- 
racts of the Nile were not far distant, its capi- 
tal became the depot for all the goods that 
were destined for the countries to the south, 
and that required land-carriage in this 
quarter to avoid the falls of the river. In 
the time of the Pharaohs the garrison 
stationed on the frontiers against the 
^Ethiopians had their head quarters at 
Elephantine. In the Roman times, how- 
ever, the frontiers were pushed farther 
south. The modern name of Elephan- 
tine is Gezyret Assuan, " Island of Syene." 
Some ruins of great beauty are found 
here. 

Elephantophagi, a people of Ethio- 
pia. 

Eleusinia, a great festival observed every 
fourth year by the Celeans, Phliasians, Phe- 
neatas, Lacedaemonians, Parrhasians, and 
Cretans, but more particularly by the people 
of Athens, every fifth year, at Eleusis, in 
Attica, where it is said to have been intro- 
duced by Eumolpus, b. c. 1356. It was 
the most celebrated of all the religious 
ceremonies of Greece ; hence often called, 
by way of eminence, Mv<ni)pia, " Mys- 
teries." These festivals were instituted at 
Eleusis, in honour of Ceres and Proser- 
pine ; the former of whom was believed to 
have taught the inhabitants the art of 
agriculture and the holy doctrine, — a doc- 
trine which was said not only to purify the 
heart from sin, and expel ignorance from 
the mind, but to insure also the favour of 
the gods, and to open the gates of immor- 
tal felicity to the initiated. The mysteries, 
like those of Egypt, were of two kinds, — 
the less and the greater, — held at two 
different periods of the year, and at two 
different places : the lesser, which were 
introductory to the greater, being cele- 
brated at Agras, on the banks of the Ilys- 
sus ; the greater at Eleusis. The cele- 
bration of the greater mysteries occupied 
nine days, chiefly devoted to sacrifices, 
processions, and other acts of worship ; and 
during this period the judicial tribunals 
were closed ; an armistice was proclaimed ; 
private enmities were hushed ; and death 
was decreed by the Athenian senate against 
any one, how high soever in rank, who 
should disturb the sanctity of the rites. 
The ceremonies of initiation into both the 
lesser and greater mysteries were con- 
ducted by four priests of the most illus- 
trious families of Greece, called Hiero- 
l 4 



224 



ELE 



ELI 



phant, Dadouchos, Hierokeryx, and Epi- 
domias , and these again were assisted by 
numerous inferior functionaries, to whom 
various appellations were given indicative 
of their several duties. The examination 
of those who had been purified by the 
lesser mysteries, and who were preparing 
for the greater, was apparently rigorous. 
All foreigners, all who had even involun- 
tarily committed homicide, who had been 
declared infamous by the laws, or had 
been guilty of a notorious crime, were 
excluded ; but these regulations were not 
immutable, for various instances might be 
produced to show that homicides and 
robbers were sometimes initiated. Women 
and children were admissible ; and a child, 
styled the child of holiness, whose innocence, 
it was believed, of itself endowed him with 
capacity to fulfil the requirements of the 
mysteries, was selected to conciliate the 
deity in the name of the initiated. Of the 
ceremonies which attended the initiation 
we know little ; since every postulant was 
required, under the most dreadful oaths, 
to conceal whatever he saw or heard within 
the hallowed precincts ; and he who vio- 
lated the oath was not only put to death, 
but devoted to the execration of all pos- 
terity. The Eleusinian mysteries long 
survived the independence of Greece. 
They were carried from Eleusis to Rome 
in the reign of Hadrian ; and were at 
length abolished by Theodosius the Great. 

Eleusis, or Eleusin, I., an ancient city of 
Boeotia, which stood near Copae and the 
lake Copais, and was, with another ancient 
city, named Athenae, inundated by the 
waters of that lake. — II. A city of At- 
tica, equi-distant from Megara and the 
Piraeus, and famed for the celebration of 
the mysteries of Ceres. The origin of 
Eleusis is lost in obscurity. At a very 
early period it was an independent state of 
some importance ; but a war in which it 
engaged with the Athenians resulted in its 
being subjected to the latter. The temple 
of Eleusis was burned by the Persian army 
in the invasion of Attica, but was rebuilt, 
under the administration of Pericles, by 
Ictinus, the architect of the Parthenon ; 
was again entirely destroyed by Alaric, 
a.d. 396, and has ever since remained in 
ruins. Eleusis was classed among the 
Attic demi, and belonged to the tribe 
Hippothoontis. It is now called Lessina, 
an inconsiderable village, inhabited by a 
few Albanian Christians. See Eleusinia. 

Eleuther.«e, a city of Attica, on the 
road from Eleusis to Plataea, which appears 
to have once belonged to Boeotia, but 
finally became included within the limits 



of Attica. The site of the town is occu- 
pied by Gypto- Castro. 

EleutherJa, a festival instituted by the 
confederate Greeks after the battle of 
Plataea in honour of Jupiter Eleutherius, 
or the assertor of liberty. It was an- 
nually held at Plataea by delegates from 
all the cities of Greece, and continued to 
be celebrated down to the time of Plu- 
tarch. There was also a festival of the 
same name observed by the Samians in 
honour of the god of love. Slaves also, 
when they obtained their liberty, kept a 
holiday, called Elevtheria. 

Eleuthero-cilices, a name given to 
those of the Cilicians who had fled to the 
mountains when the Greek settlers esta- 
blished themselves in that country. The 
appellation, which means " Free Cili- 
cians," has been supposed to refer to their 
independent mode of life ; but the Greeks 
maintain that when Myrina, queen of the 
Amazons, was spreading her conquests 
over Asia Minor, the Cilicians, being the 
only people that voluntarily surrendered 
to her, were allowed to retain their free- 
dom, in allusion to which they assumed 
the name of " Free Cilicians." 

Eleuthero-lacones, a title conferred 
by Augustus on the inhabitants of several 
maritime towns of Laconia, for the zeal 
which they had early displayed in favour 
of the Romans. 

Eleutheropolis, a city of Palestine, 
twenty-four miles north-east from Ascalon, 
and twenty south-west from Jerusalem. 
It was founded in the third century of 
our era ; and in the time of Eusebius and 
Jerome was an important and flourishing 
city. It was the birthplace of St. Epi- 
phanius. 

Eleutho, a surname of Juno Lucina, 
from her coming, when invoked, to the aid 
of women in labour. 

Eliaci, a name given to the sect of 
philosophers established, after the Socratic 
model, by Phaedo of Elis. 

Elicius, a surname of Jupiter, wor- 
shipped on Mt. Aventine. The Romans 
gave him this name, because they believed 
that they could draw him down (elicere) 
from the sky to inform them how to ex- 
piate prodigies, &c. This epithet has clearly 
a reference to the art of drawing doom the 
electric fluid from the clouds, in which 
Numa was said to have been instructed by 
the nymph Egeria. 

Elimea, or Elimiotis, a region of 
Macedonia, east of Stymphalia. It was 
at one time independent, but was after- 
wards conquered by the kings of Ma- 
cedonia; and, finally, included by the 



ELI 



EMA 



225 



Romans in the fourth division of that 
province. 

Elis. I., a district of the Peloponnesus, 
included between Achaia, Arcadia, Mes- 
senia, and the sea. It was originally 
divided into three districts, Elis Proper, 
Pisatis, and Triphylia. The first of these 
occupied the northern section of the 
country ; the second, named from the city 
of Pisa, was that part of the Elean terri- 
tory through which flowed the Alpheus 
after its junction with the Erymanthus; 
the third formed the southern division. 
Some authors have derived the name of 
this portion of Elis from Triphylus, an Ar- 
cadian prince. But others ascribe it with 
more probability to the circumstance of its 
inhabitants having sprung from three dif- 
ferent nations (rpla (pv\a), the Epei, the 
Minyas or Arcadians, and the Eleans. 
The earliest inhabitants of this district 
were the Eleans or Pylians, who were 
greatly reduced by their wars with Her- 
cules ; but they subsequently acquired a 
great accession of strength by the influx of a 
large colony from JEtolia, under the conduct 
of Oxylus, who, having conquered Olym- 
pia and Pisa, re-established the Olympic 
games, which, though instituted by Her- 
cules, had been interrupted for several 
years. The Pisatae, who had remained 
masters of Olympia from the first celebra- 
tion of the festival, long disputed its pos- 
session with the Eleans, but they were 
finally conquered, when the temple and 
presidency of the games fell into the hands 
of their rivals, aided by the Spartans, whom 
they had assisted in their wars with Mes- 
senia. The Eleans were present in all the 
engagements fought against the Persians, 
and, in the Peloponnesian war, zealously 
adhered to the Spartan confederacy, until 
the conclusion of the treaty after the battle 
of Amphipolis, when an open rupture took 
place between them and the Lacedaemo- 
nians, in consequence of protection and 
countenance afforded by the latter to the 
inhabitants of Lepraeum, who had revolted 
from them. But after some years of 
misunderstanding, they were compelled to 
return to the Spartan alliance, b. c. 400. 
b. c. 365 they were engaged in a war with 
the iEtolians, which deprived them of 
almost all their southern territories ; and 
though, during the Social war, they re- 
mained the firm supporters of the JFao- 
lians, and never joined the Achaean league, 
they were included with the rest of the 
Peloponnesus in the general decree by 
which the whole of Greece was annexed 
to the Roman empire. Elis was by far 



the most fertile and populous district of 
the Peloponnesus, and its inhabitants are 
described as fond of agriculture and rural 
pursuits. — II. Capital of Elis, situated 
on the Peneus. It always remained 
without walls, as it was deemed sacred, 
and under the immediate protection of the 
god whose festival was there solemnised. 
The Olympic Games greatly contributed 
to the prosperity of the city. It is now 
PaltEopoli. 

Elissa. See Dido. 

Ellopia, a district of Euboea, in which 
Histiaea was situated. 

Elpinice, a daughter of Miltiades, who 
was promised in marriage to Callias, a 
wealthy Athenian, by her brother Ci- 
mon, on his being released from prison 
by the intervention of the former ; but 
she refused to fulfil the engagement, 
and her refusal was backed by her bro- 
ther. 

Elymais, a province of Persia, south of 
Media, and forming the northern part of 
the larger district of Susiana ; named from 
the Elymaei. Elymais, the metropolis of 
the province, was famed for a rich temple, 
which was ultimately plundered by the 
Parthians. 

Eltmiotis, a district of Macedonia, bor- 
dering on Thessaly and Epirus. 

Elysium, and ElysIi Campi, the region 
to which the souls of the virtuous were said 
by the poets to be transported after death. 
They are variously represented as a part of 
the infernal realms, or islands situated in 
the Western Ocean beyond the Columns 
of Hercules. The enjoyments of the blessed 
spirits in this abode were held to consist in 
the same pursuits that were their delight 
on earth, carried on in a calmer and hap- 
pier climate : beautifully described in the 
well-known passage of the Odyssey, iv. 
563-64., thus admirably rendered by the 
late A. Moore : — 

Thee to the Elysian plains, earth's farthest end, 
Where Rhadamanthus dwells, the gods shall 
send: 

There mortals easiest pass the careless hour ; 
There neither winter comes, nor snow, nor 
shower ; 

But ocean ever, to refresh mankind, 
Breathes the shrill spirit of the western wind. 

A tract on the coast of Campania was 
also termed the Elysian Fields. 

Emathia, the more ancient name of 
Macedonia. Polybius and Livy assert 
that it was originally called Paeonia ; but 
Homer mentions them as two distinct 
countries. 

Emathion, a son of Titan and Aurora, 
who reigned in Macedonia, and gave his 
l 5 



226 



EME 



ENN 



name to the country. Some suppose that 
he was a famous robber destroyed by Her- 
cules. 

Emerita Augusta, Merida, a town of 
Lusitania, on the northern bank of the 
Anas. 

Emesa, Hems, an ancient city of Syria, 
south-east of Epiphania. It was the 
birthplace of Heliogabalus, and contained 
a famous temple of the sun, in which he 
was priest. 

Emma us. See Nicopolis. 

Emodi Months, part of a chain of 
mountains in Asia, connected with those 
of Imaus, Paropamisus, and Caucasus. 

Empedocles, a philosopher, poet, and 
historian of Agrigentum in Sicily, who 
flourished about b. c. 450. His wealth 
no less than his talents, raised him to great 
eminence in his native city ; but he re- 
fused the sovereign power, which the citi- 
zens of Agrigentum were anxious that he 
should assume. After having travelled 
in various parts of the world, in Italy, 
Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt, he re- 
turned to Agrigentum, and is said to have 
thrown himself into the crater of Mount 
iEtna, that the manner of his death might 
not be known. The whole of his career 
is involved in great obscurity, and it 
would be impossible in this place to at- 
tempt to reconcile the discrepant state- 
ments that have been broached respecting 
him. His philosophical opinions are closely 
allied to those of Pythagoras. 

Emporia. See Bvzacium. 

Encecladus, a son of Titan and Terra, 
the most powerful of the giants who con- 
spired against Jupiter. According to the 
poets, he was overwhelmed under Mount 
JEtna ; and as often as he turned his 
weary side, the whole island of Sicily felt 
the motion, and shook from its founda- 
tions. 

Endymion, a shepherd, son of Aethlius 
and Calyce, whose adventures have been 
related with great variation. He is said 
to have been beloved by Diana or Selene, 
who frequently visited him in his cave on Mt. 
Latmus in Caria, where he used to spend 
the day in sleep ; and to have been raised 
to immortality by Jupiter, but afterwards 
hurled into Erebus for having aspired to 
the love of Juno. The loves of Endymion 
and Diana have formed a favourite subject 
of poetry and art in every age. The 
shepherd Endymion must not be con- 
founded with the king of the same name, 
who led a colony of JEolians from Thes- 
saly, and founded the city of Elis. 

EnIpeus, L, Malathria, a river of Ma- 
cedonia, rising on Mt. Olympus. — II. 



Goura, a river of Thessaly, flowing into 
the Apidanus, which afterwards enters the 
Peneus. Near it stood the city of Phar- 
salus. — III. A small river of Elis, flowing 
near the city of Salmone. In Strabo's 
time it was called the Barnichius. 

Enna, a city of Sicily, one of the most 
ancient seats of the Siculi, situated in the 
centre of a large and fertile plain, in which 
Proserpine was gathering flowers when 
she was carried away by Pluto. It was 
celebrated as the principal centre of the 
worship of Ceres, but it never enjoyed 
much importance in a political point of 
view. It formed the head quarters of the 
revolted slaves under Eunus during the 
first servile war, but was subsequently 
taken by the Romans, and from that pe- 
riod gradually declined. The site of Enna 
is occupied by Castro Giovanni ; but nearly 
all traces of its splendid temples, and even 
of the beauty of its neighbourhood, have 
disappeared. 

Ennea Hodoi (Nine ways), a spot in 
Thrace, near Amphipolis, so called from 
the nine roads which met there from dif- 
ferent parts of Thrace and Macedon. 

EnnJus, Q., a poet, who has generally 
received the distinguished appellation of 
the Father of Roman Song, was born at 
Rudiae, a town of Calabria, b. c. 239. 
When a young man he served in the army, 
and came from Sardinia in the train of 
M. Porcius Cato, b. c. 204, to Rome, 
where he passed the remainder of his life, 
except a short period, in which he accom- 
panied M. Fulvius Nobilior on an expe- 
dition against the iEtolians, b. c. 189. He 
was admitted to the honours of a Roman ci- 
tizen, b. c. 1 85. His convivial qualities lead- 
ing him into intemperance, he died b. c. 1 69, 
at the age of seventy, and was buried in the 
tomb of the Scipios, having lived on terms 
of the greatest intimacy with many mem- 
bers of that illustrious family. His chief 
work, which had the somewhat unpoetical 
name of Annales, was written in hex- 
ameters, a measure which he first intro- 
duced from the Greek, and consisted of a 
history of Rome in eighteen books. In 
addition to this work, he published four 
books of Satirse, a translation of the work 
of Euhemerus on the History of the Gods, 
besides numerous epigrams and minor 
pieces, of which the titles alone have been 
preserved. Though no portion of his works 
has been preserved entire, there can be no 
doubt whatever of their excellence. For a 
long series of years, his verses were recited 
to multitudes throughout Italy; even in 
the days of Cicero he was still considered 
the Prince of Roman song ; and Virgil 



ENT 



EPH 



227 



was not ashamed to borrow from Ennius 
many of his thoughts and expressions. 
The best edition of his works is that of 
Hesselius, Amstelo. 1707, 4to. 

Entella, a city of Sicily, near the 
Hypsa, and north-east of Selinus, said to 
have been founded by iEgestes. We find 
it, at one time, under the power of Car- 
thage, though with a free constitution : at 
a later period it was taken possession of 
by the Campani, and was finally captured 
by Dionysius. This city has retained its 
ancient name. 

Entellus, a Sicilian who was the friend 
and companion in arms of Eryx, and, when 
advanced in life, entered the lists against 
the Trojan Dares, whom he overcame in a 
pugilistic encounter. 

Enyalius, a Grecian surname of Mars, 
corresponding with the name Enyo, given 
to Bellona. 

Enyo, the Greek name of Bellona, god- 
dess of war. See Bellona. 

Eos, the name of Aurora among the 
Greeks, whence the epithet Eous is ap- 
plied to all the eastern parts of the 
world. 

Epaminondas, one of the most distin- 
guished generals of ancient Greece, was 
born at Thebes, b. c. 411, of an illustrious 
but decayed family. His father's name 
was Polymnis. His early youth was spent 
in the study of philosophy and the fine 
arts, and though he took part in the battle 
of Mantinea, at which he saved the life of 
Pelopidas, he once more retired into private 
life, from which he only emerged after Pe- 
lopidas had succeeded in freeing his country 
from Spartan influence. In the conspiracy 
by which that revolution was effected he 
took no part, refusing to stain his hands 
with the blood of his countrymen ; but he 
thenceforward became the prime mover of 
the Theban state. His policy was first 
directed to secure to Thebes the control 
over the other cities of Boeotia, seve- 
ral of which claimed to be independent, 
and in this cause he ventured to engage 
his country, single handed, in war with 
the Spartans, who marched into Bceotia 
B.C. 371, with a force superior to any 
which could be brought against them. 
Being placed at the head of the Theban 
army, he resolved on attacking the enemy 
notwithstanding the numerical inferiority 
of his trocps ; and by a new and skilful 
manoeuvre lie overthrew the Spartans in 
the memorable battle of Leuctra, and thus 
destroyed the belief in the invincibility of 
their arms, which had been prevalent since 
the time of Lycurgus. His ambition was 
now directed to place Thebes at the head 



of the republics of Greece ; and two years 
afterwards, being appointed one of the 
Boeotarchs in conjunction with Pelopidas, 
he threw himself into Laconia, took 
possession of Arcadia, reassembled the 
scattered remnants of the Messenians, and 
aided them in rebuilding their city on 
Mount Ithone, which had been formerly 
laid in ruins by the Spartans. In b. c. 368 
Epaminondas again led an army into the 
Peloponnesus ; but an unsuccessful cam- 
paign subjected him to the loss of popular 
favour, and he was degraded to the rank of 
private citizen. Pie afterwards served as a 
common soldier in an army sent to rescue 
Pelopidas from Alexander, tyrant of 
Pherae, and having saved the Theban 
forces from being totally destroyed, was 
reinstated in his former office of com- 
mander. Meanwhile, considerable defec- 
tions having taken place among the Theban 
allies, who had returned to the Spartan 
alliance, Epaminondas led an army into 
the Peloponnesus for the fourth time, 
b. c. 362. Joined by the Argives, Mes- 
senians, and part of the Arcadians, he 
entered Laconia, and endeavoured to take 
Sparta by surprise ; but the vigilance of 
Agesilaus frustrated his scheme, and he 
then marched against Mantinea, near 
which was fought the celebrated battle in 
which he fell, in the arms of victory, 
b. c. 363. 

Epaphus, a son of Jupiter and Io, from 
whom the Greeks traced the origin of the 
rulers of many ancient countries. He mar- 
ried Memphis, daughter of the Nile, in 
whose honour he built the city of that name 
in Egypt ; and his daughter Libya became, 
by Neptune, mother of Agenor and Belus, 
from whom respectively sprang Cadmus, 
and Danaus and iEgyptus. See these 
terms. 

Epei, a people of Elis. See Elis. 

Epeus, a son of Panopeus, and the fabri- 
cator of the wooden horse which proved 
the ruin of Troy. 

Ephesus, a celebrated city of Ionia, 
near the mouth of the Cayster, called 
by Pliny " Alterum lumen Asice." The 
foundation of this city has been as- 
cribed to the Amazons, at a period 
antecedent to authentic history ; but it 
subsequently received a colony of Ionian 
Greeks under Androcles, son of Codrus, 
and it soon occupied a distinguished place 
among the twelve confederate Ionian cities 
of Asia Minor. From the remotest period 
Ephesus was celebrated for a temple of 
Diana, hence called the Ephesian goddess, 
in its immediate vicinity ; and on being 
besieged by Croesus, the inhabitants made 
l 6 



228 



EPH 



EPI 



an offering of their temple to Diana, unit- 
ing it to her temple 7 stadia in length. Sub- 
sequently to this period the original city was 
gradually abandoned, and a new one grew 
up round the temple ; but its situation was 
again abandoned, especially by the inter- 
ference of Lysimachus, who is said to have 
compelled a portion of the inhabitants to 
resort to a new town he had built on 
higher ground. Ephesus, Miletus, and 
other Ionian cities were early distinguished 
by their commerce, and became among the 
greatest emporiums of the ancient world. 
The wealth they had thus accumulated 
enabled the Ionians to erect at their joint 
expense a splendid temple in honour of 
Diana, which was reckoned one of the 
seven wonders of the world. (See Diana.) 
St. Paul resided here for three years ; and 
founded a church that became, as it were, 
the metropolis of Asia. (Jets, xx. 81.) 
Nero despoiled the city of Ephesus, to- 
gether with its temple, of a large amount 
of treasure ; but it recovered, in some 
degree, from this attack ; and continued 
to attract some portion of its ancient ce- 
lebrity, till it was finally destroyed by the 
Goths in the reign of Gallienus. Besides 
Apelles, his great rival Parrhasius, Hera- 
clitus the philosopher, Hipponax the poet, 
Artemidorus the geographer, &c, were 
natives of Ephesus ; but its inhabitants 
■were distinguished more by their volup- 
tuousness, refinement, and traffic, than by 
their taste for learning or philosophy. 
They are also said to have been addicted 
to sorcery and such like arts. What were 
called the Ephesian letters appear to have 
been magical symbols inscribed on the 
crown, girdle, and feet of the statue of 
Diana, in the great temple ; and it was 
believed that whoever pronounced them 
forthwith obtained all that he desired. Be- 
sides its temple, Ephesus had many noble 
buildings, among which may still be traced 
the ruins of a circus, a theatre, gymnasium, 
&c. ; but the ravages of earthquakes, and 
other convulsions of nature, have com- 
pleted the ruin of this once famous city, 
and her ancient magnificence is indicated 
by the extent, rather than the preservation 
of, her remains. 

Ephet-s:, magistrates at Athens, first 
instituted by Demophoon, son of Theseus, 
or, according to others, by Draco. They 
were superior to the Areopagites ; but Solon 
lessened their power, and intrusted them 
only with the trial of persons accused of 
manslaughter and conspiracy. 

Ephialtes, or Ephialtus, I., a giant, 
son of Aloeus. (See Aloe us.) — II. A 
Trachinian, who led a detachment of the 



army of Xerxes by a secret path, to at- 
tack the Spartans at Thermopylae. 

Ephori, five officers at Sparta, whose 
original appointment was by some ascribed 
to Lycurgus,by others to king Theopompus, 
but who seem to have been coeval with the 
state, though with different powers at dif- 
ferent times. The Ephors (overseers) ap- 
pear to have been originally the magistrates 
of five villages which composed the town 
of Sparta, and appointed to decide in civil 
matters among their fellow-citizens. In 
their enlarged capacity, they were a popular 
magistracy chosen annually by the people 
out of themselves, without any qualifica- 
tion of wealth or age, bearing some re- 
semblance to the Tribunes of Rome, 
and becoming eventually in power like 
the formidable Council of Ten at Venice. 
The Ephors sat every day in their court, 
in the market, by the temple of Fear. 
They were censors of morals, and over- 
seers of education : all magistrates, even 
the kings, (the senators excepted), were 
obliged, if required, to render them an 
account of their office, and they could 
even prosecute them capitally ; they di- 
rected the police, and had the manage- 
ment of the treasury ; they were the chief 
conductors of the foreign relations of the 
state, and some of them usually accom- 
panied the armies sent out of the country. 
In fine, as the representatives of the people, 
they possessed in reality the supreme power 
of state. The Ephori were murdered on 
their seats of justice by Cleomenes III., 
and their office was overthrown, but they 
were restored by Antigonus Doson and 
the Achaeans, in b. c. 222, and the office 
subsisted under the Roman dominion. 

Ephorus, an orator and historian of 
Cumaa in iEolia, born b. c. 405. He studied 
rhetoric at Athens under Isocrates, and 
subsequently lived at the court of Philip 
of Macedon, when he wrote his History 
of Greece in thirty books, and severaj 
other works, of which only some fragments 
have been preserved. 

Ephyra, I., the ancient name of Co- 
rinth, received from a Nymph of the same 
name ; hence Ephyreus is applied to Dyr- 
rachium, founded by a Corinthian colony. 
— II. A City of Epirus, at the head of 
the bay or harbour called Glycys Limen. 
Homer alludes to one or more cities of 
this name. It was the capital of the 
ancient kings of Thesprotia, and afterwards 
took the name of Cichyrus. 

Epicharmus, the first Greek Comic 
writer, was born in the island Cos, about 
b. c. 480. He studied under Pythagoras, 
and practised as a physician at Megara, 



EPI 



EPI 



229 



but subsequently removed to Syracuse, 
where he is said to have written fifty- 
two comedies on mythological subjects, 
distinguished at once for elegance of com- 
position and originality of conception. He 
died at the age of ninety, or, as some say, 
ninety-seven. Epicharmus is said to have 
added the letters f, ij, if, u, to the Greek 
alphabet. 

Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher, born at 
Hierapolis, in Phrygia, about the middle 
of the first century of our era. It is uni- 
versally admitted that he came to Rome 
in a servile condition ; but the means by 
which he obtained his liberty and rose to 
eminence are unknown. On the publica- 
tion of the edict of Domitian against the 
philosopher, a. d. 89, Epictetus retired to 
Nicopolis in Epirus ; but subsequently 
returned to Rome, where he is said to have 
enjoyed the friendship of the emperor 
Hadrian. The sum of his moral precepts 
is avexov xal airexov, " Endure and Ab- 
stain." Four of his discourses, together 
with the Manual or Encheiridion, con- 
taining a summary of his doctrines by his 
pupil Arrian, have reached our times. 

Epicurus, a celebrated philosopher, was 
born at Gargettus in Samos, b. c. 342, 
though he possessed the rights of an Athe- 
nian citizen, his father belonging to Gar- 
gettus, a deme of Attica. His early years 
were passed at the schools of Samos and 
Teos, where he gave early proofs of an in- 
quiring mind ; and at the age of eighteen 
he went to Athens, where he studied phi- 
losophy for a short time, though under 
what teacher is unknown. After visiting 
his father at Colophon, he spent some time 
in travelling, and at the age of thirty-two 
opened a school of philosophy, first at Mi- 
tylene, and subsequently at Lampsachus, 
where he remained four years. He then 
repaired to Athens, b. c. 306, and, having 
purchased a garden in which he might live 
with his pupils, founded the school of phi- 
losophy which afterwards bore his name, 
and taught with unprecedented success till 
his death, which took place b. c. 270. But 
for the fragments of his very voluminous 
writings preserved by Diogenes Laertius, 
it would be impossible, among the con- 
flicting statements of his friends and ene- 
mies, to judge of the character of Epicurus 
as a man and a philosopher. There can be 
no doubt whatever that his private cha- 
racter has been unjustly aspersed ; but there 
can be as little doubt that his merits as a 
philosopher have been as undeservedly ex- 
tolled. The name of Epicurean has be- 
come the general designation of those who, 
either practically or theoretically, make 



pleasure the chief end of life and the stand- 
ard of all virtue. But this was by no 
means the doctrine of Epicurus. The 
happiness which he regards as the true 
end of existence is rather a species of 
quietism, in which the philosopher holds 
himself open to all the pleasurable sensa- 
tions which the temperate indulgence of 
his ordinary appetites, the recollection of 
past enjoyments, and the anticipation of 
future, are sufficiently abundant to supply. 
His physical theory was the atomic system 
of Democritus. His followers were nu- 
merous, especially among the Romans. 
Little more, however, than their names i 
are recorded ; with the exception of Lu- 
cretius, who, in his well known poem, 
" De Rerum Natura," illustrates and de- 
fends the physical and religious tenets of 
his master. In modern times Gassendi 
has published an able account of the Epi- 
curean system. 

Epidamnus, Durazzo, a city of Illyri- 
cum, on the coast, afterwards called Dyr- 
rachium by the Latin writers. Some have 
thought that Epidamnus and Dyrrachium 
were two different towns, the latter of 
which was the emporium of the former. 
Others affirmed, that the Romans, con- 
sidering the word Epidamnus to be of evil 
omen, called it Dyrrachium from the rug- 
gedness of its situation. The fact seems 
to be, that the founders of Epidamnus 
gave the name of Dyrrachium to the high 
and craggy peninsula on which they built 
their town. . It is probable that the town 
called Dyrrachium did not exactly occupy 
the site of the ancient Epidamnus. Venus 
was particularly worshipped here. Dyr- 
rachium was founded by a colony from 
Corcyra, b. c. 625. After it fell into 
the hands of the Romans, it became a place 
of great importance, from its being the 
port which vessels from Brundusium, 
bound for the opposite coast, endeavoured 
to make ; and from its being the usual 
place of departure for ships crossing the 
Adriatic with despatches or passengers 
from Greece for Italy. It became the 
seat of some important strategical opera- 
tions during the struggle between Caesar 
and Pompey, which terminated advantage- 
ously for the latter. It was made a Ro- 
man colony by Augustus ; and, after 
various vicissitudes, was subjected to the 
Turks, under whose destructive sway it 
1 still continues, by Bajazet II. 

Epidauria, a festival at Athens in ho- 
nour of iEsculapius. 

Epidaurus, I., a city of Argolis, on the 
shores of the Saronic gulf ; more anciently 
called Epicarus, its first founders having 



230 



EPI 



EPI 



been Carians, who were afterwards joined 
by an Ionian colony from Attica. It was 
governed by kings descended from Ion ; 
but when the Dorians invaded Argolis, 
the inhabitants yielded without resistance, 
and admitted a colony under Deiphontes. 
The constitution of Epidaurus was ori- 
ginally monarchical ; but the government 
afterwards became aristocratical ; the chief 
magistrates being called Artynae or Artyni, 
as at Argos, and being presidents of a 
council of one hundred and eighty. Epi- 
daurus was the mother-city of iEgina and 
Cos. The Epidaurians were the allies of 
Sparta during the Peloponnesian war, and 
successfully resisted the Argives, who be- 
sieged their city after the battle of Am- 
phipolis. During the Boeotian war they 
were still in alliance with Lacedaemon ; 
but in the time of Aratus we find them 
united with the Achaean league. Epi- 
daurus was" famed for having been, in the 
mythological legends of Greece, the natal 
place of iEsculapius ; and it derived its 
greatest celebrity from a neighbouring 
temple, which was the resort of all who 
needed his assistance. It was situated at 
the upper end of a valley, about five miles 
from the city, and was so celebrated, that 
during a pestilence at Rome, b. c. 293, a 
deputation was sent from this city to im- 
plore the aid of the Epidaurian god. It 
was once richly decorated with offerings, 
but these had for the most part disappeared, 
either by open theft or secret plunder. 
The greatest depredator was Sylla, who 
appropriated the wealth deposited in this 
shrine to the purpose of defraying the ex- 
penses of his army in the war against 
Mithridates. — II. A town on the eastern 
coast of Laconia, surnamed Limera, from 
the excellence of its harbour. It was 
founded by a colony from Argolis, and 
was also famous for a temple of JEscu- 
lapius, the remains of which are still 
visible. — III. A maritime city of Illyria, 
south of the Naro. Mannert identifies 
it with the Arbona of Polybius. 

Epidicm, I., one of the Ebuda? Insula?, 
supposed to be the same with the modern 
Ila. — II. A promontory of Caledonia, 
corresponding to the southern extremity 
of the Mull of Cantyre. 

EriDOTiE, deities who presided over the 
birth of children, and were worshipped by 
such of the Lacedaemonians as were perse- 
cuted by the ghosts of the dead, &c. 

Epigoni, descendants, the sons of the 
Grecian heroes who were killed in the first 
Theban war. Ten years after the first 
war, they resolved to avenge the death of 
their fathers, and marched against Thebes 



under the command of Thersander ; or ac- 
cording to others, of Alcmaeon, son of Am- 
phiaraus. The Argives were assisted by 
the Corinthians, Messenians, Arcadians, 
and Megarians. The Thebans had en- 
gaged all their neighbours in their quarrel, 
as in one common cause, and the two 
hostile armies met and engaged on the 
banks of the Glissas. The fight was obsti- 
nate and bloody ; but victory declared for 
the Epigoni ; and some of the Thebans fled 
to Illyricum with Leodamas their general, 
while others retired into Thebes, where 
they were soon besieged, and forced to 
surrender. 

Epimenides, contemporary with Solon, 
was born either at Phasstus or Cnossus in 
Crete, b. c. 659. He is known as a phi- 
losopher and poet ; but he is chiefly cele- 
brated for the extraordinary dream which 
he is said to have had in his youth, and 
which is fabled to have lasted fifty or sixty 
years. All that is credible concerning 
Epimenides is, that he was a man of su- 
perior talents, who pretended to inter- 
course with the gods; and to support his 
pretensions, he lived in retirement on the 
spontaneous productions of the earth, and 
practised various arts of imposture. Di- 
vine honours were paid to him after his 
death by the superstitious Cretans. 

Epimetheus, a son of lapetus and Cly- 
mene, one of the Oceanides, husband of 
Pandora, and father of Pyrrha, wife of 
Deucalion. See Pandora. 

Epimethis, a patronymic of Pyrrha, 
daughter of Epimetheus. 

Epiphanea, L, Surfendhar, a town of 
Cilicia Campestris, south-east of Anazar- 
bus, and situated on the small river Car- 
sus, near the range of Mount Amanus. — 
II. A city of Syria, on the Orontes, 
below Apamea. Its true name was Ha~ 
math, founded by Hamath, one of the sons 
of Canaan, and it was reckoned one of the 
most magnificent cities in the world. Its 
name was changed by the Macedonians in 
honour of Antiochus Epiphanes. It is 
now Hama. 

Epiphanes (illustrious), I., a surname 
given to Antiochus IV., king of Syria. — 
II. Surname of Ptolemy V., king of 
Egypt. 

Epiphanius, a bishop of Salamis in 
Cyprus, born in Palestine about a. d. 320. 
He appears to have been educated in 
Egypt, where he imbibed the principles 
of the Gnostics ; but, on his return to 
Palestine, he was converted to Christi- 
anity by St. Hilarion, and was made 
bishop of Salamis, a. d. 367. He opposed 
the Platonic doctrines of Origen with great 



EPI 



ERA 



231 



vehemence ; and having ultimately em- 
broiled himself with the empress Eudoxia, 
he resolved to repair to Cyprus, but died 
at sea, a. d. 403. His chief work is a 
treatise on Heresies. 

Epipol^e. See Syracuse. 

Epirus, mainland (Gr. ^7reipos), a name 
given to that district in the Hadriatic 
to the north-western portion of Greece, 
situated between the chain of Pindus and 
the Ionian Gulf, and between the Cerau- 
nian Mountains and the river Achelous, 
to distinguish it from the large island of 
Corcyra, which lay opposite to the coast. It 
was divided into three districts, Chaonia to 
the north, Molossis to the south, and Thres- 
protia in the middle ; the inhabitants of 
which successively maintained a prepon- 
derance in the country. Alexander, brother 
of Olympias, wife of Philip of Macedon, 
was the first who assumed the title of king 
of Epirus. After his death two sons of 
his predecessor successively occupied the 
throne. The name of Pyrrhus sheds a lustre 
on the annals of Epirus, which it would 
never otherwise have had. (See Pyrrhus. ) 
The family of Pyrrhus, however, having 
become extinct three generations after 
his death, the government was changed into 
a republic, which subsisted till b. c. 167, 
when the Epirotes being suspected by the 
Romans of favouring Perseus, king of 
Macedon, were nearly utterly exterminated 
by Paulus iEmilius, and the country 
became thenceforth a Roman province. 
Epirus was esteemed a rich and fertile 
country. Its pastures produced the finest 
oxen, and horses unrivalled for their speed. 
It was also famous for a large breed of dogs, 
thence called molossi. Epirus corresponds 
to the Lower Albania of the present day. 

Epona. See Hippona. 

Eporedorix, I. , a leading chieftain among 
the JEdui, in their war against the Sequani. 
He was subsequently taken prisoner by 
Casar. — II. Another iEduan leader men- 
tioned by Caesar. 

Epytides, a patronymic of Periphantes, 
son of Epytus, and companion of Ascanius. 

Epulones, one of the four great reli- 
gious corporations at Rome, the other 
three being the Pontifices, Augures, and 
Quindecemviri. They were first created 
B. c. 198, and their duty consisted in pre- 
paring the banquets given in honour of 
the gods. Their number was originally 
only three ; but it was afterwards increased 
to seven, called the Septemviri Epulonum. 

Equiria, horse races said to have been 
instituted by Romulus in honour of Mars, 
and celebrated in the Campus Martius. 

Equites, a class of Roman citizens, com- 



monly represented by the English word 
knights, but not answering in all re- 
spects to its meaning. The origin of 
the Equites was the body of Celeres, in- 
stituted by Romulus; and they origin- 
ally consisted of those who were rich 
enough to serve in war on horseback, but 
afterwards they became a distinct order. 
They were chosen promiscuously from 
the patricians and plebeians whose age 
was above eighteen years, and fortune, at 
least towards the end of the republic, not 
less than 400 sestertia, or 3229/. The 
badges of the equites were a gold ring and 
a robe with a narrow purple border ; and 
to them were appropriated the fourteen 
rows of seats in the theatres next the or- 
chestra, where the senators sat. This 
body disputed with the senate the privilege 
of forming the jury who assisted the prae- 
tor in trials ; but, after repeated transfers 
of this office from one to the other, it was 
finally shared between both. The equites 
also furnished the farmers of the public 
revenue, or publicani ; but though they had 
enjoyed this privilege under the republic, 
it was only during the empire that they 
looked to such offices as their birthright. 
Cicero affirms that the flower of the Ro- 
man chivalry, the ornament of Rome, the 
strength of the empire, lay in these en- 
grossers of the public revenue : " florem 
equitum Romanorum, ornamentum civi- 
tatis, firmamentum reipublicae, publican- 
orum ordine contineri." 

Equus Tuticus, a town of Samnium, 
on the Appian Way, about thirty-two 
miles north-east of Beneventum ; but the 
precise situation is unknown. The Oscan 
term Tuticus is equivalent to the Latin 
Magnus. 

Erasistratus, a physician of Iulis, in 
the island of Ceos, and grandson of Aris- 
totle. After attending the schools of Chry- 
sippus, Metrodorus, and Theophrastus, he 
passed some time at the court of Seleucus 
Nicator, and finally retired to Alexandria, 
where he devoted himself to the study of 
anatomy. He immortalised himself by 
the discovery of the vice lactece, and would 
seem to have come very near that of the 
circulation of the blood. A few fragments 
of his writings have been preserved by 
Galen. 

Erato, the Muse who presided over 
erotic poetry (Gr. epocs, love). She was 
invoked by lovers, and is represented as 
crowned with roses and myrtle, holding a 
lyre in her hand, with a thoughtful, some- 
times gay and animated look. Erato was 
the name of several other mythological 
persons. 



232 



ERA 



ERI 



Eratosthenes, a native of Cyrene, born 
B. c. 276, contemporary with Archimedes, 
and like him distinguished for his mathe- 
matical and astronomical attainments. 
Among other discoveries attributed to 
him, he is said to have determined the 
obliquity of the circles, and pointed out a 
method for finding the circumference of 
the earth. Eratosthenes was entrusted 
with the care of the Alexandrian library ; 
and, besides his mathematical, dedicated 
his time to poetry, and grammatical cri- 
ticism, but more particularly to geography, 
to the last of which Strabo was consider- 
ably indebted. He starved himself to 
death in his 8 2d year, b. c. 194, unable 
to bear the depression of spirits occasioned 
by the decay of his sight. 

Eratostratus, or Herostratus, an 
Ephesian, who set fire to the famous 
temple of Diana, in order to perpetuate 
his name by so uncommon an action. The 
states general of Asia Minor endeavoured 
to frustrate his intention, by passing a de- 
cree that his name should never be men- 
tioned; but ineffectually, as the event has 
shown. 

Ekbessus, a strongly fortified town of 
Sicily, which the Romans made their 
principal place of arms in the siege of 
Agrigentum. It was soon afterwards de- 
stroyed. This city is not to be confounded 
with Erbessa or Herbessa, which lay nearer 
Syracuse. 

ErchIa, one of the boroughs of At- 
tica, belonging to the tribe ^geis. It 
was the native place of Xenophon and 
Isocrates. 

Erebus, a deity of hell, son of Chaos 
and Darkness. The poets often use the 
word for the gloomy region in the Lower 
World, distinguished both from Tartarus, 
the place of torment, and from Elysium, 
the region of bliss. See Hades. 

Erechtheus, son of Pandion I., sixth 
king of Athens, and father of Cecrops 
II., Metion, Pandorus, Creusa, Orithyia, 
Procris, and Othonia, by Praxithea. 
After death he received divine honours. 
He reigned fifty years, and died b. c. 1347. 
According to some accounts, he first in- 
troduced the mysteries of Ceres at Eleusis. 
The name Erechtheus, which means liter- 
ally the Shaker, was in all probability 
merely a title of Neptune, whose temple, 
called the Erechtheum, was in high cele- 
brity at Athens. 

Erechthid^:, a name given to the 
Athenians, from their king Erechtheus. 

Eressus, or Eresus, Eresso, a town of 
Lesbos, famous for its wheat, and for being 
the birthplace of Theophrastus and Pha- 



nias, both distinguished pupils of Aris- 
totle. 

Eretria, I., formerly called Melaneis 
and Arotria, a town of the island of 
Euboea, on the coast of the Euripus, 
south-east of Chalcis. It was said by 
some to have been founded by a colony 
from Triphylia in Peloponnesus; but it 
owed its origin more probably to a party 
of Athenians belonging to the demus of 
Eretria. At an early period the Eretrians 
had conquered the islands of Ceos, Tenos, 
Teos, and others. It was frequently em- 
broiled with Chalcis. At a later period 
it was destroyed by Darius ; but was sub- 
sequently rebuilt, and fell successively 
into the hands of Ptolemy, a general of 
Antigonus, and the Romans, by whom it 
was declared free. At one time Eretria 
possessed a distinguished school of phi- 
losophy and dialectics ; and its festivals in 
honour of Diana were long celebrated for 
their pomp and splendour. D' Anville gives 
the modern name as Gravilinais. — II. A 
demus of Attica. — III. A town of Thes- 
saly, between Pharsalus and Phera?. 

Eretum, a town of the Sabines, north- 
east of Fidenas, and near the Tiber. 
Virgil mentions it in his list of the Sabine 
towns which sent aid to Turnus; and it 
was, in after times, the scene of many a 
contest between the Romans and Sabines 
leagued with the Etruscans. The modern 
Rimane is supposed to occupy its site. 

Erichthonius, I., one of the early Attic 
kings, and the immediate successor of 
Amphictyon. He was fabled to have 
been the offspring of Vulcan and Minerva. 
He reigned fifty years, and died b. c. 1437. 
The invention of chariots is attributed to 
him, and the manner of harnessing horses 
to draw them. — II. Son of Dardanus and 
Bateia, husband of Asyoche, daughter of 
the river Simois, and father of Tros, suc- 
ceeded to the throne of Dardania, and 
died b. c. 1374, after a reign of seventy- 
five years. 

Ericusa, Varcusa, one of the Lipari 
isles. See iEoLi.^:. 

Eridanus, a river of Italy, in Cis- 
alpine Gaul, called also Padus, now Po. 
Some consider the name Eridanus as de- 
rived from a river in the north of Europe, 
Rodaun, which flows into the Vistula, near 
Dantzic. See Padus. 

Erigone, I., a daughter of Icarius, who 
hung herself through grief, after being 
conducted to her father's grave by Maera, 
her faithful dog. (See Icarius.) Jupiter 
made her a constellation under the name 
of Virgo. — II. A daughter of iEgisthus 
and Clytemnestra, step-sister of Orestes, 



ERI 



ERY 



233 



and mother of Penthilus, who shared the 
regal power with Timasenus, son of Ores- 
tes and Hermione. 

Erigoneius, a name applied to the Dog- 
star, because looking towards Erigone, &c. 

Erinna, a poetess, friend and contem- 
porary of Sappho, born about the middle 
of the sixth century b. c. either in Lesbos, 
Rhodes, Teos, or Telos. She wrote a 
poem called " The Distaff," and died in 
her nineteenth year. — II. A poetess who 
lived b. c. 354, and is probably identical 
with the person mentioned by Pliny, as 
having sung the praises of Myro. No 
fragments of either of these poetesses re- 
main. 

Erinnyes, the Greek appellation for the 
Furies or Furiae of the Latins. Ac- 
cording to Hesiod they sprang from the 
blood drops that fell from the wound in- 
flicted by Kronos or Saturn on his father 
Uranus. Their number was first said 
to be three by Euripides, and the names 
Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone, are first 
mentioned by the Alexandrian writers. 
They were generally regarded as active 
and avenging spirits who inflicted punish- 
ment on impious criminals, awakening re- 
morse in this life, and torturing them in 
Hades. They were worshipped by the 
Greeks under the propitiatory title of Eu- 
menides (benevolent) and Seared 0eal (vene- 
rable goddesses), and were regarded as the 
maintainers of order, both in the natural 
and moral world. 

Eriphyxe, a sister of Adrastus, king of 
Argos, wife of Amphiaraus, and daughter 
of Talaus and Lysimache. See Amphia- 
raus. 

Eris, the Greek name for the goddess 
of Discord. See Discordia. 

Erisichthok, a Thessalian, son of Tri- 
ops, who, having derided Ceres, and cut 
down her groves, was afflicted by the god- 
dess with continual hunger. He squan- 
dered all his possessions to gratify the cra- 
vings of his appetite, and at last devoured 
his own limbs for want of food. His 
daughter Metra had the power of trans- 
forming herself into whatever animal she 
pleased, and used that artifice to maintain 
her father, who soli her ; after which she 
assumed another shape, and became again 
his property. 

Eros, epws, the god of Love among the 
Greeks, identical with the Amor or Cupido 
of the Romans. See Cupido. 

ErotIa, a festival in honour of Eros, 
god of Love ; celebrated by the Thespians 
every fifth year with sports and games. 

Erycina, a surname of Venus, from 
Mt. Eryx, where she had a temple. The 



Erycinian Venus appears to have been the 
same with the Astarte of the Phoenicians 
whose worship was brought over by the 
latter people, and a temple erected to her 
on Mt. Eryx. 

Erymanthus, I., Olonos, a mountain- 
chain in the north-west angle of Arcadia, 
celebrated as the haunt of the savage boar 
destroyed by Hercules. — II. Dogana, a 
river of Arcadia, which rises in the cog- 
nominal mountain, flows near the town of 
Psophis, and after receiving the Aroanius, 
joins the Alpheus on the borders of Elis. 

Erythea, an island of the Atlantic, in 
the Sinus Gaditanus, Bay of Cadiz, called 
by the inhabitants Junonis Insula ; and by 
later writers, Aphrodisias. It was remark- 
able for its fertility, and especially for the 
richness of its pastures ; — a circumstance 
which probably induced mythologists to 
fix upon it as the residence of Geryon, 
with the legend of whose oxen it is men- 
tioned in connection. Many commentators 
have agreed to identify with Erythea the 
Islet de Leon. — II. A daughter of Geryon. 

Erythr^e, one of the twelve cities of 
Ionia, situated near the coast, opposite 
Chios. Its founder was said to have been 
Erythrus, son of Rhadamanthus, who 
established himself here with a body of 
Cretans, Carians, and Lycians ; but at a 
later period it admitted an Ionian colony 
under Cleopus, son of Codrus. Erythrae 
was famous as the residence of one of the 
Sibyls at an early period, and in the time 
of Alexander we find another making her 
appearance here, with similar claims to 
prophetic inspiration. The site of the 
ancient city is said to be occupied by 
Gesme ; a little to the north of which are 
found some ruins which bear the name of 
Rythre. 

Erythrjeum mare, a name applied by 
the Greeks to the whole ocean, from the 
coast of Ethiopia to the island of Tapro- 
bana, and so called from Ery thras, an ancient 
monarch, who reigned along these coasts. 
Afterwards the term Erythraean sea was 
applied merely to the sea below Arabia 
and to the Arabian and Persian gulfs. The 
oriental name Idumasan signifying " red, " 
the sea of the Idumaeans was called the 
Red sea and the Erythraean sea, CEpvOpa 
QaKatro-a.) See Arabicus Sinus. 

Eryx, I., a son of Butes and Venus, 
who challenged all strangers to fight with 
him in the combat of the cestus. Her- 
cules accepted his challenge after many had 
yielded to his dexterity, and Eryx was 
killed in the combat — II. A mountain of 
Sicily, near Drepanum, which received its 
name from Eryx, who was buried there. 



234 



ESQ, 



EVA 



On its summit stood the temple of Venus 
Erycina, one of the most celebrated fanes 
not only of Sicily, but of the whole an- 
cient world ; and lower down, accessible 
only by a long and difficult path, stood the 
city Eryx, renowned in the annals of the 
first Punic war as the scene of one of the 
most brilliant and daring of the exploits 
of Hamilcar. The foundation of the 
temple was ascribed to iEneas, and some- 
times to Eryx ; and its celebrity attracted 
thither numerous strangers long after the 
city had sunk into insignificance. At the 
distance of thirty stadia stood the harbour 
of the same name. The native inhabitants 
were called Elymi ; and Eryx is said by 
some to have been their king. On the 
summit of the mountain, now called St. 
Giuliano, is an ancient castle, supposed to 
have been erected by the Saracens. 

EsquiiXe and Esquilikus moxs, the 
most extensive of the seven hills of Rome, 
added to the city by Serv. Tullius, and 
divided into two principal heights, called 
Cispius and Oppius. The Campus Es- 
quilinus was granted by the senate as a 
burying-place for the poor, and stood 
without the Esquiline Gate. On this 
hill were the baths and palace of Titus, 
among the ruins of which was found the 
celebrated statue of Laocoon and his sons, 
the gardens of Maecenas, and a temple of 
Juno, the site of which is now occupied 
by the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. 

Essedones, a people of Sarmatia Asiatica, 
above the Palus Masotis ; but their precise 
position has not been accurately ascer- 
tained. 

Esti^otis, that portion of Thessaly 
which lies between Pindus and Upper 
Macedonia. It is said to have been ori- 
ginally the country of the Dorians. 

Eteocles, a son of GSdipus, king of 
Thebes, and Jocasta. After his father's 
death, it was agreed between him and his 
brother Polynices that they should reign 
alternately each a year ; but Eteocles, who 
first ascended the throne, refused to give 
up the throne, on which Polynices, with 
the assistance of Adrastus, king of Ar- 
gos, made war upon Thebes, and the two 
brothers fell in single combat. See Adras- 
tus. 

Eteoclus, one of the seven chiefs of the 
army of Adrastus, in his expedition against 
Thebes. He was killed by Megareus, son 
of Creon, under the walls of Thebes. 

Etesi^e, northern winds of a gentle and 
mild nature, blowing every year at a stated 
period over the iEgean sea. 

Etruria. See Hetruria. 

Eu-ephnus, a treacherous Spartan, who, 



when Polychares, a Messenian, sent some 
of his cattle to graze on his pastures, 
secretly sold them to some foreign traders, 
and declared that they had been carried off 
by pirates. The treachery being explained 
to Polychares by one of his slaves, Eua?ph- 
nus implored forgiveness, and promised to 
pay the full value of the cattle, if the son 
of Polychares would accompany him home; 
but as soon as they were on Laconian 
ground, Euajphnus treacherously slew the 
youth, and Polychares having vainly sought 
justice at Sparta, thenceforward put to 
death every Spartan that fell into his hands. 
In this personal quarrel originated the 
Messenian wars, which so long devastated 
Sparta and Messenia. 

Evadne, a daughter of Iphis or Ipfai- 
cles of Argos, who slighted the addresses 
of Apollo, and married Capaneus, one of 
the seven chiefs who went against Thebes. 
Her husband having been struck with 
thunder by Jupiter for impiety, and his 
ashes scattered to the winds, she threw 
herself on his burning pile, and perished 
in the flames. 

Evagoras, I., a king of Salamis in Cy- 
prus, and a descendant of Teucer, son of 
Telamon, the founder of the city. Pre- 
viously to his birth, the throne had been 
usurped by a Phoenician, who was after- 
wards deposed by a native of Cyprus ; but 
Evagoras, who had meanwhile grown up 
to manhood, retired to Soli, in Cilicia, 
where he assembled a small band of fol- 
lowers, and succeeded in gaining posses- 
sion of his rightful throne. Judging from 
the panegyric of Isocrates, Evagoras must 
have been a prince of rare and distinguished 
virtue ; he patronised arts and literature ; 
entertained at his court distinguished men 
of all nations ; and by his aid Conon, after 
the battle of iEgos Potamos, was enabled 
to prepare a fleet which restored the naval 
supremacy of his country. The close of 
his reign was marked with great misfor- 
tunes. Being attacked by Artaxerxes 
Mnemon, Evagoras was eventually stripped 
of all his dominions except the town of 
Salamis, and obliged to become tributary 
to the power of Persia. He was assas- 
sinated, soon after this fatal change of for- 
tune, by an eunuch, b. c. 374 ; leaving two 
sons, Nicocles, who succeeded him, and 
Protagoras. — II. Grandson of the pre- 
ceding, succeeded his father Nicocles on 
the throne of Salamis. His uncle Pro- 
tagoras, taking advantage of his unpopu- 
larity, deprived him of his power, and 
Evagoras fled to Artaxerxes Ochus, who 
gave him a government more extensive 
than that of Cyprus ; but his oppression 



EVA 



EUD 



235 



rendered him odious, and he was accused 
before his benefactor, and put to death. 

Evan, a surname of Bacchus, which he 
received from the wild ejaculation of Evan, 
Evan! by his priestesses. 

Evander, a son of Hermes and the pro- 
phetess Carmenta, and king of Arcadia. 
An accidental murder having obliged him 
to leave his country, he came to Italy, 
drove the aborigines from their ancient 
possessions, and reigned in that part of 
the country where Rome was afterwards 
founded. He received Hercules hospitably 
on his return from the conquest of Geryon, 
assisted JEneas against the Rutuli, and 
distinguished himself by his hospitality. 
It is said that he first brought the Greek 
alphabet into Italy, and introduced there 
the worship of the Greek deities. He was 
honoured as a god after death, and his sub- 
jects raised an altar on Mount Aventine 
to his honour. 

Evarchus, a river of Asia Minor, flow- 
ing into the Euxine, south-east of Sinope. 
The name was afterwards changed to 
Evechus. This river formed the ancient 
boundary between Paphlagonia and Cap- 
padocia. 

Evas, a native of Phrygia, who accom- 
panied JEneas into Italy, where he was 
killed by Mezentius. 

Eubages, priests held in great vene- 
ration among the Gauls and Britons ; a 
branch of the Druids. 

Eubcea, a celebrated island, along the 
coast of Locris, Bceotia, and Attica ; 
known at different times by the appel- 
lations of Macris, Oche, Ellopia, Asopia, 
and Abantia. Its inhabitants, called Aban- 
tes by Homer, were among the earliest 
navigators of Greece, and, according to 
Herodotus, joined the Ionian colonists 
on the coast of Asia Minor. They also 
founded settlements at a very early pe- 
riod in Illyria, Sicily, and Campania. 
Soon after the expulsion of the Pisistra- 
tidae, the island became a dependency of 
Athens, but recovered its liberty, after a 
hard struggle, in the twenty-first year of 
the Peloponnesian war. It afterwards be- 
came attached to the Macedonian interests, 
and was taken by the Romans from Philip, 
the son of Demetrius. It then gradually 
declined in population and importance ; 
and Pausanias alludes to its fallen state 
under the emperors. At the dismember- 
ment of the Eastern empire by the Franks, 
the Venetians obtained possession of Eu- 
bcea, but were expelled from it, in 1470, 
by the Turks, who held it till the form- 
ation of the new kingdom of Greece, in 
1829. In breadth this island never ex- 



ceeds twenty miles, but it is nowhere 
less than two. Its opulence is apparent 
from the designation and value affixed to 
the talent, so frequently referred to under 
the name of Euboicum. The chief towns 
of Eubcea were Chalcis and Caristus. Its 
modern name is Negropont, formed, by a 
series of corruptions, from Euripus, which 
designated the narrow channel separating 
the island from the Boeotian coast. 

Euboicus, belonging to Euboea, an epi- 
thet sometimes applied to Cumas, because 
that city was built by a colony from Chal- 
cis, a town of Euboea. 

Eubulides, a native of Miletus, and suc- 
cessor of Euclid in the Megaric school. He 
was a strong opponent of Aristotle, and is 
famous for the quibbles and subtleties which 
he introduced into the science of dialectics. 
No particulars of his life are recorded. 

Eubulus, I., an Athenian orator, rival 
of Demosthenes, and said to have been 
bribed by Philip. — II. A Comic poet of 
Athens, born in the borough of Atarnea, 
who exhibited about b. c. 375. Some 
fragments of his productions have been pre- 
served by Athenaeus. 

Eucheir, a term signifying skilful, ap- 
plied figuratively to the Greek artists who 
flourished prior to authentic history. It 
was also the name of an Athenian sculp- 
tor, mentioned by Pausanias and Pliny, 
whose statue of Minerva was placed at 
Phenea. 

Euclides, I., a native of Megara, and 
founder of the Megaric or Eristic sect. 
He was long a disciple of Socrates ; but 
eventually quarrelled with his master and 
retired to his native city, where he taught 
the art of disputation. He held that there 
was one supreme good, which he called 
by the different names of Intelligence, Pro- 
vidence, God; and that evil, considered as 
an opposite principle to the sovereign 
good, has no existence. — II. A celebrated 
mathematician of Alexandria, who flou- 
rished b. c. 280, in the reign of Ptolemy 
Lagus, by whom he was highly esteemed. 
He applied himself to various sciences, 
but chiefly to mathematics ; and to him is 
due the merit of having given a systematic 
form to the principles of this science which 
had been discovered by his predecessors. 
His " Elements of Geometry " has been 
repeatedly published. 

Eudamidas, I., a son of Archidamus IV., 
and brother of Agis IV., after whose death 
he succeeded to the Spartan throne, b. c. 
330. — II. A son of Archidamus, king of 
Sparta, who succeeded b. c. 268. 

Eudocia, or Eudoxia, daughter of Leon- 
tius, an Athenian sophist, and wife of Theo- 



236 



EUD 



EUL 



dosius the Younger, emperor of Rome, was 
born a. n. 369. Her original name was 
Athenais, but on her marriage she em- 
braced Christianity, and received the bap- 
tismal name of Eudocia. She possessed 
great beauty and talent. She put into 
verse several books of the Old Testament, 
and wrote paraphrases on some of the 
Jewish prophets. Being suspected of in- 
fidelity to her husband, she took refuge in 
Palestine, whither, however, her husband's 
jealousy pursued her ; and having, in a fit 
of indignation, caused one of his spies to 
be slain, she was degraded from her rank, 
and twenty years afterwards died at the 

age of 67 II. Daughter of the preceding, 

and wife of Valentinian III. After the 
murder of her husband she was compelled 
to marry the usurper, Petronius Maximus; 
but in revenge called in the aid of Genseric, 
king of the Vandals, who plundered Rome, 
and carried her into Africa. She died at 
Constantinople a. d. 462. 

Eudoxus, I., a celebrated astronomer 
and geometrician, born at Cnidos, about 
B. c. 340. He was a disciple of Archytas 
and Plato ; but afterwards went to Egypt, 
where he became instructed in all the 
knowledge of the Egyptian priests, and 
subsequently opened a school first at Cyzi- 
cus, and afterwards at Athens, with great 
success. He died b. c. 352. None of his 
writings have reached our time. — II. A 
native of Cyzicus, who was sent by Ptol. 
VII., Euergetes, on a voyage to India, and 
some years after, on a second voyage by 
Cleopatra, widow of that prince. He sub- 
sequently attempted the circumnavigation 
of Africa, 

Evenus, I., a name common to several 
epigrammatic poets, for an account of 
whom the reader is referred to Jacobs Cat. 
Foet. Epig. — II. A river of iEtolia, rising 
in the chain of Mount (Eta and flowing 
into the sea, near the modern town of Mis- 
sohnghi. Its more ancient name was Ly- 
cormas, and it is celebrated in fable for the 
story of Nessus, who was slain here by 
Hercules for offering violence to Deianira. 
The modern name is Fidari. 

Euerget^e, a people of Upper Asia, 
whose proper name was Ariaspae. The 
Greeks called them Euergetae, " bene- 
factors," translating the Persian appel- 
lation. This title they are said to have 
received for succours afforded to the army 
of Cyrus, when suffering from cold and 
hunger. They dwelt near the Etymander, 
Hindmend, between Drangiana and Ara- 
chosia, in the vicinity of the modern city 
Dercasp. 

Euergetes, a surname, signifying, " be- 



nefactor," given to Ptolemy III. and IV. 
of Egypt, and to some kings of Syria, 
Pontus, &c. 

Eugammon, a cyclic poet, who celebrated 
in the Telegonia, in two books, the story 
of Ulysses after his return. 

Euganei, an ancient nation of Italy, 
which occupied all the country to which 
the Veneti, its subsequent possessors, com- 
municated the name of Venetia. Driven 
from their ancient abodes, they appear to 
have retired across the Adige (Athesis), 
and to have settled on the shores of the 
lakes Benacus and Isaeus, and in the adja- 
cent valleys. At one time they held thirty - 
four towns, which were admitted to the 
rights of Latin citizens under Augustus. 

Eugekius, L, a general who opposed 
Dioclesian, a. d. 290, but was slain on the 
same day at the gates of Antioch, in the 
attempt to capture that city. — II. A fa- 
vourite of Arbogast, who induced him to 
usurp the imperial title after the death of 
Valentinian II., a. d. 392. After having 
held power for two years, he was defeated 
by Theodosius the Great, taken prisoner, 
and put to death. 

Euhemerus, a native of Messene, or, as 
some say, of Sicily. Being sent on a voy- 
age of discovery by Cassander, king of Ma- 
cedon, he came to an island called Pan- 
chaia, in the capital of which, Panara, he 
found a temple of the Triphylian Jupiter, 
where stood a column inscribed with a re- 
gister of the births and deaths of many of 
the gods. Euhemerus endeavoured to show, 
by investigating their actions, and record- 
ing the places of their births and burials, 
that the mythological deities were mere 
mortal men, raised to the rank of gods on 
account of the benefits conferred on man- 
kind. Many particulars concerning Eu- 
hemerus are mentioned in a fragment of 
Diodorus Siculus, preserved by Eusebius. 

Euius, a surname of Bacchus given to 
him by Jupiter, whom he was aiding in 
the contest with the giants. Jupiter was 
so delighted with his valour, that he called 
out to him, eu vie, " Well done, O son !" 
Others suppose it to have originated from 
a cry of the Bacchantes, ES of. 

Eul^us, or Choaspes, a river of Persia, 
flowing near the city of Susa. It was the 
only water drank by the Persian monarchs , 
hence Milton says, 

*• — Choaspes, drink of kings." 

The appellation Eulaeus, which is equi- 
valent to the scriptural Ulai (Daniel 
viii. 2.), signifies " clear or pure water." 
Choaspes is said to be either the modern 
Karoon, Abzal, or Kerat. 



EUM 



EUN 



237 



Eum^cs, the steward of Ulysses, who 
recognised his master at his return home 
from the Trojan war, after twenty years' 
absence, and assisted in removing Pene- 
lope's suitors. He was a son of Ctesias, 
king of Scyros ; and had been carried off, 
when quite young, by Phoenician pirates, 
and sold to Laertes, father of Ulysses. 

Eumedes. a Trojan, son of Dolon, who 
accompanied iEneas to Italy, where he 
was killed by Turnus. 

Ecmeixs, 1., a son of Admetus, king 
of Pherse, in Thessaly. He took part in 
the Trojan war, had the fleetest horses in 
the Grecian army, and distinguished him- 
self in the funeral games of Patroclus. — II, 
Son of Amphilytus, one of the Corinthian 
Bacchiadag, and author of a history of 
Corinth in heroic verse, b. c. 750. He 
accompanied Archias to Syracuse, 

EumIites, I., a native of Cardia, a town 
of the Thracian Chersonese, who, though of 
humble birth, played an important part in 
the troubled scenes that were enacted after 
the death of Alexander the Great. He I 
had been admitted into the service of Philip 
of Macedon at a very early age, had acted j 
both to that monarch and Alexander for | 
twenty years in the capacity of secretary, | 
and had greatly endeared himself to the J 
latter. In the general division of Alex- 
ander's conquests he obtained the govern- 
ment of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia by i 
the aid of Perdiecas, to whom he remained ! 
faithful to the last. In the war between | 
Ptolemy and Perdiecas, & c. 321, he re- j 
ceived the command of Asia Minor, and 
defeated Antipater and Craterus, the ge- j 
nerals of Pompey ; and after the death of j 
Perdiecas, his arms were directed against 
Antigomis, by whom he was conquered, 
chierlv owing to the treachery of his officers, 
and put to death b. c. 315. Antigonus ho- 
noured his remains with a splendid funeral, 
and conveyed his ashes to his wife and fa- 
mily in Cappadocia. Eumenes was the only 
officer of Alexander in whose conduct gra- ; 
titude and disinterestedness may be traced. 
— II. King of Pergamus, succeeded his j 
uncle Philetserus b. c. 263. He made war j 
against Antiochus, son of Seleucus, and 
enlarged his possessions by seizing on many j 
of the cities of the king of Syria. He lived ' 
in alliance with the Romans, whom he aided 
in their war against Prusias, king of Bi- 
thynia, was a great patron of learning, 
and died after a reign of twenty-two years, 
in consequence of intemperance, leaving 
his kingdom to his cousin Attalus. — III. 
The second of that name succeeded his 
father Attalus on the throne of Asia and 
Pergamus. His alliance with the Romans 



■ did not a little contribute to the increase 
! of his dominions, after the victories ob- 
tained over Antiochus the Great. He 
carried his arms against Perseus and An- 
tigonus, and died b. c. 159, after a reign 
of forty-seven years, leaving the kingdom 
to his infant son Attalus III., with his 
! brother, usually called Attalus II., as re- 
gent. Among other splendid monuments 
of his love of learning and the fine arts, 
| Eumenes founded the celebrated library 
i of Pergamus, which yielded only to that of 
j Alexandria in extent and value. 

Eumenia, a city of Phrygia, north of 
Pelta?, which probably derived its name 
from Eumenes king of Pergamus. 
Eumexides. See Erinis-tes. 
Eumevidia, an annual festival at Athens, 
in honour of the Eumenides, called by the 
Athenians ~2euval ©ecu, venerable god- 
desses. None but free born citizens of 
known virtue and integrity were allowed 
to participate in this solemnity. 

ErM0LPiD_E. the priests of Ceres at 
Eleusis; descended from Eumolpus, king 
of Thrace, in whose family the priesthood 
continued for 1200 years. 

Eumolpus, a king of Thrace, and son 
of Neptune and Chione, who threw him 
into the sea, to conceal her shame from 
her father. Neptune saved his life, and 
carried him into -Ethiopia, where he was 
brought up by Benthesicyme, one of 
whose daughters he married. An act of 
violence to his sister-in-law obliged him 
to flee to Thrace with his son Ismarus, 
who married the daughter of Tegyrius, 
king of the country ; but having conspired 
against Tegyrius, he lied to Attica, where 
he was initiated in the mysteries of Ceres 
of Eleusis, and made Hierophantes or 
High- Priest. Being afterwards reconciled 
to Tegyrius, he inherited his kingdom ; 
and having subsequently made war against 
Erechtheus, king of Athens, who had ap- 
pointed him to the office of high-priest, he 
perished in battle. But the statements of 
the ancient writers respecting the end of 
Eumolpus are exceedingly discrepant. 

Eukafius, a physician, sophist, and his- 
torian, born at Sardis in Lydia in the fourth 
century of our era. A fragment of his 
history of the Caesars, from Claudius II. 
to Arcadius and Honorius, is still extant ; 
as well as the lives of the philosophers of 
his time. 

Eusus, a Syrian slave, who inflamed the 
minds of the servile multitude by pretended 
inspiration and enthusiasm. Oppression 
and misery compelled 2000 slaves to join 
his cause, and he soon saw himself at the 
head of 50,000 men. With such a force 



238 



EUP 



EUR 



he defeated the Roman armies, till Per- 
penna obliged him to surrender by famine, 
and exposed on a cross the greatest part of 
his followers, b. c. 132. 

Eupator, a surname given to many of 
the Asiatic princes, particularly to Mith- 
ridates VII. of Pontus, and Antiochus V. 
of Syria. 

Eupatoria, I., a town of Pontus, at the 
confluence of the Lycus and Iris, which 
received from Pompey, who finished it, the 
title of Magnopolis. Its site appears to 
correspond to Tchenikeh. — II. A town of 
the Tauric Chersonese, on the Sinus Car- 
cinites, founded by one of the generals of 
Mithridates. It is supposed to answer to 
Koslof, or Gosleve. 

Eupha.es, succeeded his father Antio- 
chus on the throne of Messenia about 
b. c. 743. In his reign the first Messenian 
war began ; and after having displayed 
great courage and prudence, he was slain 
in battle in the sixth year of the war. 

Eupeitkes, a prince of Ithaca, father 
of Antinous. In the early part of his 
life he had fled before the vengeance of 
the Thesprotians, whose territories he had 
laid waste in the pursuit of some pi- 
rates ; and during the absence of Ulysses 
he was one of the most importunate lovers 
of Penelope. 

Euphorbus, a famous Trojan, son of 
Panthous, who wounded Patroclus, but 
perished by the hand of Menelaus, who 
hung his shield in the temple of Juno at 
Argos. Pythagoras, who maintained the 
transmigration of souls, affirmed, that dur- 
ing the Trojan war his soul had animated 
the body of Euphorbus ; and, in proof of 
his assertion, is said to have recognised the 
shield in the temple. 

Euphorion, I., a son of JEschylus, who 
conquered four times with posthumous 
tragedies of his father's composition, and 
also wrote several dramas himself. — II. 
An epic and epigrammatic poet, and libra- 
rian to Antiochus the Great, was born at 
Chalcis in Eubcea, b. c. 276. His frag- 
ments were collected and published by 
Meineke. 

Euphraxor, a famous painter and 
sculptor of Corinth, who flourished about 
e. c. 362. Pliny has given a list of his 
works. This name was common to many 
Greeks. 

Euphrates, I., a native of Oreus in 
Eubcea, and a disciple of Plato. He re- 
sided for some time at the court of Per- 
diccas, by whom he was highly esteemed; 
but after his death, having entered into a 
conspiracy against Philip, he was shut up 
in Oreus, and either put an end to his own 



life or was killed by Parmenio. — II. A 
Stoic philosopher, a native of Alexandria, 
who flourished in the second century. He 
was a friend of the philosopher Apollonius 
Tyaneus, who introduced him to Vespa- 
sian. He voluntarily put a period to his 
life by drinking hemlock. — III. One of 
the most considerable rivers of Asia, which 
rises near Arze, Erze-Rum, among moun- 
tains, which Strabo makes to be a part of 
the most northern branch of Taurus ; and 
falls into the Persian gulf after a course 
of 1147 English miles. Some of the 
ancients describe the Euphrates as losing 
itself in the lakes and marshes to the south 
of Babylon ; but the greatest obscurity 
and discrepancy pervade all the statements 
of the ancients respecting this river. Its 
name is the Greek form or the original ap- 
pellation Phrath, " fruitful," " fertilising ;" 
the Greek particle eu denoting " excel- 
lence." By the Arabians the river is called 
Forat. The epithet fertilis is applied to it 
by Lucan, Sallust, Solinus, and Cicero. 

Euphrosvne, one of the Graces, sister 
of Aglaia and Thalia. 

Eupolis, one of the most distinguished 
writers of the ancient comedy, born at 
Athens b. c. 446, and therefore nearly of the 
same age with Aristophanes. He is said to 
have been thrown overboard, at the instiga- 
tion of Alcibiades, whom he had lampooned 
in one of his plays, during the voyage of the 
Athenian armament to Sicily, b. c. 415; 
but Cicero has shown that this story has 
no foundation in fact. Several fragments 
of his writings remain. 

Euryaie. One of the Gorgons. See 
Gorgones. 

Euripides, I., a celebrated Athenian 
Tragic poet, son of Mnesarchus and Clito, 
of the borough Phlya, and the tribe Ce- 
cropis, was born Olymp. 75, 1. b. c. 480, 
in Salamis (whither his parents had retired 
during the occupation of Attica by Xerxes), 
on the very day of the Grecian victory near 
that island. In early life his father made 
him direct his attention chiefly to gymnastic 
exercises, and in his seventeenth year he 
was crowned in the Eleusinian and Thesean 
contests. At length, quitting the gymna- 
sium, he applied himself to philosophy and 
literature under Anaxagoras and Prota- 
goras. Under the celebrated Prodicus, 
one of the instructors of Pericles, he ac- 
quired that oratorical skill for which his 
dramas are so remarkably distinguished ; 
and Socrates, with whom he lived in terms 
of great intimacy, was suspected of largely 
assisting the tragedian in the composition 
of his plays. Euripides began his public 
career, as a dramatic writer, Olymp. 81, 2, 



EUR 



EUR 



239 



b. c. 455, in his twenty-fifth year ; but great I 
and well merited as was his success, he was j 
driven from Athens by the persecutions of ! 
his enemies, and found an asylum at the I 
court of Archelaus. Euripides was un- i 
happy in his own family. His first wife, I 
Melito, he divorced for adultery; and in i 
his second, Choerila, he was not more for- 
tunate on the same score. Some pro- 
nounced him to be an enemy to the fair j 
sex, and called him /j.icroyvvris, " woman- 
hater." His death, Olymp. 93, 2, B.c.40e, 
was, like that of ^Eschylus, in its nature 
extraordinary. From chance or malice, I 
the aged dramatist was exposed to the at- 
tack of some ferocious hounds, and by them [ 
so dreadfully mangled as to expire soon j 
afterwards, in his seventy-fifth year. He was j 
buried at Pella, with every demonstration j 
of grief and respect. He is said to have 
written ] 20 dramas, of which nineteen have I 
come down to our times, and have been I 
repeatedly edited. — II. Son, or, according 
to others, nephew of the great dramatist, 
commonly called Euripides junior. He | 
was also a dramatic poet, and, besides his 
own compositions, he exhibited several 
posthumous plays of his uncle. 

Euripus, a narrow strait dividing Eu- 
bcea from the main land of Greece, whose 
currents were so strong, that the sea was 
said by some to ebb and flow seven times j 
a day. From this rapid movement of its 
waters is derived its ancient name, ev, well, 
and piiTTU, to dart. The strait is now called 
the gulf of Xegropont, by a corruption of 
the ancient name. 

Europa, I., one of the three main di- 
visions of the ancient world, bounded on 
the east by the iEgean sea, Hellespont, 
Euxine, Palus Masotis, and the Tanais 
in a northern direction; on the south by 
the Mediterranean, which divides it from 
Africa ; and on the west and north . by 
the Atlantic and Northern Oceans. "With 
the northern parts of Europe the ancients 
were very slightly acquainted, viz.' what 
are now Prussia, Siceden, Denmark, Nor- 
way, and Russia. They applied to this part 
the general name of Scandinavia, and 
thought it consisted of a number of islands. 
From the Portuguese Cape, denominated 
by mariners the Rock of Lisbon, to the 
Uralian Mountains, the length of modern 
Europe may be reckoned at about 3,400 
British miles, and from Cape Nord, in 
Danish Lapland, to Cape Matapan, the 
southern extremity of the Morea, it may 
be about 2,450. It is supposed to obtain 
its name from Europa, daughter of Agenor, 
who was carried thither by Jupiter ; but 
for a concise account of the numerous 



derivations of the term, we beg to refer 
the reader to Facciolati's Lexicon, art. 
Europa. — II. A daughter of Agenor, 
king of Phoenicia, and Telephassa. Ju- 
piter having become enamoured of her, as- 
sumed the shape of a bull, and mingling 
with the herds of Agenor, while Europa 
with her female attendants were gathering 
flowers in the meadows, was caressed by 
the beautiful maiden who at last had the 
courage to sit on his back. With precipi- 
tate steps the bull retired towards the 
shore, crossed the sea with Europa on his 
back, and arrived safe in Crete, where he 
assumed his original shape, and declared 
his love. The Nymph consented, though 
she had once made vows of perpetual ce- 
libacy, and became mother of Minos, iEa- 
cus, and Rhadamanthus ; but she subse- 
quently married Asterius, king of Crete, 
who, seeing himself without offspring by 
Europa, adopted her children. Some 
suppose that Europa lived about b. c. 1552. 
The simple statement of Herodotus that 
Europa was carried off by some Cretan 
merchants, who, according to some authors, 
arrived at Sidon for mercantile purposes 
in a ship bearing on its prow a white bull, 
but according to Diodorus with a com- 
mander named Taurus (bull), offers one 
of many probable solutions of this fabulous 
story. The word is probably derived from 
evpvs, large, and coi|/, the eye ; large eyes having 
been regarded by the Greeks, as well as by 
other nations, as a mark of great beauty. 

Europus, a town of Macedonia, on the 
Axius, in the district of Emathia. 

Eurotas, I., a river of Laconia, and the 
largest in the Peloponnesus. It rises in 
Arcadia a little to the west of Tegea, and 
after a brief course disappears under ground, 
but reappears on the opposite side of the 
mountains which separate Laconia from 
Arcadia, and, after flowing past Sparta, 
falls into the sea near Helos. Eurotas, 
the third king after Lelex, enlarged and re- 
gulated its bed, drew a canal from it, and 
had his name given to the stream. The 
modern name is Basilipotamo, " royal ri- 
ver." — II. Called also Titaresius, now Sa- 
ranta Poros, a river of Thessaly, rising 
in Mt. Titarus, a branch of Olympus, and 
flowing into the Peneus, a little above the 
vale of Tempe. 

Eurus, also called Vulturnus, a wind 
blowing from the south-east. It was 
sometimes also used for the east wind. 

Euryalus, a Trojan, who accompanied 
JEneas into Italy, and rendered himself 
famous for his immortal friendship with 
Nisus. See Nisus. 

Eurybates, a herald in the Trojan war, 



240 



EUR 



EUR 



who took Briseis from Achilles by order 
of Agamemnon. 

EurybiIdes, a Spartan commander of 
the Grecian fleet at the battles of Artemi- 
sium and Salamis. He was appointed to 
this office, although Sparta sent only ten 
ships, by the desire of the allies, who re- 
fused to obey an Athenian. See Themis- 
tocles. 

Eurydamas, a Trojan skilled in the 
interpretation of dreams. His two sons 
were killed by Diomedes during the 
Trojan war. 

Eurydice, a name common to many 
distinguished women of antiquity, of whom 
the most celebrated are : — I. The wife of 
Amyntas, king of Macedonia, and mother 
of Alexander, Perdiccas, Philip, and Eu- 
ryone. A criminal partiality for her 
daughter's husband, Ptolemy Alorites, 
made her conspire against Amyntas, who 
must have fallen a victim to her infidelity, 
had not Euryone discovered it. Amyntas 
forgave her. Alexander ascended the throne 
after his father's death, and perished by the 
ambition of his mother. Perdiccas, who 
succeeded him, shared his fate ; but Philip 
secured himself against all attempts from 
his mother, and ascended the throne. Eu- 
rydice fled to Iphicrates, the Athenian 
general, for protection. The manner of 
her death is unknown. — II. A daughter 
of Antipater, and first wife of Ptolemy I. 
of Egypt, by whom she had several chil- 
dren. Her niece Berenice having sup- 
planted her in the affections of her husband, 
she retired with her children to the court 
of Seleucus, king of Syria ; but her eldest 
son, Ptolemy Ceraunus, having afterwards 
seized upon Macedonia, she followed him 
thither; and though she was at first re- 
ceived with great respect, yet on the death 
of her son, b. c. 280, she was obliged to 
flee to Cassandria, where she spent the re- 
mainder of her life. — III. Or Adea, 
daughter of Amyntas and Cynane, and 
wife of Philip Aridaeus, half-brother of 
Alexander the Great. Aided by Cassander, 
she for some time after Alexander's death 
defended Macedonia against Polysperchon 
and Olympias ; but having been at length 
forsaken by her troops, she fell into the 
hands of Olympias, who put her to death. 
— IV. Wife of Orpheus. Fleeing from 
Aristaeus, who wished to offer violence, 
she was bitten by a serpent in the grass, 
and died of the wound. Her disconsolate 
husband determined to descend into the 
infernal regions, where, by the melody 
of his lyre, he obtained from Pluto the 
restoration of his wife to life, provided 
he did not look behind before he came on 



[ earth. But his eagerness to see his wife 
rendered him so forgetful, that he violated 

■ the conditions, and Eurydice was for ever 
taken from him. See Orpheus. 

Eurylochus, a friend of Ulysses, who 
alone did not taste the potions of Circe. 
His prudence however forsook him in 
Sicily, where he carried away the flocks 
sacred to Apollo ; and for this sacrilegious 
crime he was shipwrecked. 

Eurymedon, I., a river of Pamphylia 
in Asia Minor, rising in the chain of 
Mount Taurus, and flowing into the Me- 
diterranean near the city of Aspendus. 
Near it was fought a celebrated engage- 
ment, b. c. 470, in which the Persians 
were defeated, both in a land and sea fight, 
by the Athenians under Cimon. The 
Eurymedon is now the Capri- Sou. — II. 
A famous Athenian commander associated 

I with Demosthenes in several expeditions. 
III. The name of one of the Titans. 
Eurynome, I., the mother of the Graces. 

— II. One of the Oceanides, who, to- 
gether with Ophion, ruled over the world 
before Saturn and Rhea took possession 
of it. 

Euryphon, a Cnidian physician, con- 
temporary of Hippocrates. 

Eurypon, a distinguished king of Sparta, 
son of Sous, whose descendants were 
called Eurypontidce, although the family 
belonged to the Proclidae. 

Eurypylus, I., a son of Telephus and 
Astyoche, daughter of Priam. He was 
killed in the Trojan war by Pyrrhus. 

— II. A soothsayer in the Grecian camp 
before Troy, who was sent to consult the 
oracle of Apollo, how his countrymen 
could return safe home. The result of his 
inquiries was the injunction to offer a 
human sacrifice. — III. A son of Neptune 
and Astypalsea, and king of the island 
Cos. Hercules laid siege to his capital, 
and put him to death. 

Eurysthenes, a son of Aristodemus, 
who reigned conjointly with his twin 
brother Procles at Sparta. Their mother, 
who wished to see both her sons raised to 
the throne, having refused to declare which 
of the two was born first, both were ap- 
pointed kings of Sparta by order of the 
oracle of Delphi, b. c. 1102. The de- 
scendants of Eurysthenes were called Eu- 
rysthenidae, those of Procles, Proclidae. 
Eurysthenes had a son called Agis, who 
succeeded him. His descendants were 
called Agidse. Thirty-one kings of the 
family of Eurysthenes mounted the throne. 

Eurystheus, a king of Argos and 
Mycenae, son of Sthenelus and Nicippe, 
daughter of Pejops. Juno hastened his 



EUR 



EUX 



241 



birth by two months, that he might come 
into the world before Hercules, son of 
Alcmena, sister of Sthenelus, the younger 
of the two having been doomed by Ju- 
piter to be subservient to the other. 
The right thus obtained was cruelly ex- 
ercised by Eurystheus, and led to the 
performance of the twelve celebrated 
labours of Hercules. The success of Her- 
cules in achieving those labours so 
alarmed Eurystheus, that he furnished 
himself with a brazen vessel, where he 
might secure himself a safe retreat in case 
of danger. After the death of Hercules, 
Eurystheus renewed his cruelties against 
his children, and made war against Ceyx, 
king of Trachinia, with whom they had 
found refuge ; but his forces were de- 
feated, and he himself, as he fled in his 
chariot along the pass of the Scironian 
rocks, fell by the hands of Hyllus, the son 
of Hercules. 

Eurythion and Eurytion, I., a Cen- 
taur, whose insolence to Hippodamia was 
the cause of a quarrel between the Lapi- 
thse and Centaurs, at the nuptials of Piri- 
thous. — II. A son of Lycaon, who sig- 
nalised himself during the funeral games 
exhibited in Sicily by JEneas. 

Eurytis (idos), a patronymic name of 
Iole, daughter of Eurytus, who was led 
away captive by Hercules. 

Eurytus, L, a king of (Echalia who 
taught Hercules the use of the bow. 
Having offered his daughter Iole in mar- 
riage to the man who should excel him in 
archery, he was challenged by Hercules, 
who defeated him, and on refusing to fulfil 

his promise was put to death IT. A 

celebrated Spartan, who, having been left 
at Alpenus, on account of sore eyes, about 
the period of the battle of Thermopylae, 
desired his slave to lead him to the fight, 
where he fell with his 300 gallant com- 
panions. 

Eusebia, wife of the emperor Con- 
stantly. 

Eusebius Pamphili, one of the most 
distinguished among the early Christian 
writers, was born at Caesarea in Palestine, 
of which he was afterwards bishop, about 
a. d. 264. He pursued his studies at An- 
tioch, and after having been ordained 
presbyter he opened a school in his native 
city, where he formed an intimate acquain- 
tance with Pamphilus, a learned presbyter, 
who suffered martyrdom under Galerius, 
a. d. 309 ; and in memory of whose friend- 
ship he assumed the name of Pamphili, 
i. e. the friend of Pamphilus. After spend- 
ing some time in Tyre he went to Egypt, 
where he was imprisoned for some time ; 



but onhis return he was appointed bishop 
of Caesarea, a. d. 315. In common with 
many other bishops of Palestine, he at first 
espoused the cause of Arius, though his 
opinions were afterwards greatly modified. 
He took an active part in the council of 
Nice, a. d. 325 ; and afterwards in those of 
Antioch and Tyre, in which he stigmatised 
the proceedings of Athanasius, the great 
champion of orthodoxy. Eusebius enjoyed 
the friendship of the emperor Constantine, 
and died soon after his imperial patron, 
a. d. 339. He was a most voluminous 
writer ; and numerous editions of his 
Universal History, Chronology, Life of 
Constantine, and Praeparatio Evangelica, 
&c. have been published. 

Euterpe, the Muse who presided over 
music. She was looked on as the inven- 
tress of the flute, and was represented as 
crowned with flowers, and holding a flute 
in her hands. To her was also sometimes 
ascribed the invention of tragedy. Her 
name signifies "well-delighting" (eS, well, 
and Te'p7rco, to deliyht). 

Euthycrates, a sculptor of Sicyon, son 
and pupil of Lysippus, who lived in Olymp. 
1 20. His statues of Hercules, Alexander, 
and Medea were highly celebrated. 
Eutrafelus. See Volumnius. 
Eutropius, I., a Latin historian of the 
fourth century, who bore arms under Ju- 
lian in his expedition against the Parthians, 
and is thought to have risen to senatorian 
rank. Of all his writings his Roman His- 
tory, in ten books, has alone reached our 
times. It commences with the foundation 
of the city, and concludes with the death of 
Jovian, a. d. 364. — II. A eunuch and 
minister of Arcadius, who rose by infamous 
practices from the vilest condition to the 
highest pitch of opulence and power. An 
insult offered to the empress caused him 
to be banished to Cyprus ; but he was af- 
terwards recalled on another charge, con- 
demned, and beheaded, a. d. 399. 

Euxinus Pontus, Black sea, inland sea, 
situate partly in Europe, partly in Asia, to 
the north of Asia Minor. It was originally 
denominated "A^evos, " inhospitable ; " but 
when the inhabitants became civilised by 
intercourse with the Greeks, it changed its 
name to Ev^ivos, "hospitable." The Eu- 
xine is 700 miles from east to west, and on 
an average 320 broad. The chief rivers 
which fall into it are the Ister, Tyras, and 
Borysthenes. Notwithstanding the horror 
entertained by the Greeks, or rather the 
Greek poets, of this sea, its shores are fa- 
mous in their true and fabulous history. 
Colchis, the Temple of the Sun, and scene 
of the Argonautic expedition, were on its 

M 



242 



EXA 



FAB 



east coast ; the Cimmerian land of ever- 
lasting darkness was originally fixed upon 
its north shore ; and in more historical 
times, the Lydian, Persian, and Byzantine 
powers, and the exploits of Mithridates, il- 
lustrated its south and south-west borders. 
At an early period, many Greek colonies 
were planted on its shores. Its commerce 
was also reckoned of first-rate importance. 
Athens drew from it her principal supplies 
of corn and naval stores ; and it furnished 
the favourite slaves to the markets of 
Greece and Rome. Ovid died in exile 
somewhere on its borders, but whether on 
the Danube or Dniester is disputed. From 
the time of Constantine till the fifteenth 
century it formed the centre of the Roman 
world. 

Exagonus, an ambassador of a nation 
in Cyprus, who came to Rome, and talked 
so much of the power of herbs, serpents, 
&c, that the consuls ordered him to be 
thrown into a -vessel full of serpents. But 
these venomous creatures caressed him, 
and harmlessly licked him with their 
tongues. 

ExAMPiEUs, a fountain which, according 
to Herodotus, flows into the Hypanis, and 
renders its waters bitter. The same author 
places this fountain in the country of the 
Ploughing Scythians, and Alazones, called 
in Scythia Exampceus, corresponding to 
UpaX oSoi, " sacred ways." 

F. 

Fabaris, Farfaris, or Far/a, a river of 
Italy in the territory of the Sabines. 

Fabia, a Vestal virgin, sister of Terentia, 
the wife of Cicero. She was accused of 
criminal intercourse with Catiline, and 
brought to trial ; but was defended by 
Cicero, and acquitted. 

Fabia Gens, a large and powerful fa- 
mily of ancient Rome, which became sub- 
divided into several branches, distinguished 
by their respective cognomina. such as Fabii 
Maximi, Ambusti, Vibulani, &c. The 
Fabii, according to one account, traced 
their origin to Hercules ; but the more 
probable account assigns to them a Sabine 
origin, and derives their name from Faba, 
a bean, some of their ancestors having cul- 
tivated this pulse. After the expulsion of 
the Tarquinii, the Fabii exercised con- 
siderable influence ; and it has been noted 
as a remarkable fact, that, for seven con- 
secutive years after a. u. c. 268, one of the 
two annual consulships was filled by three 
brothers Fabii in rotation. About this 
period, the state being engaged in various 



wars, the Fabii demanded that their family 
alone should carry on the war against the 
Veientes ; and having obtained permission, 
set out to the number of more than three 
hundred. At first they were very success- 
ful, defeating the enemy in every encounter, 
and plundering their territory ; but at last, 
elated with success, they were brought into 
an ambuscade, and cut off to a man, b. c. 
477. Only one of the family survived, 
whose tender age had detained him at 
Rome, and from him Avere descended the 
noble Fabii in the following ages. See 
Fabius. 

Fabius, I., M. Ambustus, consul a. u. c. 
393, and several times afterwards. He 
fought against the Hernici and the Tar- 
quinians, and left several sons. — II. 
Q. Maximus Rullianus, son of the pre- 
ceding, attacked and defeated the Sam- 
nites, a. u. c. 429, against the orders of 
the dictator Papirius, who ordered him to 
be put to death ; but an appeal to the 
people saved his life.. He was five times 
consul, twice dictator, and once censor, 
and triumphed over seven nations near 
Rome. — III. Q,. Maximus, a celebrated 
Roman, first surnamed Verrucosus from a 
wart on his lip, and Agnicula from his 
inoffensive manners, was gradually raised 
by merit to the highest offices of the state. 
In his first consulship he obtained a vic- 
tory over the Ligurians. The fatal battle 
of Thrasymenus occasioned his election to 
the dictatorship ; and by a succession of 
skilful movements, marches, and counter- 
marches, he greatly harassed the army of 
Hannibal ; and was hence surnamed Cunc- 
tator, " delayer." When he had laid down 
his office of dictator, the rashness of Varro 
and his contempt for the operations of 
Fabius, occasioned the fatal battle of 
Cann£e. A few years afterwards, when 
consul for the fifth time, a. u. c. 543., Ta- 
rentum was obliged to surrender to his 
arms ; and on that occasion the Cartha- 
ginian enemy observed that Fabius was the 
Hannibal of Rome. But he did not live 
to see the success of the Roman arms under 
Scipio. He died in his 100th year, after 
he had been five times consul, and twice 
honoured with a triumph. His son, grand- 
son, and many other of his descendants, 
attained to the highest offices in the state. 
— IV. Pictor, the first Roman who wrote 
an historical account of his country, called 
by Livy scriptorum antiquissimus. He 
lived in the time of the second Punic war. 

Fabrateria, a town of Latium, near 
the junction of the Trerus with the Liris. 
It belonged originally to the Volsci. 
Fabricius, I., Caius, surnamed Lus- 



FvES 



FAU 



243 



emus, a celebrated Roman, who, in his first 
consulship, b. c. 283, obtained several vic- 
tories over the Samnites and Lucanians, 
and was honoured with a triumph. Two 
years after, he went as ambassador to 
Pyrrhus, and displayed his magnanimity 
by making a discovery of the perfidious 
offers of the king's physician, who had 
pledged himself to the Roman general for 
a sum of money to poison his royal master. 
To this greatness of soul was added con- 
summate knowledge of military affairs, and 
great simplicity of manners. He lived and 
died in the greatest poverty. — II. Veiento, 
a man of consular rank in the reigns of Do- 
mitian, Nero, and Nerva. He had gained 
the good graces of Domitian by his ac- 
commodating disposition ; but he was 
banished by Nero for some libellous verses, 
and recalled on the accession of Nerva. 
He was contemporary with Catullus Mes- 
salinus, the infamous " delator," bitterly 
satirised by Juvenal. 

F^ESULiE, Fiesoli, a town of Italy, in 
Etruria, north-east of Etruria, whence it 
is said the augurs passed to Rome. 

Faleria, Falleroni, a town of Picenum, 
south-west of Firmum. The inhabitants 
were called Falerienses. 

Falerii, (or ium,) a town of Etruria, 
capital of the ancient Falisci, so well 
known from their connection with the 
early history of Rome. (See Falisci.) 
It belonged originally to the Siculi, who 
again were succeeded by the Pelasgi, and 
it was not finally subjugated by Rome till 
the third year of the first Punic war. 
The waters of this territory were sup- 
posed, like the Clitumnus, to impart a 
white colour to the oxen, which, on this 
account, were preferred for sacrifice. The 
modern Civita Castellana, or more pro- 
bably Santa Maria di Faleri, occupies the 
site of the ancient town. 

Falernus, a part of Italy famous for 
its wine. Falernus is spoken of by Flo- 
rus and Martial as a mountain ; but Pliny, 
Polybius, and others denominate it a field 
or territory. See C^ecubus. 

Falisci, a people of Etruria, originally 
a Macedonian or Sicilian colony. The 
early wars of the Falisci with Rome are 
chiefly detailed in the fifth book of Livy, 
where the celebrated story of Camillus 
occurs. When their capital, Falerii, was 
besieged by the Roman general, a school- 
master went out of the city with his 
pupils, and betrayed them into the hands 
of the Roman enemy, that he might 
oblige the - place to surrender. Camillus 
ordered the man to be stripped naked, and 
whipped back to the town by those whom 



his perfidy wished to betray : and this 
generosity operated on the people so 
powerfully, that they surrendered to the 
Romans. 

Faliscus Gratius. See Gratius. 

Fama, ( fame,) a goddess at Rome, 
generally represented as blowing a trum- 
pet, &c. 

Fannia, a woman of Minturnas, who 
hospitably entertained Marius in his flight, 
though he had formerly sat in judgment 
on her, and divorced her from her husband. 

Fannius, I., an inferior poet, ridiculed 
by Horace. — II. Caius, an author in 
Trajan's reign, who wrote a history of the 
cruelties of Nero's reign, now lost. 

Fanum Vacun/e, a temple of Vacuna, 
in the vicinity of Horace's Sabine Villa, 
supposed to have stood on the summit of 
Rocca Giovane. 

Farfaris. See Fabaris. 

Fascelis, a surname of Diana, because 
her statue was brought from Taurica by 
Iphigenia in a bundle of sticks, (fascis,) 
and placed at Aricia. 

Fauna, a deity among the Romans, 
daughter of Picus, originally called Marica. 
Her marriage with Faunus procured her 
the name of Fauna, and her knowledge of 
futurity that of Fatua and Fatidica. She 
was ranked among the gods after death. 
Some writers identify her with Bona Dea 
or Cybele. 

Faunalia, an annual festival at Rome, 
celebrated in honour of Faunus, on the 
13th of February, the day on which oc- 
curred the slaughter of the Fabii. Another 
festival of the same name was celebrated 
on the Nones of December. 

Fa uni, certain rural deities of the 
Romans, bearing a strong resemblance in 
appearance and character to the Satyri of 
Grecian mythology, with whom they are 
generally identified in the works of the 
poets. The Fauni presided over the fields ; 
the Satyrs inhabited woody plains; and 
the Sylvani, woods on the mountains. See 
Satyri. 

Faunus, an ancient Latin rural deity, 
who presided over woods and wilds, and 
whose attributes bear a strong analogy to 
those of the Grecian Pan, with whom he 
is sometimes identified. He was an object 
of peculiar adoration of the shepherd and 
husbandman ; and at a later period he is 
said to have peopled the earth with a host 
of imaginary beings identical with himself. 
(See Fauni.) Like his sister Fauna, he 
was possessed of prophetic powers ; and 
at an early period he had two oracles 
situated in sacred groves, one near Tibur 
at the sources of the Albunea, and the other 
m 2 



244 



FAU 



FER 



on Mount Aventine. In later times he 
was mortalised, like all the other Italian 
gods, and was said to have been son of 
Picus, a just and brave king, and devoted 
to agriculture. 

Favo, a Roman mimic, who, at the 
funeral of Vespasian, imitated the manners 
and gestures of the deceased emperor. 

Favorinus. See Phavorinus. 

Fausta, I., a daughter of Sylla, and 
wife of Milo, the friend of Cicero. She 
disgraced herself by a criminal intimacy 
with the historian Sallust. — II. Daugh- 
ter of Maximian, and wife of Constantine 
the Great. She long exercised great in- 
fluence over her husband, who, however, 
ultimately put her to death, on discovering 
the falsity of a charge which she had 
made against Crispus, his son by a former 
marriage. 

Faustina, I., Annia, daughter of An- 
nius Verus, prasfect of Rome, and wife of 
Antoninus Pius. She was notorious for 
her licentiousness ; but her husband ap- 
pears to have been blind to her faults, for 
on her death, which took place in the third 
year of his reign, he accorded her divine 
honours. — II. The younger daughter of 
the preceding, and wife of her cousin M. 
Aurelius, was endowed with beauty, live- 
liness, and wit, but is represented as 
having become even more profligate than 
her mother. She died a. d. 176, in a vil- 
lage of Cappadocia, while returning with 
her husband from Syria. — III. The third 
wife of Heliogabalus bore that name. 

Faustitas, a goddess among the Romans, 
supposed to preside over cattle, and the 
productions of the seasons generally. She 
is frequently equivalent to the Felicitas 
Temporum of Roman medals. 

Faustulfs, the shepherd who, in the 
old Roman legend, having found Romulus 
and Remus in the act of being suckled by 
a she-wolf, took them home with him and 
brought them up. 

Faustus, an obscure poet under the first 
Roman emperors, two of whose dramatic 
pieces are mentioned by Juvenal. 

Feb ru a li a, a feast at Rome of puri- 
fication and atonement, in the month of 
February, which continued for twelve 
days. The month of February is some- 
times said to have derived its name from 
this expiatory festival, the people being 
then purified (februati) from the sins of 
the whole year ; but others deduce the 
name from the old Latin word fiber, sig- 
nifying the end or extremity of any- 
thing, and henee applied to February as 
being the last month in the earlier Roman 
year. 



Feciales, priests at Rome employed in 
declaring war and concluding peace. When 
the Romans thought themselves injured, 
the feciales were sent to demand redress, 
and if it was not given within thirty-three 
days, they returned to the confines of the 
hostile state, and threw a bloody spear 
into them, in proof of intended hostilities. 
The fecial, who took the oath in the name 
of the Roman people, in concluding a 
treaty of peace, was called Pater patratus. 
The College of Fecials was instituted by 
Numa, and is supposed to have been bor- 
rowed from the Greeks. They were about 
twenty in number. 

Felicitas Julia. See Olisippo. 

Felix M. Antonius, I., a Roman go- 
vernor of Judaea, a. d. 53, brother of the 
freedman Pallas, the favourite of Claudius, 
and husband of the celebrated Drusilla, 
daughter of Agrippa, whom he succeeded 
in detaching from her husband Azizus, 
king of Emesa. His government was very 
oppressive, and he is accused by Josephus 
of having caused the assassination of the 
high-priest Jonathas, to whom he in a 
great measure owed his place. It was be- 
fore him that St. Paul appeared at Caesarea 
(Acts xxiv.) ; and two years afterwards he 
was deposed from his office. — II. A native 
of Rome, who succeeded Dionysius the 
Calabrian, as bishop of that city a.d. 271, 
and suffered martyrdom four years after- 
wards. An epistle bearing his name is 
extant against Paul of Samosata. 

Feisina, an Etrurian city in Gallia 
Cisalpina, afterwards called Bononia, now 
Boulogne. It was the principal seat of the 
Tuscans north of the Apennines; received 
a Roman colony a. u. c. 653 ; and though 
it suffered considerably during the civil 
wars, it was restored by Augustus, and long 
held a high rank among the great cities of 
Italy. 

Feltria, Feltri, a town of Italy, north of 
Venice, capital of the small Rhaetian com- 
munity, Feltrini. 

Fenestella, I., a Roman historian 
who lived in the age of Augustus, and 
died at Canna?, a.d. 21. Of his histori- 
cal work, styled Annales, only a few frag- 
ments remain. — II. One of the gates of 
Rome. 

Fenni, or Finni, inhabitants of Fin- 
ningia or Eningia, considered as Finland. 

Feralia, a festival at Rome of the Dii 
Manes, which continued for eleven days, 
during which presents were carried to the 
graves of the deceased, marriages forbidden, 
and the temples of the gods shut. Various 
derivations of the word have been given. 
Properly speaking, the last day of the so- 



FER 



FID 



245 



lemnities, which fell on the 18th February, 
was alone styled the Feralia. 

FerentInum, I., Ferenti, a town of 
Etruria, south-east of Vulsinii. The em- 
peror Otho's family belonged to this city. 
— II. Ferentino, a town of Latium, about 
eight miles beyond Anagnia on the Via 
Latina. It belonged originally to the 
Volsci, but fell into the hands of the 
Romans, Hernici, and Samnites, succes- 
sively. 

Ferentum, or Forentum, Forenza, a 
town of Apulia, eight miles south-east of 
Venusia. 

Feretrius, an appellation of Jupiter 
among the Romans, so called from the 
feretrum, a frame supporting the spolia 
opiraa, dedicated to Jupiter by Romulus ; 
or, more probably, from (peptTpov, which 
Livy calls ferculum, the same as feretrum. 
See Spolia Opima. 

Ferine, the days set apart to celebrate 
festivals. They were either public or 
private. The public were of four different 
kinds : — 1. The feriae stativae, or immove- 
able. 2. The conceptivae, or moveable 
feasts, among which were the feriae Latinae 
(see Latin^e Ferine), observed by the con- 
suls before they set out for the provinces, 
the Compitalia, &c. 3. The feriae impera- 
tival, appointed only by the consul, dic- 
tator, or praetor, or a public rejoicing for 
some important victory. 4. The feriae 
nundinse, regular days in which the people 
of the country assembled together, and ex- 
posed their respective commodities to sale, 
so called because kept every ninth day. 
The ferice privatce were observed only in 
families in commemoration of birthdays, 
&c. The days on which the ferice were 
observed, were called festi dies, because 
dedicated to mirth and festivity. 

Feronia, a goddess commonly ranked 
among the rural divinities, and worshipped 
with great solemnity both by the Sabines 
and the Latins, but more especially by the 
former. She had a famous temple at So- 
racte, and another near Anxur, near the 
former of which great fairs were held dur- 
ing the celebration of her festivals, and in 
the latter manumitted slaves used to go 
through certain formalities to complete 
their freedom. The Sabine form of her 
name ( Heronia) has sometimes led to her 
being confounded with Juno Virgo, whose 
Greek appellation was Hera. 

Fescennia (iorum or inni), a town of 
Etruria east of the Ciminian lake, and 
near the Tiber. It is supposed to have 
been founded by the Siculi, who were af- 
terwards expelled by the Pelasgi, and to 
correspond to the modern Galese. The 



Fescennine verses are said to derive their 
origin from this city. These were a sort 
of rustic dialogue spoken extempore, in 
which the actors exposed the failings and 
vices of their adversaries. They were often 
repeated at nuptials, and at harvest-home, 
with gesticulations adapted to the sense of 
the unpolished verses. They were pro- 
scribed by Augustus as of immoral ten- 
dency. 

Festus, L, Porcius, proconsul, who 
succeeded Felix as governor of Judaea, 
and was solicited by the Jews to condemn 
St. Paul, or to send him to Jerusalem. 
The apostle's appeal to Caesar (Nero) 
frustrated their intentions. — II. Sextus 
Pomponius Pompeius, a well-known 
grammarian, supposed to have lived during 
the latter half of the third century of our 
era. None of the particulars of his life are 
known. See Flaccus III. 

Fibrenus, a river of Latium, near Ar- 
pinum, falling into the Liri's, but before 
its junction with which it formed a small 
island, on which was situated the property 
of Cicero and of his ancestors, and on 
which the orator himself was born. The 
river is now called Fiume della Pasta, and 
the island S. Domenico Abate. 

Ficaria, Serpentera, a small island on 
the east of Sardinia. 

Ficulea or Ficulnea, a town of La- 
tium beyond Mt. Sacer, north of Rome. 
Cicero had a villa there, and the road, 
which led to the town, was called Ficul- 
nensis, afterwards Nomentana Via. 

FiDENiE, a town of the Sabines, on the 
Tiber, about five miles from Rome. It 
was originally a colony of Alba Longa, 
fell subsequently into the hands of the 
Etrurians, or rather of the Veientes, and 
was finally conquered by Romulus. Of 
several attempts which it made to throw 
off the Roman yoke, the last, which took 
place, a. u. c. 329, ended in the complete 
destruction of the city, under the Roman 
general, iEmilius Mamercus. But that it 
again arose into importance is evident 
from the tremendous accident which oc- 
curred in the reign of Tiberius, when, 
owing to the fall of a wooden amphi- 
theatre, 50,000 persons were killed or 
wounded. Its site is fixed at Castel 
Giubileo. 

Fides, the goddess of faith and honesty, 
worshipped by the Romans. 

Fidius Dius, a Roman divinity, whose 
name frequently occurs in adjurations. 
The origin of this deity has greatly em- 
barrassed the critics ; but the general 
opinion seems to be that Fidius Dius is 
equivalent to the Zeus U'ktt^os of the 
M 3 



246 



FIR 



FLO 



Greeks, or "god of honour," and to the 
Sancus of the Sabines, and the Hercules 
of the Romans. 

Firmus, M., a wealthy merchant of 
Seleucia in Egypt, who assumed the 
purple in the time of Aurelian, but was 
defeated and crucified by the latter. 

Firmum, Fermo, a town of Picenum, 
about four miles from the coast, below 
the Tinna. It was called Firmum Pi- 
cenum, probably to distinguish it from 
another town of the same name, now 
unknown ; and was colonised about the 
beginning of the first Punic war. The 
Castellum Fermanorum of Pliny is repre- 
sented by Porto di Fermo. 

Fiscellus, that part of the chain of the 
Apennines which separated Picenum from 
the territory of the Sabines ; and said to 
be the only spot in Italy where wild goats 
were to be found. 

Flaccus, I., Valerius. (See Valerius.) 
II. One of the names of Horace. (See 
Horatius.) III. Verrius, a grammarian, 
who was tutor to the grandsons of Au- 
gustus, and the author of a work entitled 
" De Verborum Significatione," which was 
abridged by Festus Sextus Pomponius. 

Flamines. the name of a peculiar col- 
lege of priests at Rome, whose duties, 
like those of the Salii and others, con- 
sisted in attending to the festivals and 
other sacred rites of particular deities. 
The most important were the Flamen 
Dialis, or priest of Jupiter, who, among 
other privileges, had a seat in the senate 
by virtue of his office, the Flamen Mar- 
tialis, or priest of Mars, and the Flamen 
Quirinalis, or priest of Romulus. The 
derivation of the word is altogether un- 
certain. 

Flaminia via, I., a celebrated road, 
which led from Rome to Ariminum and 
Aquileia, named from Flaminius, by 
whom it was constructed, a. u. c. 533. — 
II. A gate of Rome opening to the same 
road, now del popolo. 

Flaminius, C. Nepos, a Roman consul 
of an impetuous disposition, drawn into a 
battle near the lake of Thrasymenus, by 
the artifice of Hannibal, and killed in 
the engagement, with an immense number 
of Romans, b. c. 217. 

Flamininus, I., T. Q,., a celebrated Ro- 
man raised to the consulship b. c. 554. Be- 
ing sent at the head of the Roman troops 
against Philip, king of Macedon, he totally 
defeated him on the confines of Epirus, 
made all Locris, Phocis, and Thessaly 
tributary to the Roman power, and pro- 
claimed all Greece independent at the Isth- 
mian Games. He received the name of 



father and deliverer of Greece : and on his 
return to Rome a brilliant triumph of 
three days was decreed to him for his ex- 
ploits. In the year b. c. 183, he was sent 
to Prusias, king of Bithynia, to demand 
the person of Hannibal, then in his old 
age, and a refugee at the Bithynian court ; 
b. c. 168, he was made augur ; and after 
this period he disappeared from history, 
though it has been said that he was found 
dead in his bed, after having throughout a 
long life practised the virtues of his model 
Scipio.- — II. Lucius, brother of the pre- 
ceding, during whose first campaign he 
commanded the Roman fleet, and subse- 
quently distinguished himself in the wars 
of Greece. He was afterwards expelled 
from the senate by Cato the Censor, for 
having put to death a Gallic prisoner. — 
III. Calp. Flamma, a tribune, who, at 
the head of 300 men, saved the Roman 
army in Sicily, b. c. 258, by engaging the 
Carthaginians, and cutting them to pieces. 

Flanaticus sinus, a gulf lying between 
Istria and Liburnia, in the Adriatic, and 
so called from the adjacent town of Flano, 
Fiannona. It was also named Polaticus 
Sinus, from the town of Polo in its vicinity. 
It is now the Gulf of Quarnaro, 

Flavia lex, agraria, a law enacted by 
L. Flavius, a. u. c. 693, for the distribu- 
tion of some lands among Pompey's sol- 
diers and the commons. 

Flevus, a canal intersecting the coun- 
try of the Frisii, made by Drusus. Being 
in progress of time increased by the sea, 
it assumed the name of Zuyder Zee, South- 
ern sea ; and of several channels which 
afford entrance to the ocean, that named 
Vlie indicates the genuine egress of the 
Flevus. 

Flora, the goddess of flowers and gar- 
dens among the Romans. Her worship 
was originally of Sabine origin, and was 
introduced at Rome by Titus Tatius, the 
colleague of Romulus, and a peculiar 
priest or flamen was assigned to her by 
Numa. The games in her honour, called 
Floralia, which were first established b. c. 
238, were celebrated annually on the 28th 
of April and four following days, and 
were characterised by singular licentious- 
ness. She is sometimes identified with the 
Chloris of the Greeks. 

Florentia, Florence, a town of Etru- 
ria, on the Arnus. It was colonised by 
Cassar, suffered greatly during the war of 
Sylla and Marius, but again rose into ce- 
lebrity under Tiberius. At a later period 
it was destroyed by Totila, and rebuilt by 
Charlemagne. 

Florianus, brother of the emperor 



FLO 



FOR 



247 



Tacitus, on whose death, a. d. 276, he I 
assumed the purple ; but his troops, rather 
than hazard a battle with Probus, who , 
had been proclaimed emperor by the army 
of the East, revolted to the latter, and put ' 
Florianus to death, after a reign of less 
than three months. 

Florus, I., L. Annaeus, a native either 
of Gaul or Spain, who wrote in Latin 
a history of Rome in the reign of Trajan. 
He was still alive under Hadrian, and is 
sometimes confounded with Julius Florus 1 
or Floridus, who wrote at that time a 
poem called " Pervigilium Veneris," in 
imitation of Horace's " Carmen Seculare. " j 
His work, which is more a panegyric than J 
a history of the Roman people, is in four 
Books, and comprises the history of Rome 
from its foundation down to the closing of j 
the temple of Janus by Augustus. The 
best edition is that of Duker, Lugd. Bat. 
1722, 2 vols. 8vo. — IT. Lucius Julius, 
a Roman, who accompanied Tiberius in 
his military expeditions, and to whom 
Horace has addressed two of his epistles. 

Fons solis, Fountain of the Sun, a cele- 
brated fountain in the Oasis, on which 
was situated the oracle of Jupiter Ammon.. 
It was tepid at dawn, cool as the day ad- 
vanced, very cool at noon, diminishing in 
coolness as the day declined, warm at sun- 
set, and boiling hot at midnight. 

Fonteius. See Capito. 

Forjucidia, an annual festival, cele- 
brated at Rome on the 15th of April, so 
called from the sacrifice of forda? boves, 
or pregnant cows, of which the embryos 
were burnt by the senior Vestal virgin, 
and the ashes kept for the purifications of 
the Palilia. 

FormLe, a town of Latium, south- 
east of Caieta, said to have been anciently 
the abode of the Laestrygones. It is 
chiefly interesting from having been 
long a favourite residence of Cicero, and 
the scene of the tragical event which ter- 
minated his existence. It was called 
Mamurrarum urbs, from a family of con- 
sequence which lived there ; and the hills 
in its neighbourhood produced a species of 
vine which yielded excellent wine. Near 
its ruins is the modern Mola di Gaeta. 

Formianum, a villa of Cicero near 
Formiae. See Formic. 

Formio, Risano, a river of Istria, the 
ancient boundary of Italy to the north- 
east, afterwards extended to the Arsia. 

Forxax, a goddess at Rome, who pre- 
sided over the baking of bread. Her 
festivals, Fornacalia, first instituted by 
Numa, were held on the 21st of Feb- 
ruary. 



Fortuna, in mythology, the goddess 
who presided over the destinies of man- 
kind, and generally speaking over all the 
events of life. She was represented as 
blind, with winged feet, and resting on a 
wheel. This goddess was not known in 
the more ancient systems of the Greek 
theogony : all the guidance of human 
affairs, for instance, is intrusted by Homer 
to Destiny ; but in Italy, and chiefly at 
Rome, Actium, and Praeneste, her worship 
was most assiduously cultivated. 

Fortunate insula, islands lying off 
the western coast of Africa, which derived 
their name from their remarkable beauty 
and fertility. They were represented as 
the seats of the blessed, where the souls of 
the virtuous were placed after death, and 
are supposed to be the Canary isles of 
the moderns. 

Forum Rojianuji, a' large open space 
at Rome, called until recently Campo 
Vaccino, situated between the Capitoline 
and Palatine hills, and the great centre of 
business, political and commercial. Here 
stood the temples of Jupiter Stator and 
of Concord, in which the senate met, the 
triumphal arch of Septimius Severus, and 
various other monuments of the grandeur 
of ancient Rome. 

Forum, a name given in Roman geo- 
graphy to many places in which there was 
either a public market, or in which the 
praetor held his court. Of these the most 
remarkable were, I., Appii. (See Appii 
Forum. — II. Allieni, a town of Gallia 
Cisalpina, now supposed to be Ferrara. — 
III. Aurelii, a town of Etruria, now 
Montalto. — IV. Claudii, another in Etru- 
ria, now Orolo. — V. Cornelii, now Imola, 
in the Pope's dominions. — VI. Domitii, 
a town of Gaul, now Frontignan, in Lan- 
guedoc. — VII. Flaminii, a town of Urn- 
bria, now San Giovane. — VIII. Gal- 
lorum, a town of Gaul Togata, now Castel 
Franco, in the Bolognese. — IX. Juiii, a 
town of Venice called Forajuliensis urbs, 
now Friuli. — X. Julii, a town of Gaul 
Narbonensis, now Frejus, in Provence. 
This town was a place of importance in 
the time of Julius Caesar, who gave it his 
own name. Augustus sent thither the 
200 galleys taken from Antony at the 
battle of Actium, made Forum Julii, a 
naval station of importance, and planted in 
it a colony of soldiers of the eighth legion. 
Agrippa further devoted his endeavours to 
increase the prosperity of the town. Its 
strong fortifications protected it for a con- 
siderable period against the barbarians ; 
but about the year 940 it was destroyed by 
the Saracens, nor has it since recovered so 
M 4 



248 



FOS 



FUL 



much as the shadow of its former pros- 
perity. 

Fosi, a people of Germany, north of the 
Cherusci, of whom they are supposed to 
be a branch, living along the Visurgis, 
Weser. 

Fossa, I., Straits of Bonifacio, between 
Corsica and Sardinia, called also Taphros. 
— ! II. Drusi or Drusiana, a canal opened 
by Drusus from the Rhine to the Yssel. 
— III. Mariana, Galejou, a canal cut by 
Marius from the Rhone to Marseilles dur- 
ing the Cimbrian war ; sometimes the 
plural is used, fossae. — IV. Fossa Philis- 
tina, one of the mouths of the Po, now the 
Po Grande, excavated by the Tuscans to 
drain the marshy lands about Hadria. It 
had seven arms or branches, called Septem 
Maria, or Fossiones Philistine. 

Franci, tribes of Germans who inhabited 
the districts on the Lower Rhine, and as- 
sumed the title of Franks, i. e. Freemen, 
from a temporary union among themselves 
against the Roman power. They first ap- 
pear on the stage of history in the last 
quarter of the second century of our era ; 
under the emperor Honorius they obtained 
a permanent footing in Gaul, and they re- 
mained in alliance with the Roman empire 
till about a. d. 500, when Clovis, or Chlo- 
diviz, reduced them under his power, and 
founded the French monarchy. 

Fregell^e, a considerable city of Latium, 
near the Liris, and close to the ViaLatina. 
It was captured by the Romans a. u. c. 
427. It suffered greatly from Pyrrhus 
and from Hannibal, but subsequently at- 
tained such prospects as to attempt to shake 
off the Roman yoke ; but it was recaptured 
by L. Opimius after a vigorous resistance, 
and completely destroyed. Its ruins are 
to be seen either at Ceperano, or at S. 
Giovanni Incarico. 

Frentani, a people of Italy north-west 
of Apulia, named from the Frento, now 
Fortore, which runs through the eastern 
part of their country. Their country 
answers to the modern Abruzzo Citra. The 
Frentani were of Samnitic origin, but 
they long possessed an independent poli- 
tical existence, and, in other respects, their 
history is closely identified with that of 
the Marsi, Marrucini, and Vestini, &c. 
They formed an alliance with Rome at an 
early period, and distinguished themselves, 
in the war with Pyrrhus and Hannibal, 
in the Roman cause ; but during the civil 
war joined the confederated states of Italy 
against Rome. 

Frisii, a people of Germany occupying 
the territory now called Friesland and 
Groningen. Their enmity to the Cherusii 



induced them to form a friendship with 
the Romans, whom they aided on numer- 
ous occasions ; but they were subsequently 
overwhelmed by the Roman arms. 

Frontinps, Sex. Jul., a Latin writer, 
born of a patrician family, was praetor of 
Rome a. r>. 70, and about five years later 
was sent into Britain by Vespasian, where 
he greatly distinguished himself as a com- 
mander. Under Nerva he wa3 raised to 
the consulship, a. d. 97, and being ap- 
pointed superintendant of the aqueducts, 
brought the waters of the Anio to Rome 
by means of a splendid aqueduct. He 
died a. d. 1 06, in the reign of Trajan, 
leaving behind him several works, of which 
that bearing the barbarous title " De 
Aquaeductibus," &c. is the best known. 
At his death he held the office of augur, in 
which he was succeeded by Pliny. 

Fronto, I., M. Cornelius, a Latin writer, 
born at Cirta in Africa. He came to Rome 
in the age of Hadrian, where he taught 
rhetoric with such success that Antoninus 
Pius appointed him praeeeptor of his 
adopted sons, raised him to the consulship, 
and made him proconsul of Asia. He 
died at an advanced age in the reign of 
M. Aurelius. A collection of valuable 
letters to his pupils, with their answers, 
was discovered by Angelo Maio in the 
Vatican, and published in 1823. — II. 
Julius, a munificent patron of literature 
at Rome, thrice consul, and a colleague 
of Trajan. His house and grounds were 
thrown open to the public ; and he is de- 
scribed by Martial, as " clarum militia?, 
togasque decus." — III. A rhetorician of 
Emesa, and uncle of Longinus. 

Frusino, Frusinone, a city of Latium, 
on the Cosa, captured by the Romans 
a. u. c. 450. 

Fucinus, Celano, a large lake of Italy, 
north of the Liris. To prevent the in- 
undations to which it was subject, Claudius 
excavated a canal three miles in length 
through a mountain to the river Liris, 
into which its superfluous waters were dis- 
charged ; and after the completion of this 
undertaking, the splendid but sanguinary 
show of a real Naumachia or sea-fight was 
exhibited on the lake. Remains of this work 
are visible between Avezzano and Lugo. 
Fug alia. See Regifugium. 
Fulvia, I., Gens, an illustrious Roman 
family, the chief branches of which were 

Curvus, Nobilior, Flaccus, Paetinus, &c 

II. A Roman lady, who disclosed to Cicero 
the details of Catiline's conspiracy, which 
she had learned from her paramour Quin- 
tus Curius. — III. An ambitious, cruel, 
and revengeful woman, who married first 



FUL 



FUS 



249 



the tribune Clodius, then Curio, and at last 
M. Antony. She took an active part in all 
the intrigues of the triumvirate. When 
Cicero's head had been cut off by order of 
Antony, Fulvia ordered it to be brought 
to her, and barbarously bored the tongue 
with a golden bodkin. While Antony was 
prosecuting the war against Brutus and 
Cassius, she remained at Rome, where she 
exercised a paramount influence, disposing 
at her pleasure of the chief offices of the 
state, and heaping honours upon the most 
undeserving persons. After the battle of 
Philippi, irritated by her husband's inter- 
course with Cleopatra, she attempted to 
persuade Augustus to take up arms against 
him ; and not succeeding in her design, 
she made war upon Octavius herself with 
the aid of her brother-in-law ; but, after 
some spirited efforts, she was besieged in 
Perusia, and compelled to surrender. She 
then retired into Greece, when she re- 
joined her husband, who coldly received 
her, and she soon afterwards died at Sicyon, 
a. u. c. 712, through chagrin and wounded 
pride. 

Fulvius, I., L. Curvus, was created 
consul b. c. 320, and six years afterwards, 
master of the horse to the dictator 
L. JEmilius. — II. M. Curvus Paetinus 
was created consul b. c. 305, and took the 
Samnitic city of Bovianum. — 'III. Cn. 
Paetinus was consul b. c. 300; gained a 
memorable victory over the Samnites, for 
which he enjoyed a triumph, and three 
years afterwards greatly distinguished him- 
self as propraetor in Etruria. — IV. S. 
Paetinus Nobilior was the colleague of 
iEm. Paulus Lepidus in the consulship, 
B. c. 255. After the defeat of Regulus he 
accompanied his colleague to Africa, and 
after acquiring much glory against the 
Carthaginians, was shipwrecked at his re- 
return with 200 ships, of which only eighty 
were saved. — V. Q. Flaccus was elected 
four times consul in the course of twenty- 
eight years, b. c. 237 — 209. Having de- 
feated Hanno near Bovianum, he laid siege 
to Capua, which surrendered after the 
lapse of a year, and was dreadfully ravaged ; 
and he subsequently subdued the Hircani, 
Lucani, and other Italian nations that had 
embraced the cause of Hannibal. — VI. 
M. Nobilior greatly distinguished himself 
as prsetor in Spain b. c. 1 96, and as consul 
in Greece three years afterwards. On his 
return he was accused of having maltreated 
the Roman allies, but acquitted, and ho- 
noured with a triumph. He was elected 
colleague of iEmilius Lepidus in the cen- 
sorship, b.c. 181. He formed a port at 
the mouth of the Tiber, and decorated 



Rome with many public structures. — 
VII. Q. Flaccus was sent into Spain as 
praetor b. c. 181, when he gained such a 
decisive victory over the Celtiberi, that , on 
his return to Rome, he received a triumph 
and the consulship. Being elected censor 
b.c. 174, he, together with his colleague, 
Posthumius Albinus, caused the streets of 
Rome to be paved ; and on the following 
year he plundered the marble temple of the 
Lacinian Juno, to finish the building of one 
erected to Fortune, an act of sacrilege for 
which he is said to have been deprived of 
reason. — VIII. M. Flaccus was consul b.c. 
1 25, and seconded the projects of Tiberius 
Gracchus, to obtain the rights of citizen- 
ship for the states of Italy. He obtained 
a triumph for his exploits in Gaul ; and 
having subsequently become involved in 
the seditious movements of the Gracchi 
relative to the Agrarian law, he fell in an 
affray which ensued, and his body was 
thrown into the Tiber. See Gracchus. 

Fund an us, originally called Amyclanus, 
from Amyclae in its vicinity, a lake of Italy 
near Fundi, which discharges itself into 
the Mediterranean. 

Fundi, Fondi, a town of Italy, near 
Caieta, on the Appian way near the Lacus 
Fundanus. It received most of the privileges 
of Roman citizenship a. u. c. 417 ; its in- 
habitants were enrolled in the iEmilian 
tribe a. u. c. 564, and it was subsequently 
colonised by the veterans of Augustus. 

Furia lex, de Testamentis, a law enacted 
by C. Furius the tribune, forbidding any 
person to leave as a legacy more than 1000 
asses, and inflicting a fine of four-fold the 
amount on him who should accept more. 

FurLe. See Eumenides ; Erynnyes. 

Furii, a family which migrated from 
Medullia in Latium, settled at B ome under 
Romulus, and was admitted among the 
patricians. Camillus was of this family, 
and first raised it to distinction. 

Furina, an early Latin goddess, whose 
functions are supposed to have been equi- 
valent to those of the Furies. Her fes- 
tivals, called Furinalia, were celebrated 
annually on the 25th of July ; but her 
worship had ceased long previously to the 
time of Varro. 

Furius, I., a military tribune with 
Camillus, by whom he was sent against 
the Tuscans. (See Furia Lex.) M. 
Bibaculus, a Latin poet of Cremona, who 
wrote annals in Iambic verse, and was 
ridiculed by Horace for the turgidity and 
bombast of his style. 

Fuscus, I., Aristius, a friend of Horace, 
conspicuous for his integrity, learning, and 
abilities. To him are addressed the well- 
m 5 



250 



FUS 



GiET 



known ode and epistle of Horace. — II. 
Corn, a Roman praetor, who when a boy 
had acted as charioteer to Nero. Having 
squandered his wealth in charioteering, he 
was made praefect of the praetorian bands 
by Domitian, and fell in the Dacian war. 

Fusius, a Roman actor, ridiculed by 
Horace for falling asleep through in- 
toxication, and resisting every effort that 
was made to rouse him. 

G. 

Gabm, I., a city of Persia, in the pro- 
vince of Persis, supposed to be Darab^ 
gherd. — II. Or Gabaza, a city of Sog- 
diana, south-west of Cyreschata. The 
precise position of this city is uncertain, 
but it was one of the first places in the 
East to which the exploits of Alexander 
gave celebrity. 

Gabellus, La Secchia, a river falling 
into the Po, opposite the Mincius. 

Gabii, L, Grotto di Torri, a Sabine 
town near the Via Salaria, not far from 
Cures. — II. An ancient city of Latium, 
somewhat north of Tusculum, whose site 
is supposed to be occupied by the modern 
V Osa. It was one of the numerous colo- 
nies founded by Alba, and first came into 
the possession of the Romans by the ar- 
tifices of Sextus, son of Tarquin, who 
gained the confidence of the inhabitants 
by deserting to them, and pretending that 
his father had ill treated him. It suffered 
severely during the civil wars, but appears 
to have again risen into importance under 
Antoninus and Commodus. The inha- 
bitants had a peculiar mode of tucking up 
their dress, whence the phrase Gabinus 
cinctus. Juno was worshipped with pe- 
culiar sanctity at Gabii; hence she was 
styled Gabina. 

GabInia lex, de Comitiis, a law enacted 
by A. Gabinius, tribune, a. u. c. 684, 
which required that in public assemblies 
for electing magistrates, the votes should 
be given by ballot, and not viva voce. — 

II. De Militia, a law proposed by A. Ga- 
binius, tribune, a. u. c. 685, granting to 
Pompey the power of carrying on the war 
against the pirates during three years, and 
of obliging all kings, &c, to supply him 
with the necessaries which he wanted. — 

III. De Usura, a law proposed by Aul. 
Gabinius, tribune, a. u. c. 685 ; ordaining 
that no action should be granted for the 
recovery of any money borrowed on small 
interest, to be lent on larger, which ob- 
tained the name of versuram facere. 

Gabinius, Aulus, the author of what 
were termed the Gabinian laws, was at- 



tached first to Sylla, and afterwards to 
Pompey. He first distinguished himself 
as tribune of the commons (see Gabinia 
Lex) ; and having subsequently attained 
the consulship, he espoused the party of 
Clodius against Cicero, and powerfully con- 
tributed to his banishment. He then ob- 
tained the province of Syria, at that time 
distracted by the rival claims of Hyrcanus 
and Aristobulus to the throne, and having 
re-established tranquillity, he demanded a 
thanksgiving from the senate, who refused, 
and ordered his return. But, instead of 
complying with their request, he marched 
into Egypt, thus violating the law which 
prohibited the transgression of the boun- 
daries of a province, and replaced Ptol. 
Auletes on the throne, and at length re- 
turned to Rome to stand his trial for high 
treason. By the interest of Caesar and 
Pompey, he was acquitted, but was subse- 
quently accused of extortion, and though 
even Cicero pleaded for him, he was found 
guilty, and condemned to perpetual exile. 
Many years afterwards he was recalled 
by Caesar, and sent into Illyricum, where 
he died, a., u. c. 707, in consequence of 
chagrin at the defeats his army sustained 
from the barbarians. — II. A Roman ge- 
neral under Claudius, who distinguished 
himself in Germany, a. d. 31 : but accused, 
at his return, of receiving bribes. Cicero 
ably defended him ; but he was banished, 
and died about a. d. 40, at Salona. 

Gades, (ium,) Gams, (is,) and Gadi- 
ra, Cadiz, a commercial city of Spain, 
built upon a small cognominal island, 
at the mouth of one of the arms of the 
Baetis. It was said to have abounded with 
wild olive-trees, and hence named Coti- 
nusa, (KoTLuovcra). Gades was founded 
about b. c. 1500, by a Phoenician colony ; 
it came into the power of the Carthagi- 
nians in the first Punic war, and in the 
second surrendered itself voluntarily to the 
Romans. From J. Caesar it received the 
privileges of a Roman colony; and in a later 
age styled Augusta Julia Gaditana. Her- 
cules, surnamed Gaditanus, had there a 
celebrated temple. The inhabitants were 
called Gaditani. Near Gades lay the 
small island Erythea, called by the in- 
habitants Juno's island, with which it was 
sometimes identified. 

Gaditanus sinus, Bay of Cadiz. 

Gaditanum fretum, Straits of Gibraltar. 
See Abyla and Calpe. 

G^etulia, a country of Africa, south 
of Numidia, now answering in some de- 
gree to Biledulgerid, " region of locusts.' 
Its situation and limits are not precisely 
ascertained. 



GAI 



GAL 



251 



Gaia, the goddess of the earth among 
the Greeks, equivalent to the Terra or 
Tellus of the Romans. See Tellus. 

Gainas. See Rufinus. 

Gaius, one of the most distinguished 
Roman classical jurists, of whose personal 
history nothing is known, except that he 
lived under Antoninus Pius and .Aurelius. 
His celebrated work, called the " Insti- 
tutes," and others of his writings, were 
largely used in the compilation of the 
Pandects ; but the originals had been lost 
for nearly sixteen centuries, when they 
were accidentally discovered by Niebuhr 
in 1816, among the Palimpsests in the li- 
brary of Verona, and were deciphered and 
given to the world by a Committee of 
Prussian literati, in several editions. 

Gal^sus, a freedman of Camillus, cele- 
brated for the courage he displayed when 
about to be put to death by the emperor 
Claudius, a. d. 42. 

Galanthis, a servant-maid of Alcmena, 
whose sagacity eased the labours of her 
mistress at the birth of Hercules, and baf- 
fled the designs of Juno, who had solicited 
Lucina to retard the pains of Alcmena, 
and hasten those of the wife of Sthenelus. 
Lucina, irritated at the deception practised 
on her, changed Galanthis into a weasel. 

Galat^e, the inhabitants of Galatia. 

Galatea and Galath^a, a sea- 
nymph and daughter of Nereus and Doris, 
and passionately fond of Acis, a shepherd 
of Sicily, whom the Cyclops Polyphemus 
through jealousy killed with a fragment 
of broken rock. See Acis. 

Galatia, or GALLOGRiEciA, I., a country 
of Asia Minor, lying south of Paphlago- 
nia, ^est of Pontus, and north-east of Phry- 
gia. It was originally a part of Phrygia; 
but the Gauls or Celtae having invaded 
Asia Minor in several bodies, conquered 
and settled in this country about b. c. 241. 
Hence the Greeks gave the new settlements 
of this people in Asia a double name, — 
Galatia, from the nation itself, and Gallo- 
Graecia, from the Greek colonies, which 
became subsequently intermingled with 
them. 

Galba, I., Sergius, a Roman orator who, 
having been accused of cruelty while pro- 
consul in Spain by Cato the Censor, 
saved himself from condemnation by em- 
bracing his two infant children in the pre- 
sence of the people. — II. Servius Sul- 
pitius, a Roman lawyer, father of the em- 
peror Galba. — III. Serv. Sulpicius, son 
of the preceding who, after having filled 
the highest offices of the state, both at 
home and abroad, was elected emperor by 
the soldiers after the death of Nero. When 



seated on the throne, he suffered himself 
to be governed by favourites, whose confis- 
cations and rapacity raised several tumults 
which the adoption of the strongest mea- 
sures alone repressed. His adoption of Piso 
Licinianus as his successor, to the prejudice 
of Otho, who had expected to be the object 
of his choice, led to a conspiracy being 
formed against him, and he was put to death 
after a reign of seven months, in the 
seventy-third year of his age, a. d. 68. 
Otho was proclaimed his successor. 

Galenus Claudius, a celebrated phy- 
sician in the age of M. Antoninus and his 
successorsj was born at Pergamus, a. r>. 
131. Having finished his preliminary 
studies at Pergamus, under the ablest 
philosophers of the day, he repaired to 
Alexandria, then the most distinguished 
medical school in the world, where he com- 
pleted his studies, and he thence removed 
to Rome, where his celebrity was speedily 
acknowledged, and he was appointed phy- 
sician to Marcus Aurelius. But the 
jealousy of rivals, who attributed his suc- 
cess to magic, forced him to retire to his 
native country ; and nothing further is 
known of his personal history, except that 
he was alive in the reign of Septimius 
Severus. Those of his works which have 
come down to our times fill five folio vo- 
lumes. 

Galerius, a Roman emperor. See 
Maximianus. 

Galesus, I., Galeso, a river of Calabria, 
flowing into the bay of Tarentum ; cele- 
brated for the shady groves in its neigh- 
bourhood, and for the beautiful fleeces of 
the sheep which pastured on its banks. — 
II. A rich native of Latium, killed as he 
attempted to make a reconciliation be- 
tween the Trojans and Rutulians, when 
Ascanius had killed the favourite stag of 
Tyrrheus, the prelude of all the enmities 
between the hostile nations. 

Galilee a. See Palestina. 

Galli, I., a warlike race of antiquity. 
(See Gallia.) — II. One of the names of 
the Corybantes, or priests of Cybele. See 

CORYBANTES. 

Gallia, an extensive country of Eu- 
rope, bounded on the west by the Atlantic, 
on the north by the Insula Batavorum 
and part of the Rhenus, Rhine, on the 
east by the Rhenus and Alps, on the 
south by the Pyrenees. The Greeks called 
the country itself G alatia, Celtice ( KeATiK^ ), 
and Celto- Galatia, the last being used to 
distinguish it from Galatia in Asia Minor. 
At the invasion of Gaul by Julius Caesar, 
the whole country was divided among the 
three great nations, Belga?, Celtae, and 
m 6 



5252 



GAL 



GAL 



Aquitani, whom the Romans called by 
one general name Galli, while the Greeks 
styled them Celtse. The Celtee extended 
from the Sequana, Seine, in the north, to the 
Garumna, Garonne, in the south. Above 
the Celtas lay the Belgae, between the 
Seine and Lower Rhine, intermixed with 
Germanic tribes. • The Aquitani lay be- 
tween the Garonne and Pyrenees, and 
were intermingled with Spanish tribes. 
These three great divisions, however, were 
subsequently altered by Augustus, b. c. 27, 
who extended Aquitania into Celtica, as 
far as the Liger or Loire; the remainder 
of Celtica was called Gallia Lugdunensis, 
from the colony of Lugdunum, Lyons, 
while the rest of Celtica, towards the 
Rhine, was added to the Belgee, under 
the title of Belgica : and, lastly, the south 
of Gaul, which, from having been the first 
provinces occupied by the Romans, had 
been styled Gallia Provincia, was distin- 
guished by the name of Narbonensis, from 
Narbo, Narbcnne. Gallia Narbonensis 
was called Braccata, on account of the 
peculiar covering of the inhabitants for 
their thighs. The epithet of Comata is 
applied to Gallia Celtica, because the 
people suffered their hair to grow to an 
uncommon length. In later ages these 
four provinces were called the Four Gauls, 
and subdivided into seventeen districts. 
The inhabitants were great warriors. They 
overcame the Roman armies under Bren- 
nus, invaded Greece in different ages, and 
spread themselves over the greatest part 
of the world ; but were ultimately sub- 
jected to the Roman sway by Julius Caesar 
and his successors, and so remained till 
the overthrow of Lyaegrius at Soissons, 
A. d. 486, by Clovis, the founder of the 
French monarchy. 

Gallia Cisalpina, Gaul on this side of 
the Alps, with reference to Rome, a name 
given to the northern part of Italy, as 
occupied by the Gallic tribes which had 
poured over the Alps into this extensive 
tract of country. Livy assigns to these 
migrations of the Gauls as early a date as 
the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, that is, 
about 600 b. c. It was called also Gallia 
Citerior, and Gallia Togata, from the Ro- 
man toga being worn by the inhabitants 
after their admission to Roman citizenship, 
and was subdivided into three parts : Gallia 
Cispadana, or Gaul on this side the Po, 
containing the tribes Boii, Lingones, &c. ; 
Gallia Transpadana, or Gaul on the fur- 
ther side the Po, containing the Taurini, 
Salassi, Insubres, Cenomani, Euganei, 
Veneti, &c. ; and Liguria, answering to 
the Riviera of Genoa. This portion of 



Italy was styled by Cicero the flower of 
the country, and the support and ornament 
of the Roman empire. 

Gallicus Ager, the name given to the 
country between Picenum and Ariminum, 
whence the Galli Senones were banished, 
and which was divided among the Roman 
citizens. 

Gallienus, Publ. Licinius, appointed 
Cagsar, and colleague of his father, the em- 
peror Valerian, a. n. 253. While still* 
young, he displayed great courage and 
generalship against the Alemanni ; and 
even acquired considerable reputation as 
an orator and a poet. On his father being 
taken prisoner by the Persians, he was 
acknowledged sole emperor, a. d. 260 ; 
but from this period he gave but few indi- 
cations of the talents he had previously 
shown. His time was spent in the greatest 
debauchery, and he is said to have heard, 
with equal indifference, the loss of a rich 
province and the execution of a malefactor. 
In the midst of the distractions to which 
the indolence and effeminacy of the em- 
peror gave birth, two of his officers having 
revolted and assumed the imperial purple, 
Gallienus, at length roused from his 
torpor, marched against his antagonists, 
and put all the rebels to the sword, with- 
out showing the least favour to rank, sex, 
or age. But the spirit of mutiny hail 
proceeded too far to be checked. A num- 
ber of usurpers, known by the name of the 
thirty tyrants, sprang up in almost every 
province of the empire ; and at last Au- 
reolus, being proclaimed emperor by the 
troops of Illyricum, entered Italy, took 
possession of Milan, and was even on the 
march to Rome, when he was encountered 
and defeated by Gallienus, near the Adda, 
and obliged to retreat to Milan. Gallienus 
hastened to besiege it, but during the 
siege he was murdered by some conspira- 
tors, a. d. 268, and succeeded by Clau- 
dius II. 

Gallinaria Silva, a wood near Liter- 
num in Campania, famous as the retreat 
of robbers. 

Gallipolis, I., a fortified town of the 
Salentines, on the Ionian sea, now Galli- 
poli. — II. A city on the Thracian Cher- 
sonese on the Hellespont, at the opening 
of the Propontis, Sea of Marmora. 

Gallogrjecia. See Galatia. 

Gallonius, P., a luxurious Roman, 
who never dined well, because he was 
never hungry. 

Gallus, L, Caius or Cn. Sulpitius, 
consul b. c. 1 66, was famous for his know- 
ledge of astronomy, and exact calculations 
of eclipses. He is said to have foretold 



GAL 



GAR 



253 



the eclipse which took place on the evening ] 
before the great battle of Pydna. — II. Cor- 
nelius, an eminent general and statesman, 
and one of the most distinguished Roman 
elegiac poets, was born at Forum Julii, 
Frejus, b. c. 66. Little is known of his 
early history. He accompanied Octavius 
to Rome after the battle of Modena, and, 
when the latter became master of the 
empire, was appointed to the highest 
offices of the state. After the battle of 
Actium and the death of Cleopatra, he 
received the prefecture of Egypt, the most 
important of the imperial provinces; but, 
forgetful of the emperor's favours, he pil- 
laged his province, and is said to have 
applied to Augustus such injurious ex- 
pressions that he was recalled on a charge 
of treason, found guilty, and condemned 
to perpetual exile : a disgrace which 
operated so powerfully on him, that he 
killed himself in despair, a. d. 26. Gallus 
was the intimate friend and patron of the 
chief poets of his age, but more especially 
of Virgil, who has mentioned him with 
affection and respect in different parts of 
his works, and whose tenth Eclogue is 
devoted to the misery of Gallus, in conse- 
quence of the perfidy of his mistress Ly- 
coris. (See Ltcoris. ) Of his four books 
of elegies, so highly spoken of by his 
contemporaries and immediate successors, 
no fragments remain ; the elegies bearing 
the name of Gallus being the production 
of Max. Gallus Etruscus,who lived under 
Anastasius. — III. iElius, a Roman of 
equestrian rank, in the age of Augustus. 
Being appointed procurator of Egypt, 
he made an incursion into Arabia ; 
but in consequence of the treachery 
of Syllaeus, the commander of the 
Arabian auxiliaries, who led him into 
sandy deserts, the expedition entirely 
failed. Gallus was an intimate friend of 
Strabo, who has given minute details of 
the expedition. — IV. C. Vibius Trebo- 
nianus, governor of Mcesia in the reign of 
Decius, after whose death he was raised 
to the imperial throne, a. d. 252. He 
associated Hostilianus, son of Decius, with 
him in the government, and after his 
death his own son Volusianus. Having 
freed the empire from the incursions of the 
Goths, he ruled with great mildness and 
equity; but on iEmilianus, his successor in 
the government of Mcesia, being pro- 
claimed emperor by the provincial army, 
Gallus marched against him, and the 
troops of the latter, seeing themselves the 
weaker, prevailed upon by promises, mur- 
dered Gallus, and went over to iEmilianus, 
a. d. 253. — V. A river in Phrygia, whence 



the priests of Cybele are said to have been 
named Galli, because when they drank of its 
waters tbey became furious. — VI. Flavius 
Claudius Constantinus, a brother of Julian, 
was sent to Antioch, with the title of 
Cassar, by Constantius, his cousin ; but 
having conspired against his benefactor, 
he was recalled and beheaded, a. d. 354. 

Gamelia (yafxos, marriage), the name 
of a sacrifice offered in the temple of 
Minerva at Athens on the day before girls 
were married. It also signified marriage 
solemnities in general. 

Gangarid^:, a people near the mouths 
of the Ganges. Their capital was Ganga 
Regia, which is said to correspond to the 
modern Raji-mohol. 

Ganges, a famous river of India, whose 
source has been recently discovered to be a 
small stream issuing from under a mass of 
perpetual snow on the Himmaleh moun- 
tains. After pursuing its course through 
rugged valleys and defiles, it enters the vast 
plains of Hindostan, and flows thence with 
a smooth navigable stream to the ocean, a 
distance of 1500 miles, diffusing abun- 
dance on all sides by its waters, its pro- 
ducts, and the facilities it affords for in- 
ternal transit. The Ganges is said to have 
been the boundary of Alexander's con- 
quests in the East ; and in the eyes of the 
superstitious Hindoos, it has for ages been 
an object of great reverence. The banks 
of the Ganges are studded with more cities 
than those of any river in the world : its 
chief tributaries are the Jumna, Gogra, 
and Burrampooter. 

Gangeticus sinus, the Bay of Bengal, 
into which the Ganges falls. 

Ganymedes, son of Tros and Callirrhoe, 
daughter of the Scamander, and brother 
of Ilus and Assaracus. He was remark- 
able for his beauty, and was on this ac- 
count carried away by the eagle of Jupiter 
to be his celestial cup-bearer in place of 
Hebe. 

Garamantes (sing. Garamas), a people 
of Africa, south of Fazania, named from 
the city of Garama, Garmes. They were 
conquered in the reign of Augustus. 

Garamantis, a nymph, mother of Iarbas, 
by Jupiter. 

Garganus, Punta di Viesti, a lofty 
mountain of Apulia, terminating in a bold 
promontory of the same name. It is fre- 
quently mentioned by the Latin poets, 
especially on account of its fine groves of 
oaks. 

Gargaphia, a valley near Plata?a, with 
a fountain of the same name, where Actason 
was torn to pieces by his dogs. 

Gargarus (pi. a, orum), one of the 



254 



GAR 



GEN 



highest summits of Mt. Ida in Troas, the 
root of which formed the promontory 
Lectum. On it was a town called Gar- 
gara. 

Gargettus, a deme, or borough, of the 
tribe iEgeis in Attica, celebrated for being 
the birthplace of Epicurus. 

Garumna, Garonne, a river of Gaul, 
which rises in the valley of Arran, and 
falls into the Oceanus Cantabricus, Bay of 
Biscay. In Julius Caesar's division of 
Gaul, it constituted the boundary of Aqui- 
tania, which it separated from Gallia Cel- 
tica. 

Gaugamela, a village of Assyria, in the 
district of Aturia, near which Alexander 
obtained his third victory over Darius. It 
was about 500 stadia from Arbela, which, 
from its greater importance, is generally 
spoken of in connection with that famous 
battle. 

Gaulus, I., Gozo, a small island, ad- 
jacent to Melite, Malta. — II. Another 
below the south shore of Crete, now called 
Gozo of Candia, to distinguish it from 
Gozo of Malta. 

Gaurus, Monte Barbaro, a mountain of 
Campania, bordering on Lake Avernus, 
famous for its wines. 

Gaza, one of the five Philistine satra- 
pies, or principalities, towards the southern 
extremity of Canaan, fifteen miles south of 
Ascalon, near the Mediterranean. Its port 
was called Gazaeorum Portus. Gaza is 
mentioned in Genesis, x. 18. Alexander 
destroyed it after a desperate siege of two 
months ; but it was subsequently rebuilt, 
and repeatedly taken from the Syrians by 
the Maccabees. In the time of St. Luke 
it was reduced to a desert. It was after- 
wards called, and is now termed by the 
Arabs, Rassa. 

Gebenna. See Cebenna. 

Gedrosia, Mekran, a barren province 
of Persia, south and south-east of Car- 
mania. Its chief city was Pura, now 
Fokrea. 

Gela, I., a river of Sicily, east of the 
Himera, and falling into the sea on the 
south-eastern coast, near the cognominal 
city. It derived its name from the icy 
coldness of its waters, and is said to 
have abounded in whirlpools. — II. A 
city of Sicily, near the mouth of the river 
of the same name. Founded by a Rhodian 
and Cretan colony, b. c. 713, it soon 
became one of the Grecian colonies in 
Sicily, and in little more than a century 
after its own foundation, colonised Agri- 
gentum. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, first 
gave a blow to its prosperity, by removing 
a large portion of its inhabitants to Syra- 



cuse; it was afterwards depopulated by 
Dionysius and Agathocles ; and, about 400 
years after its foundation, it received its 
last blow from Phintias, tyrant of Agri- 
gentum, who removed the inhabitants to 
Phintias, a town in the neighbourhood 
which he had founded, and employed the 
stones of Gela to beautify his own city. 
The inhabitants were called Gelenses, 
Geloi, and Gel'ani. The plains in its 
vicinity, called Campi Geloi, were cele- 
brated for their fertility. The modern 
Terra Nova occupies part of the site of the 
ancient Gela. 

Gellius, Aulus, was born at Rome in 
the early part of the second century. 
Having finished his studies at Rome, he 
went to Athens, where he attended the 
lectures of Phavorinus ; and, on his return, 
was appointed one of the centumviri, or 
civil judges. His work called Noctes 
Atticce, a kind of scrap-book, which, as he 
states in the preface, was composed at 
Athens during the long nights of the 
winter, is still extant, and has been often 
edited. He died in the reign of M. 
Aurelius. 

Geloi. See Gela. 

Gelon, I., a son of Dinomenes, who, 
after distinguishing himself as a com- 
mander, made himself absolute at Gela, 
b. c. 491, on the death of Hippocrates, 
and five years afterwards was raised to su- 
preme power at Syracuse, whither he 
transferred the inhabitants of Gela. (See 
Gela.) He conquered the Carthaginians 
at Himera, b. c. 480, made various other 
conquests, and contributed by his taste 
and liberality at once to the embellish- 
ment and prosperity of his capital. His 
great equity and moderation endeared him 
to the people, and his death, which took 
place b. c. 478, was universally lamented. 
He was succeeded by his brother Hiero. 
— II. A son of Hiero the Younger, who 
outlived the battle of Cannae. 

Gelones and Geloni, a people of 
Scythia, inured from their youth to labour 
and fatigues. They painted themselves, 
to appear more terrible in battle, and were 
said to have been descended from Gelonus, 
son of Hercules. 

Gemoni^ Scal^e, steps at Rome, near 
the prison called Tullianum, down which 
the bodies of criminals were thrown into 
the forum, to be gazed at by the mul- 
titude. 

Genabum, a town of the Aureliani, on 
the Ligeris, Loire, afterwards called Au- 
reliani, now Orleans. 

Genauni, a people of Vindelicia. See 
Brenni. 



GEN 



GER 



255 



Geneva, a city of the Allobroges, at the 
western extremity of the Lacus Lemanus, 
Lake of Geneva. It has retained its an- 
cient name. 

Genius. See Daemon. 

Genseric, king of the Vandals, succeed- 
ed his brother Gonderic a. d. 429. He led 
an army into Hispania Baetica, of which he 
took entire possession, and having crossed 
over to Africa, conquered the whole coun- 
trv west of Carthage, and ultimately took 
that city by surprise, a. d. 439, Menaced 
by both the eastern and western empires, 
he then formed an alliance with Attila, 
king of the Huns. With a powerful fleet 
he ravaged and captured many islands in 
the Mediterranean, and sailing up the 
Tiber, on the invitation of the empress 
Eudoxia, he delivered up Rome to pillage 
for fourteen days, a. d. 455. Five years 
afterwards he destroyed a fleet which the 
emperor Majorian had collected for the in- 
vasion of Africa ; carried the terror of his 
arms throughout all the maritime cities of 
Europe, and having at last defeated the 
emperor Leo's admiral, off Carthage, in a 
great naval battle, a. d. 468, he remained 
undisputed sovereign of the sea till his 
death, which took place a. d. 477. He be- 
longed to the sect of the Arians. 

Gentius, a king of Illyricum, who, being 
bribed by Perseus, king of Macedonia, im- 
prisoned the Roman ambassadors ; hut he 
was conquered by Anicius, and led in 
triumph with his family, b. c. 169. 

Genua, Genoa, a celebrated town of 
Liguria, whose origin is lost in obscurity. 
It was a great emporium, even in the 
second Punic war, during which it was 
burned by Mago the Carthaginian ; but it 
was subsequently restored by the Romans, 
and formed into a municipium. In the 
time of Strabo it was a flourishing city ; 
and after several vicissitudes in its govern- 
ment, during which, however, it continued 
to advance in prosperity, it finally became 
the great commercial rival of Venice in 
the middle ages. 

Genusus, Semno, a river of Illyricum, 
falling into the Adriatic, above Apol- 
Jonia. 

Genutia lex, de magistratibus, a law 
enacted by L. Genutius, tribune a.u. c.41 1, 
ordaining that no person should exercise 
the same magistracy within ten years, or 
be invested with two offices in one year. 

Georgica, a poem of Virgil, in four 
books, which treats of husbandry in gene- 
ral, and of all the duties and employments 
of the agriculturist. This poem ranks 
by universal consent as the most finished 
production that Reman literature has be- 



queathed to us. The name is derived from 
yrj, the earth, and epyov, labour. 

Ger^estus, Cape Mantelo, a promontory 
and haven in the south-west of Euboea. 

Gergis or Gergitha, an ancient city of 
Dardania, in Troas, a settlement of the 
Teucri. It was a place of great strength 
as well as antiquity, and was famous for 
a temple of Apollo Gergithius. The in- 
habitants of Gergis were removed by 
Attalus, king of Pergamus, to a town of 
the same name, which he built on the 
Caicus ; and, at a later period, the Romans 
consigned the territory of the old town to 
the Ilienses. 

Gergovia, Gergovie, a strong town and 
fortress of Gaul, belonging to the Arverni. 

Germania, an extensive country of Eu- 
rope, east of Gaul, whose ancient bound- 
aries were much more extensive than at 
present, as they comprised the vast tract 
of country extending from the Baltic to 
the Vistula, and from the Rhine to the 
Danube. The Greeks and Romans had 
little knowledge of Germany previously to 
the time of Julius Caesar ; but even the 
extent of his victories was limited by the 
Rhine ; and though the country west of 
the Weser was in after times repeatedly 
traversed by Roman armies, the Romans 
never attained any accurate knowledge of 
the country east of this river ; and hence 
many of the statements relative to the 
tribes situated in that district are purely con- 
jectural. The inhabitants were divided by 
Tacitus into three great tribes, which were 
again subdivided into many smaller ones : 

1. the Ingaevones, bordering on the ocean; 

2. the Hermiones, inhabiting the central 
parts ; and 3. the Istaevones, including all 
the rest. Pliny afterwards made five divi- 
sions : — 1 . The Vindili, including the Bur- 
gundiones, Varini, Carini, and Gullones ; 
2. the Ingaevones, including the Cimbri, 
Teutones, andChauei ; 3. the Istaevones,near 
the Rhme, including the midland Cimbri ; 
4. the Hermiones, inhabiting the central 
parts, and including the Suevi, Hermun- 
duri, Catti, and Cherusci ; and 5. the Peu- 
cini and Bastarnae, bordering on Dacia. 
The Romans first became acquainted with 
the ancient Germans b. c. 1 1 3, when they 
appeared, under the name of Teutones and 
Cimbri, on the confines of the Roman do- 
minions, and moving southward, carried 
the terror of their arms over Gaul and part 
of northern Italy, until overthrown by Ma- 
rks and Catulus, b. c. 101 — 103. As al- 
ready observed, Julius Caesar subjugated 
the tribes bordering on the Rhine : under 
Augustus, the successes of Tiberius, who 
had advanced the Roman arms as far as 



256 



GER 



GET 



the Elbe, were counterbalanced by the 
decisive defeat of Varus ; and on Ger- 
manicus failing in his attempt to re-esta- 
blish the Roman power, the project of 
subjugating Germania was abandoned, 
and never renewed. Our limits preclude 
us from alluding to the internal dissensions 
of the German tribes, or the attacks which 
they from time to time made upon the 
Roman empire, with which their history 
became ultimately blended ; but the reader 
will find full particulars on this head 
in the elaborate work of Mannert, to 
which we beg to refer. The manners- of 
the ancient Germans have been described 
by several authors, but particularly by Ta- 
citus, in his admirable treatise " De jVJo- 
ribus Germanorum," which is justly 
esteemed one of the most precious remains 
of Roman learning, not only as being cu- 
rious and instructive in itself, but also 
because it points out the origin of various 
institutions and customs, many of which 
still remain among the different countries 
subdued by the Germans. 

Germanicus Cjesar, son of Drusus 
Nero Germanicus and Antonia, the niece 
of Augustus, nephew of Tiberius, by whom 
he was adopted, and brother of Claudius, 
afterwards emperor, was born b. c. 14. His 
first campaign was made in Dalmatia, on 
his return from which he enjoyed a tri- 
umph, and was elected to the consulship. 
He soon afterwards went to the Rhine, 
where he suppressed several revolts of the 
legions, who would fain have declared 
him emperor, advanced the Roman arms 
as far as the Elbe, and amply avenged the 
disasters of Varus on the victor Arminius. 
(See Arminius.) But in the midst of his 
successes, by command of Tiberius, who 
had become jealous of his popularity, he 
was recalled to Rome, when he enjoyed a 
triumph, a. d. 17. On the following year 
he was appointed joint consul with the 
emperor, and was sent into the East to 
quell some disturbances that had arisen ; 
but Piso, Whom Tiberius had appointed 
to the government of Syria, merely to act 
as a spy upon Germanicus, so thwarted 
his views that he fell ill, and died at 
Daphne, near Antioch, a. d. 1 9, not with- 
out strong suspicions of having been poi- 
soned by Piso. He had married Agrippina, 
by whom he had nine children, one of whom, 
Caligula, disgraced the name of his illus- 
trious father. He has been commended, 
not only for military accomplishments, 
but also for learning and benevolence ; 
and the news of his death was received 
with the greatest grief. This name was 
common in the age of the emperors, not 



only to those who had obtained victories 
over the Germans, but even to those who 
had entered the borders of their country 
at the head of an army. Domitian applied 
the name, which he himself had assumed, 
to the month of September, in honour of 
himself. 

Germanii, an ancient tribe of Persia, 
from whom, according to some authors, 
the Germans were originally descended. 

Geronthr^e, a town of Laconia, north 
of Helos, founded by the Achasans long 
before the invasion of the Dorians and 
Heraclida?, and afterwards colonised by the 
latter. It contained temples in honour of 
Mars and Apollo ; and some vestiges of 
their ruins are found near the village 
Hierahi. 

Gerra, the name of four Asiatic and 
African cities, the chief of which was situ- 
ated on the Sinus Persicus, and was famous 
for its commerce. El Katif is supposed to 
occupy its site. 

Gerrhi, a people of Scythia, in whose 
country the Borysthenes rises. 

Gerrhus, a river of Scythia, probably 
the Mohsznijawodi. 

Gerusia, in ancient history, the senate 
of Sparta. The number of this council 
was thirty, including the two kings ; and 
the qualifications of its members were, 
pure Spartan blood, and an age not below 
sixty years. The election was performed 
in a primitive manner by acclamation, the 
candidates being brought forward one by 
one before the people. He who was 
greeted with the loudest applause was 
held to receive the highest honour next the 
throne. The functions of the gerusia 
were partly deliberative, partly judicial, 
and partly executive. It prepared mea- 
sures which were to be laid before the 
popular assembly ; it exercised a criminal 
jurisdiction, with power of capital punish- 
ment ; and also wielded a kind of censorial 
authority for the correction of abuses. 

Geryon and Geryones, a celebrated 
monster, sprung from the union of Chrysaor 
with Callirrhoe, and represented as having 
three bodies. He lived in the island of 
Erythea, close to Gades, where he kept 
numerous flocks, guarded by a two-headed 
dog, Orthos, and by the herdsman Eury- 
thion. Hercules, by order of Eurystheus, 
destroyed Geryon, Orthos, and Eurythion, 
and carried away all his flocks to Tiryn- 
thus. 

Gessortacum, a town of the Morini, in 
Gaul, afterwards named Bononia, now 
Boulogne. 

Geta, Antoninus, son ot Severus, and 
brother of Caracalla, was born a, d. 190. 



GET 



GLA 



257 



On the death of Severus, who had associ- 
ated him in the empire with Caracalla, he 
was appointed to the eastern provinces ; 
but the entreaties of his mother Julia pre- 
vailed on him to remain at Rome ; and 
being soon afterwards invited to a confer- 
ence with Caracalla, who envied his vir- 
tues, and was jealous of his popularity, he 
was murdered in the arms of his mother 
by the hired assassins of his brother, in 
his twenty-third year. 

Get.33, the name of a northern tribe, 
which originally inhabited the country 
south of the Danube, corresponding to 
Servia and Bulgaria. They were driven to 
the north of the Danube by Philip and 
Alexander of Macedon, together with the 
Daci, with whom they became completely 
identified. The country of the Getas 
called Scythia Parva, and also Pontus, is 
well known, under the latter name, through 
the poems which Ovid, in his exile, wrote 
from Tcmi, the place of his residence. 
See Daci. 

Gigantes, sons of Ceelus and Terra, 
born after the destruction of the Titans. 
They were represented as of vast stature 
and strength, and having their feet covered 
with serpent's scales. The defeat of the 
Titans incensed them against Jupiter, and 
they conspired to dethrone him. They 
made use of rocks, oaks, and burning 
woods for their weapons, and had already 
heaped Mount Ossa on Pelion, to scale 
with more facility the walls of heaven ; 
when Jupiter, in compliance with the be- 
hests of an oracle which had declared that 
the gods could only be successful in this 
war by the aid of a mortal, armed his son 
Hercules in his cause ; and the giants were 
soon put to flight, and defeated. Some 
were crushed to pieces under mountains, 
or buried in the sea ; others were flayed 
alive, or beaten to death with clubs. The 
giants were born either in Phlegrse or 
Pallene. The names of the principal giants 
were Porphyrion, Alcyoneus, Eurytus, 
Clytion, Enceladus, Polybotes, Hippoly- 
tus, Gration, Agrius, Thoon. They are 
frequently confounded with the Titans, 
and with the monsters called the Hun- 
dred-handed, Briareus, Gyges, and Cottus. 

Gindes. See Gvxdes. 

Gir, a large river of Africa, represented 
by Ptolemy as flowing from east to west, and 
after a course of 1000 miles losing itself 
in the same lake, marsh, or desert as the 
Niger. It is sometimes identified with the 
Bornou or Wad-al- Gazel, and sometimes 
with the Bahr-KuUa. 

Giscox, son of Hamilco the Carthaginian 
general, was banished by the intrigues of 



his enemies ; but being afterwards recalled, 
was made a general in Sicily, against the 
Corinthians, about b. c. 309 ; and by his 
success and intrepidity, obliged the enemies 
of his country to sue for peace. 

Gladiatorii ludi, combats which were 
originally exhibited on the grave of de- 
ceased persons at Rome in order to appease 
their manes by the effusion of blood; but 
which were subsequently introduced into 
the public amphitheatres, and became one 
of the most favourite spectacles of the Ro- 
man people. The gladiators were originally 
either captives or condemned criminals, 
and their occupation was considered in- 
famous ; but at a later period, persons 
who had enjoyed the highest dignities of 
the state, patricians, and even emperors, 
fought in the arena. The gladiators were 
armed in different ways ; and they were dis- 
tinguished according to the arms and dress 
into Threces, Myrmillones, Secutores, &c. 
Being desperate and ruffian characters, they 
were frequently kept in pay by wealthy 
and turbulent citizens, or hired to act as 
bullies. These cruel exhibitions were not, 
as is commonly said, put an end to by the 
Christian emperors : they still existed in 
the fifth century of our era, and probably 
only ceased on the conquest of Italy by 
the Goths. 

Glanum, St. Remi, a town of Gaul, in 
Provence. 

Glaphtra, I., a daughter of Archelaus, 
high priest of Comana in Pontus, cele- 
brated for her beauty and licentiousness. 
(See Archelaus.) — II. Grand-daughter 
of the preceding, and Archelaus, king of 
Cappadocia. She married Alexander, son 
of Herod, by whom she had two sons, and 
after the death of Alexander, became the 
wife of her brother-in-law Archelaus. 
Glauce. See Creusa. 
Glaucofis, a surname of Minerva, from 
the blueness of her eyes. 

Glaucxjs, I., a son of Hippolochus, son 
of Bellerophon. He assisted Priam in the 
Trojan war, and had the simplicity to 
exchange his golden suit of armour with 
Diomedes for an iron one, whence came 
the proverb Glauci et Diomedis permutatio, 
to express a foolish exchange. He was 
| killed by Ajax. — II. A fisherman of An- 
thedon in Bceotia, son of Neptune and 
, Nais, or, according to others, of Polybius, 
' son of Mercury. Observing one day that 
: all the fishes which he had caught received 
such vigour when they touched the grass 
as to jump again into the sea, his curiosity 
induced him to taste the grass, when he 
found himself suddenly moved with a desire 
of living in the sea ; and, on leaping into 



258 



GLA 



GOR 



the water, was made a sea deity by Oceanus 
and Tethys. He afterwards became ena- 
moured of the Nereid Scylla, whose ingra- 
titude was severely punished by Circe. ( See 
Scylla.) Like the other marine deities, 
he was endowed with the gift of prophecy; 
and we find him appearing to the Argo- 
nauts during their expedition, and fore- 
telling to them what was to happen. He 
was represented with a long beard, dis- 
hevelled hair, shaggy eyebrows, and the tail 
of a fish ; and according to some accounts, 
he was the interpreter of Nereus. — III. A 
son of Sisyphus, king of Corinth, by Me- 
rope, daughter of Atlas ; born at Potnia?, 
a village of Bceotia. While returning 
from the games which Adrastus had cele- 
brated in honour of his father, he was torn 
in pieces by his mares, which Venus had 
infuriated. — IV. A son of Minos II. and 
Pasiphae, who was smothered in a cask of 
honey, but miraculously brought to life 
by means of an herb which had been seen 
by a soothsayer, Polyidus, to reanimate a 
serpent. — V. A son of Epytus, who suc- 
ceeded his father on the throne of Mes- 
senia, ten centuries before the Augustan 
age. He introduced the worship of Ju- 
piter among the Dorians, and first offered 
sacrifices to Machaon, son of iEsculapius. 

Glaucus Sinus, Gulf of Macri, a gulf 
of Lycia, at the head of which stood the 
city of Telmissus, whence the gulf was 
sometimes called Sinus Telmissius. 

Glota or Clota, a river of Britain, 
Clyde, falling into the Glota iEstuarium, 
Firth of Clyde. 

Gnatia. See Egnatia. 

Gnidus. See Cnidus. 

Gnossis and Gnossia, an epithet given 
to Ariadne, because she lived or was born 
at Gnossus. The crown which she re- 
ceived from Bacchus, and which was made 
a constellation, is called Gnossia Stella. 

Gnossus. See Cnossus. 

Gomphi, Stagoas, a city of Thessaly, of 
great strength and importance, and the 
key of the country on the side of Epirus. 
v 'It was plundered by Caesar. 

Gonatas. See Antigonus. 

Gonni and Gonocondylos, a strongly 
fortified town of Thessaly, at the entrance 
into Tempe, where Antigonus, surnamed 
Gonatas, was probably born. 

Gordijei, mountains in Armenia, where 
the Tigris rises, supposed to be the Ararat 
of Scripture. 

Gordianus, M. Antonius Africanus, 
I., a son of Metius Marcellus, descended 
from Trajan by his mother's side, was born 
a. d. 158. His early life was spent in 
literary pursuits ; but he subsequently 



entered upon public life, and became suc- 
cessively praetor, quaestor, and consul. 
Having in his 80th year undertaken the 
government of Africa, in the capacity of 
proconsul, he was proclaimed emperor by 
the rebellious troops of his province ; but 
he long declined to accept the imperial 
purple, and was only finally prevailed on 
by threats of immediate death. He asso- 
ciated his son Gordianus with him in the 
empire, and strangled himself through 
grief at the death of the latter, which took 
place within six weeks of his elevation to 
the throne — II. M. Antonius Africanus, 
son of the preceding, and pupil of Serenus 
Samonicus, who left him his library of 
62,000 volumes. He was made praefect 
of Rome by Heliogabalus, to whom his 
literary pursuits endeared him ; was ap- 
pointed consul by Severus, and having 
afterwards passed into Africa in the cha- 
racter of lieutenant, was, on his father's 
elevation to the throne, appointed his 
colleague. He fell in battle at the age of 
forty-six, fighting against Capellianus, a 
partisan of Maximums, who had been 
dethroned ; and his aged father strangled 
himself through grief. — III. M. Antonius 
Pius, grandson of the first Gordian, and 
nephew of the second, was only twelve 
years old when honoured with the title 
of Caesar, and in the following year he 
was proclaimed sole emperor, on the 
murder of Balbinus and Maximus, who 
had been associated with him in the empire 
after the death of the Gordiani. In his 
eighteenth year he married Furia Sabina 
Tranquillina, daughter of Misitheus, cele- 
brated for his eloquence and virtues. 
Misitheus being intrusted with the most 
important offices of the state, corrected 
various abuses which prevailed, and restored 
the ancient discipline among the soldiers. 
When Sapor, king of Persia, had invaded 
the Roman provinces in the East, Gordian 
boldly marched to meet him, conquered 
him, and took many flourishing cities in 
the East, on which the senate decreed him 
a triumph, and saluted Misitheus as the 
guardian of the republic. Unfortunately 
Misitheus died soon afterwards ; and 
Gordian having once more repaired to the 
East, a mutiny was raised against him by 
Philippus, who had succeeded Misitheus 
as his counsellor, and though he consented 
to associate the rebel with him in the 
empire, he was soon afterwards assassi- 
nated, at the instigation of Philippus, in 
the twentieth year of his age. 

Gordium, a city of Galatia in Asia 
Minor, to the east of Pessinus, where was 
preserved the famous Gordian knot. Cleo, 



GOR 



GRA 



259 



leader of some predatory bands in this 
quarter, who had supported Octavius at 
the battle of Actium, changed its name to 
Juliopolis, in honour of Julius Caesar. 

Gordius, a Phrygian, who, though 
originally a peasant, was raised to the 
throne. During a sedition, the Phrygians 
were told by the oracle that their troubles 
would cease if they chose for their king 
the first man they met going to the temple 
of Jupiter seated in a chariot. Gordius 
was the object of their choice, and conse- 
crated his chariot in the temple of Jupiter. 
The knot which tied the yoke to the 
draught-tree being made in such an artful 
manner, that the ends of the cord could 
not be perceived, a report was spread that 
the empire of Asia was promised by the 
oracle to him who could untie it. Alex- 
ander, in his Asiatic expedition, passed by 
Gordium ; and wishing to inspire his 
soldiers with courage and his enemies with 
the belief that he was born to conquer 
Asia, he cut the knot with his sword, and 
hence asserted that the oracle was really 
fulfilled, and his claims to universal empire 
justified. 

Gorgias, a celebrated statesman, orator, 
and sophist, born at Leontini in Sicily, 
hence surnamed Leontinus. Few particu- 
lars of his life are known. He came to 
Athens b. c. 427, on a mission to seek 
assistance for his native city against Syra- 
cuse ; and, on its successful termination, 
took up his permanent residence among 
the Athenians, with an occasional excur- 
sion to Larissa, and divided »his time 
between practising at the bar and teaching 
rhetoric. He lived upwards of a century, and 
died at Larissa almost contemporaneously 
with Socrates. Gorgias is usually, though 
erroneously, called a pupil of Empedocles. 
Only two fragments of his writings re- 
main. 

Gorgo, I., wife of Leonidas, king of 
Sparta, &c. — II. The ship which carried 
Perseus, after he had conquered Medusa. — 
III. Urghenz, the capital of the Chorasmii. 

Gorgones, three daughters of Phorcys 
and Ceto, whose names where Euryale, 
Stheno, and Medusa, of whom the two first 
were immortal. Their hair was entwined 
with serpents, their hands were of brass, 
their body was covered with impenetrable 
scales, their teeth resembled the tusks of a 
wild boar, and above all, they turned to stone 
all on whom they fixed their eyes. Ovid, 
however, represents Medusa as extremely 
beautiful. They dwelt near the Western 
Ocean, or as some state, in Libya, and are 
always associated with their guardians the 
Graiae. (See Grai^e.) By the aid of 



Minerva, they were finally conquered by 
Perseus (see Perseus) ; and the drops 
of blood which fell to the ground from 
Medusa's head were changed into serpents, 
which have ever since infested the sandy 
deserts of Libya. The horse Pegasus also 
arose from the blood of Medusa, as well as 
Chrysaor with his golden sword ; and her 
head, which was placed on the iEgis of 
Minerva, retained the power of turning 
the beholder into stone. 

Gorgonia, a surname of Pallas, because 
Perseus, armed with her shield, had con- 
quered the Gorgon who had polluted her 
temple with Neptune. 

Gortvs, and Gortynia, I., an inland city 
of Crete, next in splendour and importance 
to Cnossus, founded by Gortys, son of 
Rhadamanthus, and famed for the temples 
of Apollo, Diana, and Jupiter Hecatom- 
basus, so called because Menelaus there 
sacrificed to Jupiter 100 oxen, when he 
received information of Helen's elopement. 
The ruins of this city are still distinctly 
visible. — II. A town of Arcadia near the 
Gortynius, south-east of Heraea, and famous 
for its marble temple, in honour of iEscu- 
lapius. Atchicolo Castro occupies the site 
of the ancient city. 

Gothi, Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, 
and Longobardi, divisions of one people, 
who originally occupied great portion of 
European and Asiatic Russia, known 
to the Romans by the general appella- 
tion of Scandinavia. Filimer, the Gothic 
king, conducted his nation to the coast 
of the Euxine, where it afterwards in- 
creased into a numerous and formidable 
people under the names of Visigoths and 
Ostrogoths. The empire of Hermann, 
a. d. 350, their greatest prince, extended 
to the Baltic over all the Sarmatian, Fin- 
nish, and Vandalic stems, but was at length 
dissolved by the Huns. The Visigoths 
crossed the Danube, plundered Rome and 
Italy, and fixed their residence in Spain, 
while their kindred, the Ostrogoths, took 
possession of Italy, which they held till 
a. d. 544, when they were overthrown by 
Narses, general of Justinian. From this 
period the Goths as a nation make no 
figure in history except in Spain ; but 
traces of their language, manners, and arts 
are still to be found in every country of 
the East. 

Gracchus, I., T. Sempronius, father of 
Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, by Cornelia, 
daughter of Scipio Africanus the Elder. 
He died while his children were still 
young, after having been twice consul, 
once censor, and having twice obtained a 
| triumph for his successes in Gaul and 



260 



GRA 



GRJE 



Spain. His children, Tiberius (born 
B.C. 163) and Caius (born b.c. 152), were 
educated under the watchful eye of their 
mother, and rendered themselves famous 
for their eloquence, and an obstinate 
attachment to the interests of the people, 
which at last proved fatal to them both. 
With a winning eloquence and uncommon 
popularity, Tiberius renewed the Agrarian 
law, which had already caused such dis- 
sensions at Rome ; and by means of vio- 
lence his proposition passed into a law. 
He was appointed one of the commis- 
sioners to carry it into effect ; but after the 
legal expiration of his term of office, he 
attempted to get himself reelected tribune, 
and was slain in a tumult which arose, 
b. c. 133. Caius, after his death, though 
appointed one of the commissioners in 
room of his brother, does not appear to have 
taken any part in public affairs till ten 
years afterwards, when he began to support 
the cause of the people with more vehemence 
even than Tiberius. His election to the 
office of tribune, while it evinced his popu- 
larity, enabled him to forward his views ; 
and after proposing various organic 
changes in the government, and enjoying 
almost unlimited power, he assembled a 
large body of partisans on the Aventine 
Mount, in order to overawe the senate; 
but the consul Opimius attacked and over- 
threw his forces, and Caius being closely 
pursued, desired a slave to put an end to 
his life, b. c. 121. His body was thrown 
into the Tiber, and his wife forbidden to 
put on mourning for his death. — II. 
Sempronius, a Roman nobleman, who was 
banished to Cercina for his illicit inter- 
course with Julia, daughter of Augustus, 
and after an exile of fourteen years was 
put to death by Tiberius. 

Gradivus, surname of Mars, among the 
Romans, perhaps from KpaZalveiv, brand- 
ishing a spear, or from gradiri, to advance 
against the enemy. 

GRiECiA, a celebrated country of Europe, 
bounded on the west by the Ionian sea, 
south by the Mediterranean, east by the 
iEgean, north by Thrace and Dalmatia ; 
generally divided into four large provinces, 
Macedonia, Epirus, Achaia or Hellas, and 
Peloponnesus. When the necessary de- 
duction has been made for the inequalities 
of its surface, Greece may perhaps be pro- 
perly considered as a land, on the whole, 
not less rich than beautiful. And it pro- 
bably had a better claim to this character 
in the days of its youthful freshness and 
vigour. Its productions were various as 
its aspect : and if other regions were more 
fertile in grain, and more favourable to the 



cultivation of the vine, few surpassed it in 
the growth of the olive, and of other valu- 
able fruits. Its hills afforded abundant 
pastures : its waters and forests teemed 
with life. In the precious metals it was 
perhaps fortunately poor ; the silver mines 
of Laurium were a singular exception ; 
but the Peloponnesian mountains, espe- 
cially in Laconia and Argolis, as well as 
those of Eubcea, contained rich veins of 
iron and copper, as well as precious 
quarries. The marble of Pentelicus was 
nearly equalled in fineness by that of the * 
isle of Paros, and that of Carystus in 
Eubcea. The Grecian woods still excite 
the admiration of travellers, as they did in 
the days of Pausanias, by trees of extra- 
ordinary size. Even the hills of Attica 
are said to have been once clothed with 
forests ; and the present scantiness of its 
streams may be owing in a great measure 
to the loss of the shades which once shel- 
tered them. Herodotus observes that, of 
all countries in the world, Greece enjoyed 
the most happily tempered seasons. But 
it seems difficult to speak generally of the 
climate of a country in which each district 
has its own, determined by an infinite 
variety of local circumstances. The inhab- 
itants of Greece maintained that they sprang 
from the earth where they dwelt ; and 
in the early portion of their history it is 
impossible to separate fact from fable. 
Greece, during the earlier ages, had no 
common appellation. Of the names of 
tribes used in a sense more or less extensive 
by the poets, in imitation of Homer, such 
as Argivi, Achivi, Danai, Pelasgi, the last 
is perhaps the most ancient. Hellas (in- 
habitants Hellenes} was at first the name 
of a district in Thessaly, but by degrees it 
acquired a more enlarged signification, so as 
to comprehend Graecia Propria and Thes- 
saly, and sometimes Peloponnesus also; and 
at last, in a loose sense, even Macedonia, 
Epirus, and Acarnania. Our limits preclude 
us from doing more than merely glancing 
at the principal epochs in the history of 
the country. 1. The first great epoch 
in the annals of Greece is the long pe- 
riod of the Heroic and Homeric ages, 
amidst the fabulous obscurity of which 
there are a few prominent points of au- 
thentic history. Such, for example, are 
two events which were the principal means 
of civilising Greece, — the establishment of 
the Amphictyonic Council, and the in- 
stitution of the Olympic Games. 2. The 
second epoch comprehends — the rise of the 
Greek republics, — the mutual jealousies 
and petty warfare among the different 
states, which gave alternate supremacy to 



GRJE 



GRE 



261 



Athens and Lacedaemon, — the two inva- 
sions of the Persians, that which led to 
the battle of Marathon, and that under 
Xerxes, which ended in the sea-fight of 
Salamis. This period carries us down to 
the 83d Olympiad, b c. 449, when Athens 
under Pericles reached the summit of her 
greatness and glory, — an era nearly con- 
temporaneous with the fall of the decem- 
viri at Rome, and the establishment of the 
laws of the twelve tables, a. v. c. 302. — 
3. The third epoch, beginning with this 
golden age of Athens, includes the events 
of Grecian history to the defeat and cap- 
ture of the Athenian fleet at JEgospo- 
tamos, by Lysander the Lacedaemonian, b. c. 
405. This includes the twenty-seven years 
of the Peloponnesian war. — 4. A period 
of sixty-six years carries us from the de- 
molition of the fortifications of Athens, 
and the establishment of the Thirty Ty- 
rants, which followed the battle of iEgos- 
potami, to the battle of Chasronea in 
Boeotia, b. c. 338, which gave Philip of 
Macedon the command of Greece. This 
period comprehends the events that led to 
the peace of Antalcidas, b. c. 386, the 
political rise of Thebes, and its short-lived 
preeminence in Greece, from the battle 
of Leuctra to that of Mantinea. — 5. A | 
fifth period extends from the battle of 
Chajronea to the final submission of Greece ' 
to the Roman yoke, after the taking of j 
Corinth by Mummius, b. c. 146. From 
this time Greece followed the fates of the 
republic and empire, till the taking of Con- j 
stantinople by the Turks, a.d. 1453; and, 
since then, it has been in bondage to them | 
till the establishment of the new kingdom 
of Greece in 1829. 

Gr^ecia Magna, a name given to the 
southern part of Italy, comprising Apulia, 
Messapia or Iapygia, Lucania, and the j 
country of the Brutii, from Grecian colo- I 
nics which migrated thither at different j 
periods. The first emigration is said to 
have taken place about b. c. 1055. The 
chief cities of Magna Graecia were Taren- 
tum, founded by the Spartans ; Crctona. 
Sybaris, and Metapontum, by the Achae- 
ans ; Rhegium by the Chalcidians ; and 
in Sicily, Syracuse, founded by the Co- 
rinthians ; Gela, and Agrigentum, by the 
Cretans and Rhodians. These cities had 
made great advances in wealth and power, 
when the rest of the country was still sunk 
in barbarism, and were the seats whence 
emanated the sublime philosophy of Py- 
thagoras and the no less elevated doctrines 
of the Eleatic school. 

Grai^e. See Phorcydes. 

Gram pi us mons, a mountain of Scot- 



i land, now the Grampian Hills, celebrated 
i for being the scene of the great battle 
fought between the Romans under Agri- 
cola, and the Caledonians under Galgacus, 
j in which the forces of the latter were 
; totally defeated. 

Graxicus, Demotico, a river of Mysia, 
I in Asia Minor, which had its source in 
Mount Cotylus, flowed through the Adras- 
tean plain, and emptied into the Propontis, 
j to the west of Cyzicus. This stream is 
celebrated in history on account of the 
; signal victory gained on its banks by Alex- 
! ander the Great over the Persian armv, 
j b. c. 334. 

GratLe. See Charites. 
Gratiaxus, L, a Roman emperor, son 
i of Valentinian I., born at Sirmium in 
j Pannonia, a. d. 359. He was appointed 
by his father to a share of the empire when 
eight years old, and was in his seventeenth 
year when his father died. The officers 
of the army nominated as his colleague, 
Valentinian II., younger son of the late 
emperor, by his wife Justina. Gratian, 
though hurt at the assumption of autho- 
rity on the part of the army, yet ratified 
the election, and even treated his brother 
with affection. Gaul, Spain, and Britain 
fell to his share ; his brother Valentinian 
received Italy, Illyricum, and Africa, while 
his uncle Valens had the empire of the 
East. The minority of Valentinian, how- 
ever, and the death of Valens, a. d- 378, 
having made him sole ruler of the whole 
Roman empire, he appointed Theodosius, 
afterwards called the Great, his colleague 
in the empire. He distinguished himself 
both by his courage in the field, and by 
his love of learning and philosophy' ; but 
his attachment to the Christian religion 
having gradually weaned from him the af- 
fections of the people, Maximus was de- 
clared emperor by the legions in Britain, and 
Gratian, deserted by nearly all his troops, 
fled into Gaul, and was put to death in 
the eighth y r ear of his reign, a. d. 383. — II. 
A Roman soldier, invested with the im- 
perial purple by the rebellious army in 
Britain, in opposition to Honorius ; but 
assassinated four months after by the very 
troops to which he owed his elevation, 
a. n. 407. 

Gratius Faliscus, a Latin poet, con- 
temporary with Ovid, of whose works 
about 500 verses remain. 

Gregorius, L, Thaumaturgus, Wonder- 
worker, from the miracles he pretended 
to perform. Before his conversion to 
Christianity, he was known by the name 
of Theodoras. He was born at Neo-Ca?- 
sarea ; was disciple of Origen, from whom 



262 



GRU 



GYM 



he imbibed the principles of the Christian 
faith ; and afterwards became bishop of 
his native city. Some fragments of his 
writings are still extant. — II. Nazianzenus, 
an eminent father of the Church, was born, 
in the early part of the fourth century, 
near Nazianzus, a town of Cappadocia, of 
which his father was bishop. He studied 
successively at Cassarea, Athens, and Alex- 
andria, where he formed a friendship that 
lasted through life with Basilius. He 
received the episcopal chair of Constan- 
tinople from Theodosius, and distinguished 
himself by his gentle treatment of the 
Arians, though completely in his power ; 
but he resigned his see on its being dis- 
puted, a. n. 381, and returned to his native 
province, where he passed the remainder 
of his life in the cultivation of poetry and 
the exercise of devotion. His writings 
rival those of the most celebrated ora- 
tors of Greece, in eloquence and sub- 
limity. He died a. d. 389. — III". A 
bishop of Nyssa., in Cappadocia, and bro- 
ther of Basilius. He distinguished him- 
self in the Arian controversy, and died 

a. n. 396. 

Grudii, a people of Gallia Belgica, tri- 
butary to the Nervii, supposed to have 
inhabited the country near Tournay or 
Bruges, in Belgium. 

Gryllus, a son of Xenophon, who is 
said to have killed Epaminondas, and was 
himself slain, at the battle of Mantinea, 

b. c. 363. Like the other candidates for 
the honour of having slain the Theban 
hero, extraordinary honours were paid to 
his remains by his countrymen ; and in a 
celebrated painting of the battle he occu- 
pied a distinguished place. 

Grynedm and Grynium, a town of 
iEolis, on the coast of Lydia, celebrated 
for its temple and oracle of Apollo, who 
is hence called Grynaeus. 

Gryneus, one of the Centaurs, who 
fought against the Lapitha?. 

Gryphes or Grypes (rpvirh), griffins, 
which, according to Herodotus, guarded 
the gold found in the vicinity of the Ari- 
maspians, a Scythian race, from the at- 
tempts of that people to possess themselves 
of it. (See Arimaspi.) The most pro- 
bable explanation of this fable is that 
which regards the Grypes as a nation in 
the north-east of Asia, who practised 
mining, the gold which they were said to 
guard being nothing more than the pro- 
duce of their mining industry. 

Gyarus or Gyaros, Ghioura, a small 
island of the Archipelago, belonging to 
the Cyclades. At a late period of its his- 
tory, it became the place whither criminals 



or others were banished by the Roman 
emperors. 

Gyas, I., one of the companions of 
iEneas, who distinguished himself at the 
games exhibited after the death of An- 
chises in Sicily. — II. A Rutulian, son of 
Melampus, killed by iEneas in Italy. 

Gyges or Gves, I., a son of Ccelus and 
Terra, represented as having 100 hands. 
With his brothers, Briareus and Cottus, 
he made Avar against the gods, and was 
afterwards punished in Tartarus. — II. 
A Lydian, who obtained possession of the 
throne of Lydia at the instigation of the 
wife of king Candaules, whose feelings 
the latter had outraged. Having mur- 
dered Candaules, he married the queen, 
ascended the vacant throne, about b. c. 
718, which he occupied thirty-eight years, 
and distinguished himself by the immense 
presents which he made to the oracle of 
Delphi. He was the first of the Merm- 
nada? who reigned in Lydia. 

Gylippus, a Lacedaemonian, sent, b. c. 
414, to assist Syracuse against the Athe- 
nians, and obtained a celebrated victory 
over Nicias and Demosthenes. He after- 
wards accompanied Lysander in his expe- 
dition against Athens, and was intrusted 
by the conqueror with the money taken 
in the plunder. As he conveyed it to 
Sparta, he unsewed the bottom of the 
bags which contained it, and secreted 
about 300 talents. His theft was dis- 
covered ; and, to avoid punishment, he 
fled from his country. 

Gylon", the grandfather of Demosthenes, 
who settled in Bosporus thirty years be- 
fore the birth of his grandson, and married 
a rich lady, of Scythian origin, whose 
daughter was the mother of Demosthenes. 

Gymnasium, a place among the Greeks 
where all the public exercises were per- 
formed, and where not only wrestlers and 
dancers exhibited, but also philosophers, 
poets, and rhetoricians repeated their 
compositions. The laborious exercises 
were running, leaping, throwing the quoit, 
wrestling, and boxing, called irevTaQXov, 
Lat. quinquertia. In wrestling and boxing, 
the athletes were often naked, whence the 
word Gymnasium, from yvfAvbs, naked. 
They anointed themselves with oil to 
brace their limbs, and render their bodies 
slippery, and more difficult to be grasped. 

GymnesLe. See Baleares. 

Gymnosophist^e (naked philosophers), a 
sect of Indian philosophers who lived naked 
in the woods, whence they derived their 
name, and submitted to other strange aus- 
terities. They believed in the immortality 
of the soul, and its migration into several 



GYN 



H^M 



263 



bodies. They enjoyed great reputation for 
astronomical and physical science. There 
was likewise an African sect of philoso- 
phers bearing the same name, who are said 
to have lived in ^Ethiopia, near the sources 
of the Nile, whose habits differed from 
those of the Indian sect, inasmuch as they 
lived as anchorites, while the latter con- 
gregated in societies. The Gymnosophists 
are often confounded with the Brachmanes ; 
but this latter is properly the name of 
only one class of these philosophers, di- 
vided into several sects — Brachmans, Sa- 
manseans, and Hylobians. 

Gyn-sicothcenas, a name of Mars at 
Tegea, on account of a sacrifice offered by 
women only. 

Gyndes, Zeindeh, a river of Assyria, 
falling into the Tigris. By cutting nu- 
merous canals in this river, and thus di- 
verting its course, Cyrus was enabled to 
take Babylon. 

Gytheum, the sea-port town of Sparta, 
at the mouth of the Eurotas, in Pelopon- 
nesus, built by Hercules and Apollo, who 
nad there desisted from their quarrels. 
The inhabitants were called Gytheatae. 
The earlier name was Trinesus, " Three 
Islands," from some small islands lying in 
front. The site is now called Palceopoli. 

H. 

Hades or Erebus, the name given by 
the Greeks to the abode of departed spirits. 
It was said to lie under our world, and 
the entrance to it was placed on the west- 
ern bank of the great stream of Ocean, at 
the spot where the rivers Phlegethon and 
Cocytus (the latter being a branch of the 
Styx) flow into Acheron. Its divisions 
were Elysium and Tartarus (see these 
terms), the respective abodes of the good 
and the bad ; but it must be observed that 
in the Homeric times, this arrangement 
formed no part of the popular creed. 
According to Homer, the natural objects 
in Hades were shadowy representations of 
the world above ; but all wears a cold and 
gloomy aspect, for there is no sun to vivify 
and illumine the scene. The spirits of the 
good and the bad mingle together, and 
pursue the same occupations as on earth ; 
while rewards, and even punishments, ex- 
cept for some atrocious or impious crime, 
are unknown. The inhabitants are re- 
presented as discontented and unhappy. 
Hades was also sometimes used as a title 
of Pluto, signifying "invisible." 

Hadranum, a town of Sicily, near 
Mount .Etna, founded by Dionysius. 



Hadrianus, JElius, a celebrated Roman 
emperor, son of iElius Adrianus Afer, 
was born at Rome a. d. 76. Left an 
orphan at the age of ten years, he was 
adopted by his cousin Trajan, afterwards 
emperor ; and after distinguishing himself 
by his love of literature at school, accom- 
panied his illustrious kinsman in various 
expeditions, and filled successively the 
offices of quaestor, praetor, and consul. 
On the death of Trajan, he was saluted 
emperor by the soldiers ; and after an ex- 
pedition into the East, and some incursions 
upon the Alani and Sarmatae, he passed 
over into Britain, where he built a wall 
between the modern towns of Carlisle and 
Newcastle, sixty-one English or seventy- 
four Roman miles long, to protect the 
Britons from the incursions of the Cale- 
donians. He sent also a Roman colony 
to Jerusalem, calling the city JElia Capi- 
tolina, after the name of his family, and 
erected a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus on 
the site of the ancient temple, which caused 
a revolt of the Jews. In the beginning 
of his reign, he followed the virtues of his 
adopted father and predecessor Trajan ; 
he remitted all arrears due to his treasury 
for sixteen years, and publicly burnt the 
account-books that his word might not be 
suspected. It is said that he wished to 
enrol Christ among the gods of Rome ; 
but his apparent partiality towards Chris- 
tianity was disproved by the erection of 
a statue to Jupiter on the spot where 
Jesus rose from the dead, and one to Ve- 
nus on Mount Calvary. After the con- 
clusion of the Jewish war Hadrian re- 
turned to Italy, where a lingering illness 
put a stop to his unsettled mode of life, 
and eventually terminated his existence 
at Baiaa, a. d. 138, in the sixty-third year 
of his age, after a reign of twenty-one 
years. Hadrian composed a history of his 
own times, which he published under the 
name of his freedman Phlegon; but all 
that we have of his productions at the 
present day are, a fragment of a work on 
military operations, entitled 'Eirir^dev/xa, 
and the celebrated epigrammatic address to 
his soul, " Animula, vagula, blandula," 
&c, written a short time before his death, 
and remarkable at once for its elegance 
and its scepticism. 

Hadriaticum Mare. See Adriaticum 
Mare. 

H^emon, son of Creon, king of Thebes, 
who was so captivated with the beauty of 
Antigone that he killed himself on her 
tomb, when he heard that she had been put 
to death by his father's orders. Apollodorus 
says that he was devoured by the Sphinx. 



264 



11 JEM 



HAL 



H.emonia, one of the earlier appella- 
tions of Thessaly, supposed to be derived 
from the name of an ancient monarch, 
Hsemon. 

ELemus, now the Balkan, was the 
general name given to the whole of the 
eastern portion of the great chain of moun- 
tains by which Thrace and Macedonia 
were separated from the valley of the 
Danube. The range, as it extended west- 
ward, bore the names of Mons Scomius, 
Mons Arbelus, Mons Scardus, Mons Ber- 
ticus, &c. It was celebrated for its 
great elevation and extent. It received 
its name from Haemus, son of Boreas and 
Orithyia, who was changed into this moun- 
tain for aspiring to divine honours. 

Hagnon, or Agnon, son of Nicias, 
was present at the taking of Samos by 
Pericles. In the Peloponnesian war he went 
against Potidaea, but abandoned his expe- 
dition through disease. Hagnon was the 
founder of Amphipolis ; but the citizens 
of that city, forgetful of past services, 
opened their gates to Brasidas, the Spartan 
generai, and when the body of this com- 
mander was subsequently interred within 
Amphipolis, they threw down every me- 
morial of Hagnon. 

Halesa. See Alesa. 

Hal;esus, and Halesus, I., an Argive, 
who, after the murder of Agamemnon by 
Clytemnestraand iEgisthus, settled in Italy, 
in the vicinity of Mons Massicus, a moun- 
tain of Campania. At the head of the Au- 
runci and Osci, he assisted Turnus against 
iEneas, but fell by the hand of Pallas. Ha- 
lesus is said by Virgil to have been the son 
of a soothsayer, who foretold the fate of his 
child ; and, in order to avert this, if possible, 
brought him up in the woods. The epithet 
Agamemnonius, therefore, which Virgil ap- 
plies to him (JEn. 7. 724.), and which some 
suppose has reference to his being the son 
of Agamemnon, is merely used by the 
poet to denote the pretended origin of his 
race. — II. A river of Lydia which rises 
on Mount Gallesus, and after flowing near 
the city Colophon, falls into the iEgean. 
It was said to be the coolest of all the 
streams of Asia Minor. 

Halcyone, or Alcyone, I., daughter of 
iEolus, and wife of Ceyx, who was drowned 
as he was going to consult the oracle. 
The gods apprised Alcyone in a dream of 
her husband's fate ; and when she found, 
on the morrow, his body washed on the 
sea-shore, she threw herself into the sea, 
and was, with her husband, changed into 
birds of the same name, which keep the 
waters calm while they build, and sit on 
their nests on the surface of the sea. — II. 



J One of the Pleiades, daughter of Atlas. 
(See Pleiades.) — III. An appellation 
given to Cleopatra, daughter of Idas and 
Marpessa, from the halcyon-like cry uttered 
by her mother when she was carried away 
by Apollo. See Marpessa. 

Haliacmon, a large and rapid river of 
Macedonia, rising in the chain of moun- 
tains called Cambunii, on the northern 
confines of Thessaly, and flowing into the 
Sinus Thermaicus, Gulf of Saloniki, a 
little below Pydna. It is now Jenicora. 

Haliartus, a town of Boeotia, north- 
west of Thebes, founded by Haliartus, son 
of Thersander. Homer applies to it the 
epithet 7coir)<-vra, from the marshes and 
meadows in its vicinity. It was destroyed 
by the praetor Lucretius for having em- 
braced the cause of Perseus, king of Mace- 
donia, and its inhabitants were sold into 
slavery. Some identify the modern Mikro 
Kouza with the ancient city. 

Halias, a district of Argolis (so called 
apparently from the fisheries established 
along the coast) twice ravaged by the 
Athenians during the Peloponnesian war. 

Halicarnassus, Bodron, a celebrated 
city of Asia Minor, and the capital of 
Caria, situated on the northern shore of 
the Sinus Ceramicus. It was founded by a 
Doric colony from Troezene, and was ori- 
ginally included in the six confederate 
Dorian cities ; but having been subse- 
quently excluded, on account of the im- 
piety of Agasicles (see Caria), it be- 
came an independent monarchy under 
Lygdamis, and soon afterwards assumed 
dominion over all the Carian territory. 
This city was distinguished for its excel- 
lent fortifications, convenient ports, and 
great riches: here the mausoleum, one of 
the seven wonders of the world, was erected 
(see Artemisia) ; and it was remarkable 
for having given birth to Herodotus, Dio- 
nysius, and Heraclitus the poet. The ce- 
lebrated fountain of Salmacis gave its name 
to the citadel. It was razed by Alexander 
the Great, but was afterwards rebuilt, and 
restored to a great degree of its former 
prosperity by Quintus, Cicero's brother. 

Halicy^:, Saleme, a town of Sicily, near 
Lilybaeum. 

Halirrhothius, a son of Neptune and 
Euryte, who committed an outrage on 
Alcippe, daughter of Mars, and was in 
consequence slain by that deity. Neptune 
having summoned Mars to trial for the 
murder of his son, the cause was heard 
before the gods on the celebrated hill at 
Athens, which, from this circumstance, was 
ever afterwards called the Areopagus, or 
" Hill of Mars. " Mars was acquitted. 



HAL 



HAN 



265 



Halmydessus. See Saxmydessus. 

Haeoxsesus, Dromo, a small island at 
the opening of the Sinus Thermaicus, ce- 
lebrated as having been a subject of con- 
tention between Philip, son of Amyntas, 
and the Athenians. 

Halts, a celebrated river of Asia Minor, 
rising on the confines of Pontus and Ar- \ 
menia Minor, and entering the Euxine 
north-west of Amisus. Arrian and Pliny 
make it rise in Cataonia, at the foot of j 
Mt. Taurus. It formed the western boun- 
dary of the dominions of Croesus, and is 
connected with the famous oracular re- 
sponse which ultimately cost him his do- 
minions. See Crcescs. 

HamadkyXdes. See Dkyades. 

Hamilcar, I., a Carthaginian general, 
son of Mago, or, according to others, of 
Hanno, who was conquered by Gelon in 
Sicily, the same day that Xerxes was de- 
feated at Salamis. — II. Surnamed Rho- 
danus, a Carthaginian general, who was 
put to death by his countrymen, on sus- 
picion of his having tampered with Alex- 
ander of Macedon. — III. A Carthaginian, 
whom the Syracusans called to their as- 
sistance against the tyrant Agathocles, who 
had besieged their city. Hamilcar having 
soon after favoured the interest of Aga- 
thocles, he was accused at Carthage and 
condemned to death ; but died in Sicily 
before the sentence could be carried into 
effect, b. c. 311.— IV. The son of Giscon, 
a Carthaginian general, who was sent into 
Sicily, b.c. 311, to oppose the progress of 
Agathocles. After some successes, he was 
taken prisoner and put to death, b. c. 309, 
while attempting to capture Syracuse. — 
V. A Carthaginian, surnamed Barcas, fa- 
ther of the celebrated Haimibal. He was 
general in Sicily during the first Punic 
war. After a peace had been made with 
the Romans, he quelled an insurrection of 
the Libyans and Gallic mercenaries, who 
had besieged Carthage and taken many 
towns of Africa, and rendered themselves 
so formidable to the Carthaginians that 
they begged and obtained assistance from 
Rome. After this he passed into Spain 
with his son Hannibal, then nine years of 
age, and laid the foundation of the town 
of Barcelona. He was killed in a battle 
against the Vettones, b. c. 229. He had 
formed the plan of an invasion of Italy, by 
crossing the Alps, which his son afterwards 
carried into execution. His great enmity 
to the Romans was the cause of the second 
Punic war. He used to say of his three 
sons, that he kept three lions to devour the 
Roman power. — VI. A Carthaginian gene- 
ral, son of Bomilcar, conquered by the 



Scipios when besieging Ilitingis in His- 
pania Bastica, along with Hasdrubal and 
Mago, b. c. 215. Some authors identify 
him with the general of the same name, 
who, fifteen years afterwards at the head of 
a body of Gauls, sacked Placentia, and was 
defeated and slain before Cremona ; while 
others allege that he was taken prisoner 
three years later in an engagement near 
the Mincius, and adorned the triumph of 
the conqueror. 

Hammox. See Ammon. 
Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian 
general, son of Hamilcar, was born b. c. 
247, and educated in his father's camp. 
He passed into Spain when nine years 
old, and, at the request of his father, took 
a solemn oath he never would be at peace 
with the Romans. After his father's 
death, he was appointed over the cavalry 
in Spain ; and, on the death of Hasdrubal, 
was invested with the command of all the 
armies of Carthage, though not in the 
twenty-fifth year of his age. In three 
years, he subdued all the nations of Spain 
which opposed the Carthaginian power, 
and took Saguntum after a siege of eight 
months. This was the cause of the second 
Punic war. He levied three large armies, 
one of which he sent into Africa, left 
another in Spain, and marched at the head 
of the third towards Italy. Marching up 
| the Rhone till he reached the Isara, he 
followed its course to the Alps, which he 
1 crossed in nine days, — an exploit till then 
believed impossible, — and remained some 
; time in the territories of the Insubrian 
! Gauls to recruit his forces. After de- 
feating P. Corn. Scipio, and Sempronius, 
i near the Rhone, the Po, and the Trebia, 
he crossed the Apennines, and invaded 
! Etruria. He defeated the army of the 
j consul Flaminius near the lake Trasi- 
! menus, and soon after met the two con- 
] suls C. Terentius and L. JEmilius at 
I Canna?. His army consisted of 40,000 
foot and 10,000 horse, when he engaged 
the Romans at the celebrated battle of 
Cannaj. No less than 40,000 Romans 
were killed : the conqueror made a bridge 
with the dead carcases, and, as a sign of 
his victory, sent to Carthage three bushels 
; of gold rings, taken from 5630 Roman 
: knights slain in the battle. He then re- 
tired to Capua. After the battle of 
Canna; the Romans became more cau- 
tious ; and, after many important debates 
in the senate, it was decreed that war 
should be carried into Africa, to remove 
Hannibal from the gates of Rome: and 
Scipio, the proposer of the plan, was em- 
powered to put it into execution. This 



266 



HAN 



HAR 



recalled Hannibal from Italy. He and 
Scipio met near Carthage, and determined 
to come to a general engagement. The 
battle was fought near Zama : Scipio 
made a great slaughter of the enemy ; 
20,000 were killed, and the same number 
made prisoners. Hannibal, after he had 
lost the day, fled to Adrumetum, after- 
wards to Syria, to king Antiochus, whom 
he advised to make war against Rome. 
Antiochus distrusted the fidelity of Han- 
nibal, and was conquered by the Romans, 
who granted him peace on condition of 
delivering their mortal enemy into their 
hands. Hannibal, apprised of this, fled 
to Prusias, king of Bithynia, and en- 
couraged him to declare war against 
Rome. The senate sent ambassadors to 
demand him of Prusias. The king was 
unwilling to betray Hannibal, though he 
dreaded the power of Rome. Hannibal 
extricated him from his embarrassment, 
by taking poison, which he always carried 
with him in a ring on his finger. He 
died in his sixty-fifth year, according to 
some, e. c. 183. 

Hanno, and Anno, a name common to 
many Carthaginians, who signalised them- 
selves during the Punic wars against 
Rome, and in their wars against the Sici- 
lians. Of these the principal was, I., the 
Carthaginian commander who was sent on 
a voyage of colonisation and discovery 
along the coast of Africa, about b. c. 570, 
or, as some maintain, between b. c. 633 
and 530. On his return, Hanno deposited 
an account of his voyage in the temple of 
Saturn ; and a Greek translation of the 
original Punic version, called the Periplus, 
has reached our times. (SeeMuRR. Geo.) 
— II. A Carthaginian commander, who 
aspired to the sovereignty in his native 
city. His design was discovered, and he 
thereupon retired to a fortress, with 20,000 
armed slaves, but was taken and put to 
death, with his son and all his relations. — 
III. A commander of the Carthaginian forces 
in Sicily along with Bomilcar (b. c. 310), 
defeated by Agathocles. — IV. A Cartha- 
ginian commander, defeated by the Romans 
near the iEgades Insulse (b. c. 242). On 
his return home he was put to death. — V. 
A leader of the faction at Carthage, op- 
posed to the Barca family. He voted for 
surrendering Hannibal to the foe, after the 
ruin of Saguntum, and also for refusing 
succours to that commander after the battle 
of Cannae. — VI. A Carthaginian, who, 
wishing to pass for a god, trained up some 
birds, who were taught by him to repeat 
the words " Hanno is a god." He only 
succeeded in rendering himself ridiculous. 



Harmodius and Aristogeiton, two 
Athenians, united by ties of the closest 
intimacy, whose names have become famous 
for the share which they had in the expul- 
sion of the Pisistratidse. The tyrant Hip- 
parchus having offered an insult to the 
sister of Harmodius, the two youths deter- 
mined to be avenged ; and others, actuated 
by various motives, having entered into 
their project, it was agreed to murder 
Hipparchus and his brother Hippias at 
the festival of the Panathenaia, when, as 
those who formed the procession were clad 
in armour, their design might be most 
easily accomplished. But on the day of 
the festival Harmodius and his friend see- 
ing one of their friends talking familiarly 
with Hippias while marshalling the pro- 
cession outside the city, feared they were 
betrayed ; and resolving at all events that 
Hipparchus should not escape, they fled 
back into the city and slew him. Har- 
modius was slain on the spot. Aristogeiton 
escaped for the moment, but was after- 
wards taken ; and on being put to the 
torture to induce him to declare his ac- 
complices, he named the most intimate 
friends of Hippias, who were consequently 
put to death. ( For another version of the 
story, see Hippias.) Though Harmodius 
and Aristogeiton perished, their example 
infused a spirit into the Athenians, which 
displayed itself in the banishment of Hip- 
pias, three years after, about b. c. 510; 
and the Athenians, to reward the patriot- 
ism of their fellow citizens, bestowed on 
them almost heroic honours, erected statues 
to their memory, and made a law that no 
slave should ever bear the name of Aris- 
togeiton and Harmodius. 

Harmonia, or Hermionea, a daughter 
of Mars and Venus, and wife of Cadmus. 
Vulcan, to avenge the infidelity of her 
mother, made her a present of a vestment 
dyed in all sorts of crimes, which inspired 
all the children of Cadmus with impiety. 

Harmonides, a fabulous name for an 
excellent ship-builder, referring to his art 
in joining planks. 

Harpagus, a Persian noble, who, being 
cruelly forced by Astyages to eat the flesh 
of his own son, because he had disobeyed 
his orders in not putting to death the in- 
fant Cyrus, revolted from Astyages, and 
became a distinguished general under 
Cyrus. 

Harpalus, I., a friend of Alexander 
the Great, who made him treasurer when 
he entered upon his Indian expedition. 
Expecting, probably, that Alexander would 
never return, Harpalus squandered the 
royal treasure with the most reckless pro- 



HAR 



HAS 



267 



fusion ; but on hearing of the king's return 
he fled to Taenarus with about six thousand 
mercenaries, whom he left there, and pro- 
ceeded with his treasures to Athens as a 
suppliant. His cause was embraced by 
many eminent orators hostile to Alexander; 
and even Demosthenes, who at first op- 
posed his projects, is said to have been 
gained over by a bribe of twenty talents. 
The Athenians, however, remained faith- 
ful to their treaty ; and Harpalus, being 
obliged to quit Athens, carried his troops 
into Crete, where he was assassinated by 
Thimbro, b. c. 325. — II. A celebrated 
astronomer of Greece, who lived about 
b. c. 400, and corrected the cycle of Cleos- 
tratus from eight into nine years, which 
was afterwards increased by Meton into 
nineteen years. 

Harpalyce, the daughter of Harpa- 
lycus, king of Thrace. Her father fed her 
with the milk of cows and mares, and 
inured her early to sustain the fatigues of 
hunting. "When her father's kingdom was 
invaded by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, 
she defeated the enemy with great cour- 
age ; but the death of her father, which hap- 
pened soon after in a sedition, rendered 
her disconsolate; she fled society, and lived 
in the forests on plunder. Every attempt 
to secure her proved fruitless, till her great 
swiftness was overcome by intercepting 
her with a net. After her death the people 
of the country appeased her manes by 
oblations on her tombs. 

Harpocrates, a divinity supposed to be 
the same as Horus, son of Isis, among the 
Egyptians. He was represented as hold- 
ing one of his fingers on his mouth, and 
thence called god of Silence, intimating 
that the mysteries of religion ought never 
to be revealed. The Romans placed his 
statues at the entrance of their temples. 

Harpocratiok, Valerius, a rhetorician 
and grammarian of Alexandria, who flour- 
ished about a. d. 354. He wrote a " Lex- 
icon" of the persons mentioned in the ten 
principal Athenian orators, which has 
reached our times. 

Harpyij3, daughters of Neptune and 
Terra ; winged monsters who had the face 
of a woman, the body of a vulture, and 
their feet and fingers armed with sharp 
claws ; called Aello, Celasno, Ocypete. 
They were sent by Juno to plunder the 
tables of Phineus, whence they were driven 
to the islands called Strophades by Zethes 
and Calais. They emitted an infectious 
smell, and spoiled whatever they touched 
by their filth. They plundered j£neas 
during his voyage towards Italy, and pre- 
dicted many of the calamities which befel 



him. The Harpies are generally understood 
to be personifications of demon deities 
who directed storms and tempests. 

Haruspices, called also Extisfices, 
soothsayers at Rome, who foretold future 
events from the entrails of the victims of- 
fered at the altars of the gods. Their 
college was not held in the same respect 
as that of the augurs ; and Cicero mentions 
the introduction of one of their body to the 
senate as an insult to the latter. Like that 
of the augurs their art was brought from 
Etruria; but the period of its introduction 
into Rome, and the number of its mem- 
bers, are involved in,obscurity. The term 
Aruspex is derived from ara, an altar, 
and specio, to examine ; and that of Extis- 
pex from exta, entrails, and specio. Donatus 
derives Haruspex from haruga (the same 
as hostia, victim,*) and specio. 

Hasdrubal, a name common to several 
Carthaginian generals, of whom the most 
distinguished were, I., the son-in-law of 
Hamilcar, who distinguished himself in 
the Numidian war, was appointed chief 
general on the death of his father-in-law in 
Spain, and for eight years carried on mili- 
tary operations in that country with great 
success. He founded Carthago Nova, and re- 
duced the whole country south of the Iberus, 
which was declared by a treaty with the Ro- 
mans to be the frontier of the Carthaginian 
possessions in Spain. He was assassinated 
in his tent, b. c. 220, by a slave whose 
master he had murdered. — II. A son 
of Hamilcar, who crossed the Alps and 
entered Italy with a large reinforcement 
for his brother Hannibal ; but some of his 
letters to Hannibal having fallen into the 
hands of the Romans, the consuls, M. 
Livius Salinator and Claudius Nero, at- 
tacked him suddenly near the Metaurus, 
and defeated him, b. c. 207. He was 
killed in battle, and 56,000 of his men 
shared his fate. The Romans lost about 
8,000 men, and took upwards of 5000 pri- 
soners. The head of Hasdrubal was cut off 
and some days after thrown into the camp 
of Hannibal, who, in the moment that he 
was in the greatest expectation of a pro- 
mised supply, exclaimed at the sight, " In 
losing Hasdrubal I lose all my happiness, 
and Carthage all her hopes." — III. Son 
of Giscon, appointed general of the Car- 
thaginian forces in Spain, in the time of 
the great Hannibal. He made head 
against the Romans in Africa, but was 
soon after defeated by Scipio, and died 
b. c. 206. — IV. A Carthaginian general, 
who, after ineffectually attempting to drive 
Scipio from before the walls of Carthage 
during the second Punic war, retired 
N 2 



268 



HEB 



HEC 



within the city, and, on being compelled 
to yield, begged his life from the con- 
queror, who granted his request. When 
he was shown to the Carthaginians as a 
suppliant, his wife, with a thousand im- 
precations, threw herself and her two 
children into the flames of the temple of 
iEsculapius, which she and others had set 
on fire. He was not of the same family 
as Hannibal. — V. A son of Hanno, who 
was conquered by L. Cascilius Metellus in 
Sicily, in a battle in which he lost 130 
elephants, b. c. 251. These animals were 
led in triumph all over Italy by the con- 
querors ; while Hasdrubal, who fled to 
Lilybaeum, was condemned to death by 
his countrymen. 

Hebe, the goddess of youth, a daughter 
of Jupiter and Juno ; or, according to 
others, the daughter of Juno only, who 
conceived her after eating lettuces. In 
Olympus she appears as a kind of hand- 
maiden ; presenting the nectar at the 
banquets of the gods, preparing the chariot 
of Juno, and bathing and anointing the 
wounds of Mars. When Hercules was 
translated to the skies, Hebe was given to 
him in marriage. She was dismissed from 
her office of celestial cup-bearer, and su- 
perseded by Ganymedes, for having once 
fallen as she was handing round nectar 
to the gods. She was worshipped at 
Phlius and Sicyon under the name of 
Dia, and at Rome under the name of Ju- 
ventas. In the arts she is represented as 
a young virgin crowned with flowers, 
arrayed in a variegated garment, with an 
eagle at her side. 

Hebrus, I., Maritza, the largest river of 
Thrace, and one of the most important of 
Europe. It rises at the point where Mt. 
Rhodope branches off from Mt. Hasmus 
and Bit. Scomius, and after a course of 
about 300 miles falls into the iEgean 
opposite to Samothrace, one of its branches 
emptying itself into the Stentoris Palus, 
Gulf of JEnus. It was supposed to roll 
its waters on golden sands. — II. A friend 
of iEneas, son of Dolichaon, killed by 
Mezentius in the Rutulian war. 

Hecalesia, a festival instituted by 
Theseus in honour of Jupiter of Hecale, 
or in commemoration of the kindness of 
Hecale, which Theseus had experienced, 
when he went against the bull of Mara- 
thon, &c. 

Hecate fanum, a celebrated temple of 
Hecate at Stratonicea in Caria. 

Hecat^us, I., a celebrated historian, 
son of Hegesander, born at Miletus, b. c. 
520, 01. 65., in the time of Darius Hys- 
taspes. He was a pupil of Protagoras, 



and, like Herodotus, who has quoted his 
Avorks, appears to have travelled in differ- 
ent countries to collect materials for his. 
writings, a few fragments of which have 
come down to our times. — II. An his- 
torian, philosopher, critic, and gTammarian 
of Abdera, who accompanied Alexander 
the Great into Asia. He was a disciple 
of Pyrrho, and wrote a work " On the An- 
tiquities of the Jews." — III. A native of 
Eretria, who belonged to the class of 
cyclic poets, and is also said by Plutarch 
to have been one of the many historians of 
Alexander. 

Hecate (Gr. 'Ekcittj), in mythology, a 
Grecian goddess, daughter of Jupiter, or 
of Perses and Asteria. She presided over 
popular assemblies, war, the administration 
of justice, and the rearing of children- 
There is a good deal of obscurity attached 
to this goddess, who is often confounded 
with Artemis or Diana, and Proserpine ; 
whence she is sometimes considered the 
patroness of magic and the infernal regions. 
She was called the triple goddess, and was 
supposed to wander along the earth at 
night. Statues were set up to her in 
market places, and especially at cross 
roads. Her festivals, called Hecatesia, 
were observed by the Stratonicensians ; 
and the Athenians paid also particular 
worship to her, as the patroness of families 
and children. 

Hecatomboia (eKdTOv and fiovs), the 
name given to part of the ceremonies ob- 
served in the festivals of Juno, consisting 
of a sacrifice of 100 bulls, the flesh of 
which was distributed amongst the poorest 
citizens. (See Her^a.) An anniversary 
sacrifice in Laconia, offered for the preser- 
vation of the 100 cities which once flou- 
rished in that country, was also called by 
this name. 

Hecatomphonia (eKctrbv and (povevw'), 
a solemn sacrifice offered by the Messenians 
to Jupiter, when any of them had killed 
100 enemies. 

Hecatompolis, an epithet given to 
Crete, from the 100 cities which it once 
contained ; and to Laconia, from its 100 
demi or boroughs. 

Hecatompyxos, I., an epithet applied to 
Thebes in Egypt, on account of its 100 
gates (see Thebes I.) — II. The metropolis 
of Parthia, and royal residence of the Ar- 
sacida?, in the district of Comisene. 

Hecatonnesi, small islands between 
Lesbos and Asia, so called from eKaros, 
an epithet of Apollo, whose worship was 
assiduously cultivated in the continent off 
which they lay. The modern name is 
Muonisi, " Isles of Mice." 



HEC 



HEL 



269 



Hector, son of Priam and Hecuba, and 
the most valiant of all the Trojan chiefs 
who fought against the Greeks. He 
married Andromache, daughter of Eetion, 
by whom he had Astyanax ; was appointed 
captain of all the Trojan forces, and for a 
long period proved the bulwark of his 
native city. The fates having decreed 
that Troy could never be taken as long 
as Hector lived, every opportunity was 
sought by the most eminent of the Grecian 
chiefs to engage him in battle ; but all 
their efforts to overthrow him were in 
vain, till at length Minerva having assumed 
the form of Deiphobus, urged him to en- 
counter Achilles, who, eager to avenge the 
death of his friend Patroclus, (who had 
fallen by the hand of Hector), slew him, 
and thus effected the overthrow of Troy. 
(See Achilles.) After suffering inhuman 
treatment from the victor, his dead body 
was ransomed by Priam, who repaired in 
person for this purpose to the tent of Achil- 
les ; and amid the splendid obsequies paid 
to him the action of the Iliad terminates. 

Hecuba, daughter of Dymas, a Phry- 
gian prince, or, according to others, of 
Cisseus, a Thracian king, second wife 
of Priam, king of Troy, and mother of 
nineteen children, among whom were 
Antiphon, Deiphobus, Helenus, Hippo- 
nous, Hector, Paris, Polites, Polydorus, 
Troilus, Creusa, Cassandra, Ilione, Lao- 
dice, and Polyxena. When pregnant of 
Paris, she dreamed that she had brought 
forth a burning torch, which had reduced 
all Troy to ashes ; and the soothsayers 
having declared that the child whom she 
should bring into the world would prove 
the ruin of his country, she exposed 
him, soon after his birth, on Mt. Ida, to 
avert the calamities threatened; but her 
attempts to destroy him were fruitless, 
and the prediction of the soothsayers was 
fulfilled. (See Paris.) During the Tro- 
jan war she saw the greatest part of 
her children perish by the hands of the 
enemy. When Troy was taken, Hecuba 
fell to the lot of Ulysses, and she em- 
barked with the conquerors for Greece. 
The fleet, however, was detained off the 
Thracian Chersonesus by the appearance 
of the ghost of Achilles, who demanded 
the sacrifice of a human victim, to ensure 
the safety of its return ; and Polyxena, 
daughter of Hecuba, was torn from her 
mother to be sacrificed ; Hecuba was incon- 
solable ; but her grief was still more in- 
creased at the sight of the body of her son 
Polydorus washed on the shore, who had 
been murdered by Polymnestor, king of 
Thrace, to whose care and humanity he had 



been recommended by Priam. Bent on re- 
venge, she succeeded in getting Polymnes- 
tor and his children into her power, and in- 
flicted upon them retributive justice ; but 
her conduct excited the indignation of the 
Thracians, who assailed her with darts and 
showers; and in the act of biting a stone 
in impotent rage, she was suddenly meta- 
morphosed into a dog. Some say that she 
threw herself into the sea ; others, that she 
was changed into a dog when on the eve 
of throwing herself into the sea. 

Hecub^e Sepulcrum, a promontory of 
Thrace. See Ctnosema. 

Hegemon, nicknamed Phake or lentil, 
a native of Thasos, contemporary with 
Cratinus, and the author of some satiric 
dramas. He was the friend and protege 
of Alcibiades. 

Hegesianax, a Greek writer of Alex- 
andria Troas, who flourished in the reign 
of Antiochus the Great. He was at once 
a historian, poet, and actor, and is said by 
Athenaeus to have strengthened his natu- 
rally weak voice by abstaining for eighteen 
years from eating figs. 

HegesIas, I., a cyclic poet, born at 
Salamis, in the island of Cyprus, and some- 
times said to be the author of the Cyprian 
Epic. (See Stasinus.) — II. A celebrated 
philosopher of the Cyrenaic sect, whose 
leading principle, that pleasure is the sove- 
reign good, he pushed so far that, pronounc- 
ing it to be unattainable in this world, he 
prevailed on many of his auditors to com- 
mit suicide in the hope of attaining it in 
death. — III. A native of Magnesia, who 
wrote a historical work on the companions 
in arms of Alexander the Great, and cor- 
rupted the elegant diction of Attica by the 
introduction of Asiatic idioms. 

Hegesippus, I. , an historian, who wrote 
on the antiquities of Pallene, a peninsula of 
Thrace, and the supposed asylum of iEneas 
after the destruction of Troy. — II. A 
Comic poet of Tarentu-m, who lived at 
Athens b. c. 340, and is styled Crobylus 
by JEschines, from his peculiar manner of 
dressing his hair. Eight simple epigrams 
ascribed to him have come down to us. — 
III. A Christianised Jew, who became 
bishop of Rome a. d. 177, where he died 
in the reign of Commodus, about 180. 
He wrote a history of Christianity from 
the death of Christ down to his own age, 
some fragments of which still exist. 

Helena, I., the most beautiful woman 
of her age, fabled to have sprung from one 
of the eggs which Leda, wife of Tyndarus, 
king of Sparta, brought forth after her 
amour with Jupiter metamorphosed into 
a swan. According to some authors, she 
s 3 



270 



HEL 



HEL 



was daughter of Nemesis by Jupiter, and 
Leda was only her nurse ; and to recon- 
cile this variety of opinions, some imagine 
that Nemesis and Leda are the same 
person. The fame of her beauty being 
bruited abroad over all Greece, Theseus, as- 
sisted by Pirithous, carried her away before 
she had attained her tenth year, and con- 
cealed her at Aphidna?. But her brothers, 
Castor and Pollux, recovered her by force 
of arms, and restored her to her family. 
From the increased reputation of her per- 
sonal charms, Helen's hand was subse- 
quently solicited by many of the most 
celebrated princes of Greece; but Tyn- 
darus was rather alarmed than pleased at 
the number of her suitors, who, however, 
were at length bound, by a solemn oath, 
to approve of the uninfluenced choice which 
Helen herself should make, and to unite 
together to defend her, if ever any at- 
tempts were made to force her from her 
husband. Helen fixed her choice on Me- 
nelaus, and married him. Hermione was 
the early fruit of this union. After this, 
Paris, son of Priam, came to Lacedasmon 
on pretence of sacrificing to Apollo, and 
was kindly received by Menelaus; but, 
during his absence hi Crete, shamefully cor- 
rupted the fidelity of his wife Helen, and 
persuaded her to flee with him to Troy, 
b. c. 1 1 98. At his return, Menelaus assem- 
bled the Grecian princes, and reminded 
them of their solemn promises. Thereupon 
they resolved to make war against the 
Trojans ; but previously sent ambassadors 
to Priam to demand the restitution of 
Helen. They returned home without re- 
ceiving the satisfaction required ; and soon 
afterwards the combined Grecian forces 
assembled and sailed for the coast of Asia. 
The behaviour of Helen during the Tro- 
jan war is not clearly known. When 
Paris was killed, in the ninth year of the 
war, she voluntarily married Deiphobus, 
one of Priam's sons ; but, on the capture 
of Troy, made no scruple to betray him, 
to ingratiate herself with Menelaus, who 
forgave her infidelity, and took her with 
him to Sparta. Here she lived many years ; 
but on the death of her husband she was 
driven from Peloponnesus by Mega- 
penthes and Nicostratus, illegitimate sons 
of Menelaus, and retired to Rhodes, 
where Polyxo, a native of Argos, who 
reigned over the country, remembering 
that Helen was the cause of her widowhood, 
her husband Tlepolemus having perished 
in the Trojan war, caused her to be tied 
to a tree and strangled. Her misfortunes 
were afterwards commemorated, and the 
crimes of Polyxo expiated by the temple 



which the Rhodians raised to Helen Den- 
dritis, " tied to a tree." Helen was ho- 
noured after death as a goddess; the 
Spartans built her a temple at Therapne, 
which was said to be endowed with the 
power of giving beauty to all deformed 
women who entered it. Such is the ac- 
count in the main given by Herodotus of 
this beautiful woman ; but nothing is more 
uncertain than her history; audit would 
be impossible within our limits to attempt 
to reconcile the discrepant statements that 
exist respecting her. — II. A young wo- 
man of Sparta, frequently confounded with 
the daughter of Leda.. As she was going 
to be sacrificed, because the lot had fallen 
on her, an eagle came and carried away 
the knife of the priest, on which she was 
released, and the barbarous custom of 
offering human victims was abolished. — 
III. (Known in ecclesiastical history by 
the name of St. Helen), born of obscure 
parents in a small village of Bithynia, 
was wife of Constantius Chlorus, and mo- 
ther of Constantine the Great. When her 
husband was elevated to the rank of Caesar 
she was repudiated ; but on the accession 
of her son, a. d. 320, she received the title of 
Augusta. Having embraced Christianity, 
she went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 
where she was said to have found the re- 
mains of the true Cross, and after erecting 
many churches to the true God, she died 
at Nicodemia a. d. 327, in her eightieth 
year. — IV. Daughter of Constantine the 
Great, married her cousin Julian, when he 
was appointed Caesar, A.n. 355. She died 
without children at Vienne A. d. 359. — 
V. An island off the coast of Attica, so 
called from Helen having first landed on 
it in her flight with Paris from Sparta. It 
was sometimes called Cranse and Macris, 
and is now Macronisi. 

Helenor, a Lydian prince, who accom- 
panied iEneas to Italy, and was killed by 
the Rutulians. His mother's name was 
Licymnia. 

Helenus, a celebrated soothsayer, and 
the only son of Priam and Hecuba who 
survived the siege of Troy. When Helen 
was given in marriage to his brother Dei- 
phobus in preference to himself, he retired 
to Mount Ida, where Ulysses took him 
prisoner by the advice of Chalcas. The 
Greeks made use of prayers, threats, and 
promises, to induce him to reveal the 
secrets of the Trojans; and among other 
predictions he declared that Troy could 
not be taken, unless Philoctetes could be 
prevailed on to quit his retreat at Lemnos, 
and repair to the siege. After the ruin 
of his country, he fell to the share of 



HEL 



HEL 



271 



Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, whose favour he 
so conciliated that he not only gave him 
in marriage Andromache, widow of his 
brother Hector, but nominated him his 
successor in the kingdom of Epirus to the 
exclusion of his own son Molossus. He 
received iEneas as he voyaged towards 
Italy, and foretold him some of the cala- 
mities which attended his fleet. The 
manner in which he received the gift of 
prophecy is doubtful. (See Cassandra.) 
Cestrinus was the offspring of his union 
with Andromache. 

Heliades, I., the daughters of the Sun 
and Clymene ; three in number, Lampe- 
thusa, Lampetic, and Phae'tusa : or, accord- 
ing to Hyginus, seven: viz. JEgle, iEtheria, 
Dioxippe, Helie, Lampetie, Merope, and 
Phoebe. They were so afflicted at the 
death of their brother Phaeton, that they 
were changed by the gods into poplars, and 
their tears into amber, on the banks of the 
Po. — II. The first inhabitants of Rhodes. 
This island being covered with mud, when 
the world was first created, was warmed 
by the cherishing beams of the sun, and 
thence sprang seven men, Heliades, a-jvb 
rod rj\lov, "from the sun." 

Heli^ea (Gr. 'H\idia.) t in ancient, his- 
tory, the chief of the ten courts among 
which the 6000 Athenian jurymen were 
distributed, and which on important oc- 
casions sometimes contained them all. It 
probably derived its name from being open 
to the sun (VjAios). Before this tribunal 
causes of consequence to the state and 
individuals which did not involve blood- 
shed were brought. The judges were called 
Heliastse. 

Helice, I., a name sometimes given to 
the Ursa major, from the town of Helice, 
of which Calisto, changed into the Great 
Bear, was a native. — II. One of the chief 
cities of Achaia, situated on the shore of 
the Sinus Corinthiacus, and celebrated for 
the temple and worship of Neptune, thence 
called Heliconius. It was destroyed by 
a tremendous inundation, b. c. 373. 

Helicon, a famous mountain in Boeo- 
tia, near the Gulf of Corinth, sacred to 
Apollo and the Muses, thence called He- 
liconiades. The Muses had here their 
statues of wood ; here also were statues of 
Apollo and Mercury, Bacchus, Orpheus, 
and famous poets and musicians. On it 
were situated the fountains Hippocrene 
and Aganippe, the grand sources of poetic 
inspiration. It is now called Palccovouni 
or rather Zagura. 

Heliodorus, I., a Greek poet who is 
supposed to have lived in the first or, at 
the latest, in the second century of our era, 



while some maintain that he is the same 
with the rhetorician of that name who was 
one of Horace's companions in his cele- 
brated journey to Brundisium. Sixteen of 
his hexameters are cited by Stobaeus. — 
II. An Athenian physician mentioned by 
Galen, and the author of a didactic poem 
entitled "Justification." — III. A mathe- 
matician of Larissa, whose era is unknown, 
though he probably lived long after the 
reign of Tiberius. Besides other works he 
was the author of a treatise upon " Optics," 
or rather an abridgment of the work upon 
this subject attributed to Euclid. — IV. A 
Greek romance writer, who was born at 
Emesa in Phoenicia, and lived under 
Theodosius and Arcadius in the fourth 
century. He was raised to the bishopric 
of Tricca in Thessaly ; and to him is as- 
scribed the custom of deposing all priests 
who lived in matrimony after their ordi- 
nation. Numerous works are attributed 
to him ; but the most celebrated is the ro- 
mance entitled AldiowiKa, in ten books, be- 
ing the history of Theagenes and Chari- 
clea, daughter of a king of Ethiopia, 
which has passed through numerous edi- 
tions, and been translated into almost all 
the languages of modern Europe. 

Heliogabalus, or Elagabalus, I., a 
Phoenician deity, supposed to be identical 
with the Sun, or with Jupiter, and wor- 
shipped chiefly at Emesa. His image was 
a large black stone of a conical shape. — 
II. M. Aurelius Antoninus, a Roman 
emperor, son of Varius Avitus Bassianus 
and Sooemis, daughter of Moesa, sister of 
the empress Julia, was born at Antioch 
a. d. 204. His true name was Varius 
Avitus Bassianus ; but his grandmother, 
from ambitious motives, gave out that he 
was a son of Caracalla ; and on this plea 
induced the legion stationed at Emesa to 
rebel against Macrinus, who had been ele- 
vated to the throne on the death of Cara- 
calla. After defeating Macrinus, a. d. 218, 
he was invested with the imperial purple by 
the senate, and assumed the name of Helio- 
gabalus, because he had been priest of that 
divinity in Phoenicia. On his arrival in 
Rome, though only fourteen years of age, he 
commenced a career of extravagance, folly, 
cruelty, and debauchery, which outstripped 
even that of his pretended father Caracalla. 
He married four wives, among others a 
Vestal ; and the imperial palace became 
a scene of debauch and open prostitution. 
He raised his horse to the honours of the 
consulship, made his grandmother Moesa, 
and mother Sooemis, his colleagues on the 
throne; and chose a senate of women, over 
which his mother presided, and prescribed 
N 4 



272 



HEL 



HEL 



all the fashions which prevailed in the em- 
pire. To the god Heliogabalus, no other 
than a large black stone, temples were 
raised, and the altars of the gods plundered 
to deck those of the new divinity. But 
even these acts of madness and folly were 
outdone by his licentious depravity and 
brutality ; but we refrain from sullying 
our columns with the catalogue of his 
crimes and vices. In her desire to conciliate 
the people towards her worthless grandson, 
Moesa induced him to associate with him 
in the empire his cousin Alexander Severus, 
a youth of promising dispositions ; but 
Heliogabalus, jealous of his popularity, at- 
tempted to annul his appointment, though 
without success ; but at length a report of 
his death, which Heliogabalus caused to 
be circulated, led to an insurrection in 
which he perished, together with his mo- 
ther, his principal favourites, and the 
ministers of his crimes, a. d. 222, after a 
reign of nearly four years. He was suc- 
ceeded by Alexander Severus. 

Heliopolis, I., a celebrated city of Egypt, 
not far from modern Cairo; famous for its 
oracle of Apollo, and a temple of the Sun, 
in which was maintained and worshipped 
the sacred ox Mnevis, as Apis was at 
Memphis. This city was a favourite resort 
of the Greek philosophers ; and among 
others, Plato is said to have lived here 
three years. It was sacked by Cambyses, 
and in the time of Strabo was completely 
deserted. The modern name is Matarea. 
— II. A celebrated city of Syria, south- 
west of Emesa, on the opposite side of the 
Orontes. Its Grecian name, Heliopolis 
{'HXiovnoXis), " City of the Sun," is merely 
a translation of the native term Baalbeck, 
which appellation the ruins at the present 
day retain. Heliopolis was famed for its 
temple of the sun, erected by Antoninus 
Pius, and the ruins of this celebrated pile 
still attest its former magnificence. 

Helium, a name given to the mouth of 
the Maese in Holland. 

Helius, "HAtos, the Greek name of the 
Sun or Apollo. 

HellanIcus, a native of Miletus, who 
lived about 460 b. c, and wrote various 
historical and geographical works, of which 
his " History of Argos" is the most cele- 
brated. He died at the age of eighty- 
five. 

Hkllas, I., a term first applied to a 
city and region of Thessaly, in the district 
of Phthiotis, where Hellen, son of Deu- 
calion, reigned, but afterwards extended 
to all Thessaly, and finally to the whole of 
Greece, Thessaly itself excluded. (See 
GKiEciA.) — II. A beautiful woman be- 



loved by Marius, who slew her in a fit of 
passion, and afterwards destroyed himself. 

Helle, a daughter of Athamas and 
Nephele. To avoid the cruel oppression 
of her mother-in-law Ino, she fled from 
Thessaly with her brother Phryxus. She 
was carried throtigh the air on the ram 
with the golden fleece, which her mother 
had received from Neptune ; but in her 
passage became giddy, and fell into that 
part of the sea, from her named the Helles- 
pont, and was drowned. Some say that 
she was carried on a cloud, or rather on a 
ship. Phryxus proceeded on his way to 
Colchis. See Phryxus. 

Hellen, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, 
reigned in Phthiotis about b. c. 1495, and 
gave the name of Hellenians ("EAAt/vcs) 
to his subjects. From his three sons, 
iEolus, Dorus, and Xutbus (who again 
was the father of Ion and Achasus), 
sprang the Dorians, iEolians, lonians, and 
Acha?ans, the four tribes into which the 
Hellenic nation was for many centuries 
divided, and distinguished from each other 
by many peculiarities in language and in- 
stitutions. 

Hellenes, the name originally given to 
the subjects of Hellen, but afterwards a 
general appellation for the people of 
Greece. See Hellas. 

Hellesfontus, Dardanelles, a narrow 
strait between Asia and Europe, near the 
Propontis, named from Helle, drowned 
there in her voyage to Colchis. (See 
Helle. ) Its modern name is supposed to be 
derived from the ancient city of Dardanus. 
(See Dardanus.) It is celehrated for the 
love and death of Leander, and the bridge 
of boats which Xerxes built over it when 
he invaded Greece. The country along the 
Hellespont on the Asiatic coast bears the 
same name. 

Hellopia, a district of Euboea, in which 
Histia?a was situated. 

Hellotia, the name of two festivals, 
celebrated, the one at Corinth in honour 
of Athena, the other in Crete in honour of 
Europa, at which a myrtle garland, called 
iWwTis, no less than twenty cubits in cir- 
cumference, was borne in procession. 

Helorus, an ancient city of Sicily be- 
low Syracuse, at the mouth of a cognominal 
stream. The vestiges are called Muri Ucci 
and the adjacent country was so beautiful 
as to be called the Helorian Tempe. 

Helos, a town of Laconia, on the left 
bank of the Eurotas, not far from its mouth, 
said to have owed its origin to Helius, the 
son of Perseus. The inhabitants of this 
town, having revolted against the Dorians 
and Heraclidae, were reduced to slavery, 



HEL 



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273 



and called Helots, a name afterwards ex- 
tended to the various people who were held 
in bondage by the Spartans. They were 
employed either as domestic slaves, culti- 
vators of the land, or in the public works ; 
and though they do not appear to have 
been treated ordinarily with much severity, 
yet the recollection of their former state 
urged them frequently to revolt, while 
their numbers rendered them so formidable 
to their masters as to drive the latter to 
schemes of the most abominable treachery 
for their repression. Miiller rejects the 
etymology usually assigned to the word 
Helots, and derives it from e'Aa>, to take 
captive. 

Helvetii, an ancient nation of Gaul, 
conquered by J. Caesar. Their country is 
generally supposed to have corresponded 
to the modern Switzerland; but ancient 
Helvetia was of less extent than modern 
Switzerland, being bounded on the north 
by the Rhenus, and Lacus Brigantinus or 
Lake of Constance, on the south by the 
Rhodanus and the Lake of Geneva, and 
on the west by Mons Jura. 

Helvidius Priscus, son-in-law of Pastus 
Thrasea. He was banished by Nero for 
his hatred of tyranny, but recalled by 
Galba ; and was subsequently prosecuted 
for sedition by Vespasian, but acquitted. 

Helvii, a people of Gaul, whose ter- 
ritory corresponds to Viviers. Their 
capital was Alba Augusta, now Alps. 

Heneti, a people of Paphlagonia, along 
the coast of the Euxine. See Veneti. 

Heniochi, a people of Asiatic Sarmatia, 
near Colchis, descended from Amphytus 
and Telhius, charioteers (fjvioxoi) of 
Castor and Pollux. They are mentioned 
by the ancient writers as bold and skilful 
pirates. 

Heph^estia, I., one of the two chief 
capital towns of Lemnos, the other being 
Myrina. — II. A festival in honour of 
Vulcan (^Ucpaiaros) at Athens. See Lam- 
padephoria. 

Hefh^estiades, a name applied to the 
Lipari isles, as sacred to Vulcan ('Ktpaicr- 
toj). 

Heph^estion, I., a grammarian of Alex- 
andria, a. n. 150, preceptor of JElius Ve- 
rus, afterwards emperor. He must be 
distinguished from Ptolemaaus Hephaes- 
tionis, a. d. 123, surnamed Chennus, also 
a grammarian of Alexandria. — II. A Ma- 
cedonian famous for his intimacy with 
Alexander the Great. He accompanied 
the king in his Asiatic expedition, and after 
a long succession of faithful services, he 
was seized with a fever at Ecbatana, and 
died b. c. 325. 



HephjEstium, a name given to a region 
of Lycia near Phaselis, from which fire 
issued, when a burning torch was applied 
to the surface, owing to the naphtha with 
which the soil was impregnated. 

Hera, the name of Juno among the 
Greeks. See Juno. 

Heraclea, I., a name given to more than 
forty towns in Europe, Asia, Africa, and 
the islands of the Mediterranean ; supposed 
to have been built in honour of 'HpaKArjs. 
Of these cities the most celebrated was 
Heraclea, situated in Asia Minor on the 
Black Sea, and known by the names of He- 
raclea Pontica and Perinthus. This city 
was founded by the Megareans, and early 
attained to considerable wealth and im- 
portance as a place of trade. The inha- 
bitants maintained their independence for 
several years, subject only to a tribute paid 
to the Persian monarch. The Heracleots 
supplied the 10,000 Greeks, under Xeno- 
phon, on their memorable retreat, with 
vessels to carry them back to Cyzicus. 
The republican government was over- 
thrown, about b. c. 380, by Clearchus, one 
of the chief citizens, in whose family the 
government continued nearly a century. 
Heraclea furnished succours to Ptolemy 
against Antigonus; and afterwards, not- 
withstanding the aid furnished to Rome 
by its marine, and a treaty of alliance, both 
offensive and defensive, with that powerful 
state, it was pillaged by Cotta, under the 
pretext that it had resisted the exactions of 
the publicans (or tax-farmers) of Rome. 
Its splendid library, temple, and public 
baths were plundered and set on fire, and 
many of the inhabitants put to death by 
the conqueror. The city, however, con- 
tinued to flourish under the Roman em- 
perors, and coins of Trajan and Severus 
are extant, in which it is styled metropolis 
and augusta. The fleet of the Goths waited 
here for the return of the second expedition 
that, in the time of Gallienus, ravaged 
Bithynia and Mysia ; and it is mentioned 
as still prosperous even so recently as the 
reign of Manuel Commenus. Athenaeus 
informs us that it was celebrated for its 
wine, almonds, and nuts. — II. Lyncestis, 
a town of Macedonia, at the foot of the 
Candavian Mountains, on the confines of 
Illyria. Its ruins still retain the name of 
Erekli. Mention is made of this town in 
Caesar. — III. Sintica, the principal town 
of the Sinti in Thrace, supposed to be the 
same with the Heraclea built by Amyntas, 
the brother of Philip. Demetrius, the son 
of Philip, was here imprisoned and mur- 
dered. — IV. Trachinia, a town of Thes- 
saly, founded by the Lacedasmonians, and 
N 5 



274 



HER 



HER 



a colony from Trachis, about b. c. 42G, in 
the sixth year of the Peloponnesian war. 
Jason, tyrant of Pherae, took possession of 
this city at one period, and caused the 
walls to be pulled down. It however 
again arose from its ruins, and became a 
nourishing city under the iEtolians, who 
sometimes held their general council within 
its walls ; and was taken by the Roman 
consul, Acilius Glabrio, after a long and 
obstinate siege. The vestiges of this city 
are visible on a high flat, at the roots 
of Mount OEta. — V. Policoro, a city of 
Lucania, between the Aciris and Siris, 
founded by the Tarentini after the destruc- 
tion of the ancient city of Siris (b. c. 
428). This city is rendered remarkable in 
history, as having been the seat of the ge- 
neral council of the Greek states. — VI. 
Minoa, a city of Sicily, north-east of Agri- 
gentum, at the mouth of the river Camicus. 
It was founded by Minos when he pursued 
Daedalus hither, and was subsequently 
called Heraclea from Hercules, after his 
victory over Eryx. Some authorities make 
the original name to have been Macara, 
and Minos to have been its conqueror. — 

VI. A maritime city of Caria, near the 
mouth of the Latmus, between Miletus 
and Priene, called, for distinction sake, 
Heraclea Latini. The site corresponds 
nearly with the village of Oufct Bafi. — 

VII. or Heracleopolis Magna, a city of 
Egypt, in the Heracleotic nome, of which 
it was the capital. The ichneumon was 
worshipped here. — VIII. or Heracleo- 
polis Parva, a city of Egypt, south-west 
of Pelusium, within the limits of the Delta. 
The ruins are now called Delbom 

Heracleum, the name of several towns 
and promontories of antiquity. One of 
the former was situated near Canopus, and 
gave the name Ostium Heracliticum to 
the most western mouth of the Nile. 

Heraclianus, a general in the reign of 
Honorius, who assumed the purple, a. d. 
413, and having entered the Tiber with a 
large fleet from Africa on his way to Rome, 
was defeated by one of the imperial gene- 
rals, and forced to retreat to Africa, where 
he was captured and beheaded. 

Heraclid^e, a general designation for 
the descendants of Hercules, who, after 
the death of that hero, were expelled from 
the Peloponnesus by Eurystheus, king of 
Mycena?. They went first to Ceyx, king 
of Trachis, and thence to Athens, where 
Theseus kindly received them, and treated 
with contempt the demands of Eurystheus, 
that they should be given up. Eurystheus 
thereupon led an army into Attica ; but 
his forces were defeated, and he himself 



fell by the hand of Hyllus, son of Her- 
cules. The Heraclidae now entered the 
Peloponnesus, and became masters of the 
whole country ; but the following year, a 
pestilence having broken out, which was 
attributed by the oracle to their having 
returned before their time, they once 
more returned to Attica. They subse- 
quently failed in three different expedi- 
tions against the Peloponnesus ; but at 
length Aristodemus, Temenus, and Cres- 
phontes, sons of Aristomachus, encouraged 
by an oracle, assembled a numerous force, 
and, after some decisive battles, became 
masters of all the peninsula. The return 
of the Heraclidae, which took place about 
140 years after their expulsion, or 80 years 
after the siege of Troy, forms' a cele- 
brated epoch in ancient chronology, as 
it has been generally considered to mark 
the transition from the heroic or fabulous 
ages to the period of authentic history. 

Heraclides, a name common to nume- 
rous individuals, of whom the most cele- 
brated were — I., a Greek, minister of 
Seuthes, king of Thrace, who promised, 
and afterwards refused, succours to the ten 
thousand during their retreat. — II. A Sy- 
racusan of high birth, who united himself 
to Dion for the purpose of overthrowing 
the younger Dionysius. He was appointed 
admiral through the influence of Dion, but 
abused his power in corrupting the people, 
and in encouraging a spirit of mutiny and 
dissatisfaction. After various instances of 
lenity and forgiveness on the part of Dion 
towards this individual, the friends of the 
former, finding that, as long as Heraclides 
existed, his turbulent and factious spirit 
would produce disorder in the state, broke 
into his house and put him to death. — III. 
A young Syracusan of high birth, who 
brought on the naval conflict in which the 
Syracusans were completely victorious over 
the Athenians, b. c. 414. — IV. Surnamed 
Ponticus, a native of Heraclea Pontica, who 
travelled into Greece for the purpose of 
devoting himself to the study of philoso- 
phy, and became one of the auditors of 
Speusippus ; or, according to Suidas, of 
Plato himself. He afterwards attached 
himself to Aristotle, and following the ex- 
ample of the Peripatetics, he piqued him- 
self on a great variety of knowledge, wrote 
on subjects of all kinds, and even composed 
a tragedy, which he published under the 
name of Thespis. He was always attired 
with much elegance, which made the Athe- 
nians change his name, in sport, from 
Uoptik6s to YlofjLttiK6s (" Ostentatious"). 
Several fragments of his writings remain. — 
V. A Macedonian painter of naval sub- 



HER 



HER 



275 



jects. On the defeat and captivity of I 
Perses, b. c. 168, he retired to Athens, 
where he attained considerable reputation. 
VI. An Ephesian sculptor, son of Agasias, j 
who made, in conjunction with llama alius, 
the statue of 3Iars now in the Paris 3Iu- j 
seum. His age is uncertain. 

Heraclitus, a native of Ephesus, was 
born about 01. 69, e. c. 503. and became j 
founder of a sect derived from Pythagoras, j 
parent of the Italic school. Naturally of 
a melancholy temper, he devoted himself 
to retirement and meditation : he made his 
place of residence a mountainous retreat, 
and his food consisted of the natural pro- 
duce of the earth. "When Darius heard 
of his fame, he invited him to his court, 
but he treated the invitation with con- 
tempt. His diet and mode of life at length 
occasioned a dropsy, of which he died, at 
the age of 60. The natural haughtiness 
of his mind made him view with contempt 
all the pursuits and occupations of man- 
kind : but there is no ground whatever 
for the oft-repeated story that he was per- 
petually shedding tears on account of the 
vices of mankind, and for this reason styled 
the Weeping Philosopher. 

Herjea, I., a town of Arcadia, above 
the right bank of the Alpheus. and near 
the frontiers of Elis. which frequently dis- 
puted its possession with Arcadia. Its 
site is now occupied by the village Agiani. 
— II. The name of the festivals celebrated 
in honour of Hera or Juno in all the cities 
of Greece into which her worship was 
introduced. Argos was the original seat 
of her worship, whence it spread over the 
other parts of Greece, and over the Argive i 
colonies, at Samos, -Egina, and other 
places. These festivals were celebrated 
every fifth year, and in such solemnity 
were they held that the Argives always 
Beckoned their years from the date of their j 
high priestess's office. On these occasions 
the great sacrifice of 100 oxen (ifcarfljpSn) 
took place. 

Her^cm, I., temple and grove of 
Juno, between Argos and Mycena?, where I 
the great festival of the Hera?a was cele- I 
brated. — II. Another in the island of 
Samos, constructed by Rhcecus. son of ! 
Philaus, who, with Theodoras of Samos, ) 
is said to have invented the art of casting ' 
in brass. 

Hercci.axeYm. a maritime citv of Cam- 
pania, near the present Portici, destroyed 
by an eruption of Vesuvius in a. d. 79. 
The date of its foundation is unknown, and 
its early history fabulous ; but there is little 
doubt that it was held by the Osci. Pelasgi, 
and Samnites, before it came into the pos- 



session of the Romans. Its inhabitants took 
an active part in the social and civil wars, 
and the city suffered considerably in 
consequence. Little more is known about 
it except its destruction with Pompeii and 
Stabias, by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. 
The volcano had for some centuries been 
inactive, and even covered with verdure ; 
but in the first year of the reign of Titus, 
a. d. 7 9. it burst forth with great violence, 
and caused those terrible disasters so well 
described by the younger Pliny, in two 
entire epistles, and more briefly by Tacitus. 
Pompeii, which stood near, shared the same 
fate. After being buried under the lava 
for 1600 years, those cities were accident- 
ally discovered : Herculaneum in 1713, 
Pompeii in 1755. It appears that Her- 
culaneum is in no part less than 70 feet, 
in some parts 112 feet, below the surface 
of the ground, while Pompeii is buried 10 
or 12 feet deep. 3Iany valuable remains 
of antiquity, busts, manuscripts, &c. have 
been recovered from the ruins, and are pre- 
served at Portici ; and the engravings taken 
from them have been munificently pre- 
sented to the different learned bodies of 
Europe. The plan also of many of the 
public buildings has been laid open, espe- 
cially that of the theatre; and on the 
whole, the remains of Herculaneum are so 
varied and perfect, that they throw a light 
on the arts and domestic customs of the 
Romans which no mere description by a 
classic author could give. 

Hercules, a celebrated hero, who, 
after death, was ranked among the gods, 
and received divine honours. Diod. S. men- 
tions three of this name, Cicero six, and 
some authors forty-three. Of all these, the 
son of Jupiter and Alcmena, generally 
called the Thehan, is the most celebrated ; 
and to him the actions of the others have 
been attributed. On the day on which 
Alcmena was to be delivered in Thebes, 
Jupiter having announced to the gods that 
a man was that day to see the light who 
would rule over ali his neighbours, Juno, 
pretending incredulity, exacted from him 
an oath that what he had said should 
be accomplished. L T pon this Juno, hast- 
ening to Argos. brought Eurystheus, son 
of Sthenelus, brother of Alcmena, to light 
that day, while she checked the parturi- 
tion of Alcmena, whose son was thus fated 
to serve his cousin Eurystheus. Before 
Hercules had completed his eighth month, 
the jealousy of Juno sent two snakes 
to de\our him. But the child boldly 
seized them in both hands, and squeezed 
them to death, while his brother Iphi- 
clus alarmed the house with his fright- 
>- 6 



276 



HER 



HER 



ful shrieks. He soon became the pupil 
of the Centaur Chiron, and rendered 
himself the most valiant and accom- 
plished youth of the age. In his eighteenth 
year he subdued a huge lion, which preyed 
on the flocks of Amphitryon, his supposed 
father ; and he afterwards delivered his 
country from the annual tribute of 100 
oxen, which it paid to Erginus. Having 
been, as already mentioned, subjected, be- 
fore his birth, to the power of Eurystheus, 
and obliged to obey him in every respect, 
he was ordered by the latter to appear at 
Mycenae ; but he at first refused, and Juno, 
to punish his disobedience, rendered him 
delirious. The oracle of Apollo having 
subsequently declared that he must be 
subservient for twelve years to the will of 
Eurystheus, in compliance with the com- 
mands of Jupiter, he at length resolved to 
go to Mycenae, and bear with fortitude 
whatever gods or men might impose on him. 
Eurystheus then commanded him to achieve 
a number of enterprises the most difficult 
and arduous ever known, generally called 
the twelve labours of Hercules ; but previ- 
ously to his undertaking them the hero re- 
ceived a sword from Mercury, a bow from 
Apollo, a golden breastplate from Vulcan, 
horses from Neptune, and a robe from Mi- 
nerva. His first labour, imposed by Eu- 
rystheus, was to kill the lion of Nemaea, 
which ravaged the country near Mycenae. 
2. To destroy the Lernaean Hydra, which 
had seven heads, according to Apollodorus, 
fifty according to Simonides, 100 accord- 
ing to Diodorus. 3. To bring alive and 
unhurt into the presence of Eurystheus 
a stag famous for swiftness, golden horns, 
and brazen feet, which frequented the 
neighbourhood of CEnoe. 4. To bring 
alive to Eurystheus a wild boar which 
ravaged the neighbourhood of Eryman- 
thus. 5. To cleanse the stables of Augeas, 
where 3,000 oxen had been confined for 
many years. 6. To kill the carnivorous 
birds which ravaged the country near the 
4ake Stymphalus in Arcadia. 7. To bring 
alive into Peloponnesus a prodigious wild 
bull which laid waste the island of Crete. 
8. To obtain the mares of Diomedes which 
fed on human flesh. 9. To obtain the girdle 
of the queen of the Amazons. (See Hir- 
polyte.) 10. To kill the monster Geryon, 
king of Gades, and bring to Argos his nu- 
merous flocks, which fed on human flesh. 
(See Geryon.) 1 1. To obtain apples from 
the garden of the Hesperides. ( See Hes- 
perides.)|>12. To bring to earth the 
three-headed dog Cerberus which guarded 
the portals of the infernal regions. Be- 
sides these arduous labours, which Eury- 



stheus imposed on him, he achieved others 
of his own accord equally great and cele- 
brated. (See Antaeus, Busiris, Cacus, 
Eryx,&c. ) He accompanied the Argonauts 
to Colchis before he delivered himself up to 
the king of Mycenae ; assisted the gods 
in their wars against the giants (see Gi- 
gantes), conquered Laomedon, and pil- 
laged Troy. (See Laomedon.) When 
Iole, daughter of Eurytus, king of CEcha- 
lia, of whom he was deeply enamoured, 
was refused to his entreaties, he became 
the prey of a fit of insanity, and murdered 
Iphitus, the only one of the sons of Eury- 
tus who favoured his addresses to Iole. 
(See Iphitus.) Some time after he was 
visited by a disorder which obliged him to 
apply to the oracle of Delphi for relief. 
The coldness with which he was received 
by the Pythia having irritated him, he re- 
solved to plunder Apollo's temple, and carry 
away the sacred tripod, but the thunder- 
bolts of Jupiter prevented the sacrilege. 
He was on this told by the oracle, that, to 
recover from his disorder, he must be sold as 
a slave, and remain three years in the most 
abject servitude. He was accordingly sold 
to Omphale, queen of Lydia. Here he 
cleared all the country of robbers ; on which 
Omphale restored him to liberty, and 
married him. After he had completed 
his slavery, he returned to Peloponnesus, 
where he re-established on the throne of 
Sparta Tyndarus, expelled by Hippocoon ; 
became one of Dejanira's suitors, and 
married her, after he had overcome all 
his rivals. Some time afterwards, being 
obliged to leave Calydon, his father- 
in-law's kingdom, because he had in- 
advertently killed a man, he retired to 
the court of Ceyx, king of Trachinia. 
In his way he was stopped by the swollen 
streams of the Evenus, where the Centaur 
Nessus attempted to offer violence to De- 
janira, under the perfidious pretence of 
conveying her over the river. (See De- 
janira.) Ceyx, king of Trachinia, re- 
ceived him and his wife with friendship. 
Hercules, however, still mindful that he 
had been refused the hand of Iole, made 
war against her father Eurytus, killed 
him, with three of his sons, and took Iole 
away captive. Dejanira, informed of her 
husband's attachment to Iole, sent him 
the tunic which Nessus had given her, with 
the assurance that it possessed the power 
of recalling the wandering affections of a 
husband. Hercules put it on, and soon 
finding the poison of the Lernaean Hydra 
penetrate through his bones, attempted to 
pull off the fatal dress ; but it was too late, 
and the distemper was incurable. He then 



HER 



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277 



implored the protection of Jupiter, gave 
his bow and arrows to Philoctetes, erected 
a large pile on the top of Mt. (Eta, over 
which he spread the skin of the Nemaean 
lion, and having laid himself down on it, 
ordered Philoctetes, or, according to others, 
Paean or Hyllus, to set fire to the pile; 
and was on a sudden surrounded with the 
flames. After his mortal parts were con- 
sumed, he was carried up to heaven in a 
chariot drawn by four horses. His worship 
soon became as universal as his fame, 
and Juno forgot her resentment, and 
gave him her daughter Hebe in marriage. 
Hercules has received many surnames 
and epithets, from the places where his 
worship was established, or the labours 
which he achieved. His temples were 
numerous and magnificent. The white 
poplar was particularly dedicated to his ser- 
vice. He is generally represented naked, 
with strong and well-proportioned limbs; 
sometimes covered with the skin of the 
Nemaean lion ; holding a knotted club in 
his hand, on which he often leans. The 
children of Hercules were driven from the 
Peloponnesus after his death. ( See Hera- 
clidje.) Such are the most striking cha- 
racteristics of the life of Hercules, who is 
said to have supported for awhile the weight 
of the heavens on his shoulders, (see At- 
las,) and to have separated by the force of 
his arm the celebrated mountains, after- 
wards called the boundaries of his labours. 
(See Abila.) He is held out by the 
ancients as a true pattern of virtue and 
piety ; and as his whole life had been 
employed for the benefit of mankind, 
he was deservedly rewarded with immor- 
tality. 

Herculeum Promontorium, I., Capo 
Spartiventi, a promontory in the country 
of the Brutii, forming the most southern 
angle of Italy to the east. — II. Fretum, 
Straits of Gibraltar, a name given to the 
strait which forms a communication be- 
tween the Atlantic and Mediterranean. 
See Calpe, Aeila, &c. 

Herculis Columns, I. (See Columns 
Herculis.) — II. Monaeci Portus, Monaco, 
a port town of Liguria, near Nicaea, said 
to have been built by Hercules. — III. 
Labronis or Liburni Portus, a sea-port 
town of Etruiia, now Leghorn. — IV. 
Portus, a sea-port of Etruria, which 
served as a port to the city of Cosa, and 
was one of the principal stations of the 
Roman navy. It is now called Forto 
d'Ercole. 

Hercynia, an extensive forest of Ger- 
many, the breadth of which, according to 
Caesar, was nine days' journey, while its 



length exceeded sixty. It extended from 
the territories of the Helvetii, Nemetes, 
and Rauraci, along the Danube, to the 
country of the Daci and Anartes ; and 
then, turning to the north, spread over 
many large tracts of land. As the country 
became more inhabited, the grounds were 
gradually cleared ; and in modern times 
this vast forest is called in different places 
by different names, though the Latin ap- 
pellation may still be traced in that part 
called the Hartz. 

Herennius Senecio, I., a native of 
Spain, and a senator and quaestor at Rome 
under Domitian, by whom he was put to 
death on a false charge of high treason. 
He wrote a life of Helvidius Priscus, 
which was burned by the hands of the 
public executioner. — II. Caius, a Ro- 
man, to whom the treatise on Rhetoric 
ascribed generally to Cicero is addressed. 
See Cornifjcius. 

Herm^e, statues of Mercury, which 
the Athenians had at the doors of their 
houses. 

HermjEa, festivals of Hermes, cele- 
brated in various parts of Greece, but 
more especially at Athens, in the Gym- 
nasia, by the Athenian youth. It was 
also the name of a Cretan festival, during 
which the slaves indulged in the same 
freedom as at Rome during the Satur- 
nalia. 

Herm^um Promontorium, I., a pro- 
montory on the southern coast of Crete, 

between Criu Metopon, and Phoenix 

II. A promontory on the western shore 
of Sardinia, a little north of Bosa, now 
Capo dtlla Caeca. — III. A promontory 
of Africa, in the Zeugitana, now Cape 
Bon. 

Hermaphroditus, a son of Venus and 
Mercury, educated on Mount Ida by 
the Naiades. The story relative to him 
and the Nymph Salmacis is narrated by 
Ovid. 

Hermathena, ('Ep/j.rjs and ^AOiji/rj,) a 
kind of statue raised on a square pedestal, 
in which the attributes of Hermes or Mer- 
cury and Minerva were blended in the 
same body. It was generally placed in 
schools where eloquence and philosophy 
were taught, because these two deitks 
presided over the arts and sciences. 

Hermes, I., the name of Mercury 
among the Greeks. (See Mercurius I.) 
— II. Trismegistus. See Mercurius II. 

Hermesianax, son of Agoneus, an ele- 
giac poet of Colophon, who lived in the 
time of Philip and Alexander; and, after 
his death, was publicly honoured with a 
statue. 



278 



HER 



HER 



Hermione, L, more correctly Har- 
monia, a daughter of Mars and Venus, 
and wife of Cadmus. ( See Harmonia. ) — 
II. A daughter of Menelaus and Helen, 
who was privately promised in marriage 
to her cousin Orestes, son of Agamemnon ; 
but her father, ignorant of this p re-en- 
gagement, gave her to Pyrrhus, son of 
Achilles ; after whose death she married 
Orestes, and received Sparta as her 
dowry. — III, A town on the southern 
coast of Argolis, founded by the Dryopes, 
whom Hercules had expelled from the 
valley of OSta. It was particularly sacred 
to Ceres, whose temple here was con- 
sidered an inviolable sanctuary. Near it 
was a cave which was said to communicate 
with the infernal regions ; the descent to 
which was so rapid, that, contrary to the 
usual rite of burial, no money was put 
into the mouth of the dead to be paid to 
Charon for their passage. Its ruins are 
visible not far from Kastri. 

Hermiones, one of the three great di- 
visions of the Germanic tribes, according 
to Tacitus, occupying the central parts of 
the country. 

Hermionicus sinus, the Gulf of Kastri, 
a bay on the coast of Argolis near Her- 
mione. 

Hermocrates, a general of Syracuse, 
who commanded against Nicias the Athe- 
nian. His lenity towards the Athenian 
prisoners being looked upon as treacherous, 
he was banished from Sicily without a trial, 
and murdered, as he attempted to return to 
his country, b. c. 408. 

Hermodokus, a philosopher of Ephesus, 
who is said to have assisted, as interpreter, 
the Roman decemvirs in the composition 
of the ten (afterwards twelve) tables of laws, 
collected in Greece. 

Hermogenes, I., an architect of Ala- 
banda in Caria, employed in building the 
temple of Diana at Magnesia. — II. A ce- 
lebrated rhetorician of Tarsus, who came 
to Rome under Marcus Aurelius, and be- 
came professor of rhetoric in his fifteenth 
year. At the age of eighteen he wrote 
his celebrated treatise on the oratorical art, 
which became a standard work in all the 
Grecian schools, and has been repeatedly 
published in modern times. The precocity 
of his youth was followed by a premature 
old age, for in his twenty-fifth year he 
lost his memory, and soon afterwards sunk 
into a state of imbecility. — III. A lawyer 
in the age of Constantine, who, together 
with Gregorius made a collection of the 
edicts of the emperors from Hadrian to 
Constantine. 

Hermolaus, a young Macedonian no- 



bleman, and one of the pages of Alexander 
the Great. Alexander having ordered him 
to be whipped for killing a boar when 
hunting, he entered into a conspiracy 
against the monarch, and was in con- 
sequence put to death. 

Hermopolis, " city of Hermes," the 
name of two towns of Egypt. The one 
was in the Delta, north-east of Andro- 
polis ; and, for the sake of distinction, called 
Mikra or Parva. Its position corre- 
sponds to Demenhur. The other, called 
Magna, was situated in the Heptanomis, 
on the western bank of the Nile, opposite 
Antinoopolis, and was famous for the 
worship of Anubis. It is now Ashmuneim. 

HermotLmus, a famous prophet of Cla- 
zomenae. It is said that his soul separated 
itself from his body, and wandered in every 
part of the earth to explain futurity, after 
which it returned again, and animated his 
frame. His wife, acquainted with the 
frequent absence of his soul, took advan- 
tage of it, burned his body, as if totally 
dead, and deprived the soul of its natural 
receptacle. 

Herjiu.vduri, the first of the Hermi- 
onic tribes in Germany, lying east and 
north-east of the Alemanni. They were 
a great and powerful nation ; and in pro- 
cess of time they became allies of the 
Romans, who conferred on them peculiar 
privileges. 

Hermus, Sarabat, a considerable river 
of Asia Minor, rising on Mt. Dindymus 
in Phrygia, and, after flowing through the 
northern part of Lydia, falling into the 
iEgean. Its sands were said to be auri- 
ferous, a quality which it perhaps derived 
from the Pactolus, one of its tributaries. 

Hernici, a people of New Latium, 
whose origin is involved in deep obscurity. 
They were inveterate enemies of Rome, 
whose ambitious views they long struggled 
to thwart, but in vain ; but they are chiefly 
interesting for the fact that the disputes 
arising from the division of their territory 
originated the celebrated Agrarian Law, 
a. u. c. 268. 

Hero, I., a beautiful priestess of Venus 
at Sestos, greatly attached to Leander, a 
youth of Abydos, who, escaping the vigi- 
lance of his family, swam across the Hel- 
lespont every night to visit his mistress, 
while she directed his course by holding a 
burning torch on the top of a high tower. 
After many interviews of mutual affection, 
Leander was drowned in a tempestuous 
night, as he attempted his usual course ; 
and Hero in despair threw herself from 
her tower, and perished in the sea. — II. 
Hero, a native of Alexandria, and dis- 



HER 



HER 



279 



clple of Ctesibius, flourished b. c. 217. 
He was a distinguished mechanician, and, 
among other discoveries, was the inventor 
of the hydraulic clock, and the machine 
called the " Fountain of Hero." Many of 
his writings are still extant. — III. Com- 
monly called the Younger, a mathemati- 
cian and mechanician, of whom nothing is 
known, save that he lived during the reign 
of Heraclius, about a. d. 610. Several 
of his works have been published, and 
others in MS. are preserved in some pub- 
lic libraries. 

Herodes, I., surnamed the Great and 
Ascalonita, second son of Antipater the 
Idurnaean, was born B.C. 71, at Ascalon in 
Judaea. At the age of twenty-five he was 
made by his father governor of Galilee, 
and at tirst embraced the party of Brutus 
and Cassius ; but after their death he re- j 
conciled himself to Antony, who appointed 
him first tetrarch ; and, after the expulsion 
of Antigonus from Judaea, b. c. 37, king 
of the Jews. The first years of his reign 
were marked by various intrigues and 
crimes, to answer for which he was sum- 
moned to Rome, but found the means of 
procuring an acquittal. In the civil war 
between Octavius and Antony, Herod 
joined the latter, and undertook, at his 
command, a campaign against the Ara- 
bians, whom he defeated; but after the battle 
of Actium, he went to meet Octavius at 
Rhodes, by whom he was kindly received. 
Having, on his return, put his wife Mari- 
amne to death, on a false charge of adultery, j 
he suffered the deepest remorse, and shut j 
himself up in Samaria, where he was I 
seized with a sickness which nearly proved 
fatal. Soon afterwards his disregard of j 
the Jewish law and ordinances led to a 
conspiracy being formed against him ; but 
it was detected in time ; and, though the j 
latter part of his reign was disturbed by the 
most violent private and public dissensions, 
he maintained his throne till his death, 
which took place b. c. 4. The birth of our 
Saviour took place in the last year of He- 
rod's reign, four years earlier than the era j 
from which the common system of chrono- 
logy dates the years a. d. — II. Antipas, son 
of Herod the Great, by whose will he was 
nominated tetrarch over Galilee and Perasa, 
his other son Archelaus being appointed 
king of Judasa. Antipas married the j 
daughter of Aretas, king of Arabia, but i 
divorced her, a.d. 26, that he might marry 
his sister-in-law Herodias, wife of his bro- 
ther Philip. John the Baptist was seized i 
for remonstrating against this marriage, 
and subsequently beheaded. Herodias, 
jealous of the prosperity of her brother 



j Agrippa, who had become king of Juca?a, 
persuaded her husband to visit Rome, and 
j desire the same dignity from Tiberius. 
■ But Agrippa, apprised of his design, ac- 
i cused Antipas of being implicated in the 
; affair of Sejanus, on which he was banished 
[ to Lugdunum in Gaul, where he died. 
It was Antipas who ridiculed Jesus, whom 
Pilate had sent to him, dressed him in 
mock attire, and sent him back to the 
Roman governor as a king III. Agrip- 
pa, son of Aristobulus, grandson of Herod 
the Great, was sent to Rome to ingratiate 
himself with Tiberius. After many vicis- 
situdes of fortune, he was made tetrarch of 
Batanasa and Trachonitis by Caligula, and 
ou the banishment of Antipas, of Galilee, 
and king of Juda?a by Claudius. His 
government was extremely popular with 
the Jews ; but his reign was of short du- 
ration ; for while his subjects were flatter- 
ing him with the appellation of a god, he 
was struck by a loathsome disease at Cse- 
sarea, which cut him off, a. r>. 44. — IV. 
Agrippa, son of the preceding, and the 
last king of the Jews, received from Clau- 
dius and Nero a great accession of domi- 
nion. It was he before whom the apostle 
Paul was tried, a. d. 60. On the break- 
ing out of the war, he took part with the 
Romans, and after the destruction of Jeru- 
salem by Titus retired to Rome, with his 
sister Berenice, where he died, a. d. 94. — 
V. Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, an 
Athenian philosopher and statesman of the 
age of the Antonines. His father, Julius 
Atticus, descended from the family of 
Miltiades, was raised from indigence to 
wealth by the discovery of a hidden 
treasure, and was thus enabled to give 
Herodes an excellent education. Rheto- 
ric, then esteemed a most fashionable ac- 
complishment, became his principal study, 
and he prosecuted it under the first masters 
of the age with such success as to acquire 
great reputation as an orator. After tra- 
velling abroad, he settled at Athens, and 
gave public lectures on eloquence, which 
attracted such attention, that he was in- 
vited by the Emperor Antoninus Pius to 
become rhetorical tutor to Marcus Aurelius 
and Lucius Verus, the adopted sons and 
destined successors of Antoninus. This 
promotion led to his being created consul, 
a. d. 143. He was also made prefect of 
the free cities of Asia Minor, and president 
of the Panhellenic and Panathenasan games, 
at which he was crowned. He testified 
his sense of this honour by building a marble 
stadium, or course for running matches, one 
of the grandest works ever executed by a 
private individual. He also erected a new 



280 



HER 



HER 



theatre at Athens, and repaired and em- 
bellished the Odeon of Pericles. Some of 
his fellow-citizens having preferred accusa- 
tions against him, he returned to Mara- 
thon, his birth-place, where he died about 
a.d.1 85, aged seventy-five. His remains 
were interred at Athens with public ho- 
nours. 

Herodianus, I., a Greek historian, who 
flourished during the first part of the third 
century of our era, and died about a. n. 
240, at the age of seventy years. He is 
supposed to have been a native of Alex- 
andria ; but few particulars of his life are 
known, though it is certain that he filled 
various honourable situations, both in the 
service of the emperors and of the state. 
His history, which is written in Greek, 
comprises the period that elapsed from the 
death of Marcus Aurelius to a. d. 238. — 
II. A grammarian of Alexandria, often 
confounded with the historian above men- 
tioned. He was a son of the celebrated 
Apollonius Dyscolus, and flourished in the 
second century of the Christian era. He 
dedicated to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius 
his general grammar, of which, and of 
some other works, some unpublished and 
abridged extracts remain. 

Herodias. See Herodes II. 

Herodotus, called by Cicero the " Fa- 
ther of History," was born at Halicarnas- 
sus in Caria, b. c. 484, and is the most 
ancient of the Greek historians whose works 
are extant. The facts of his life are few 
and doubtful, except so far as we can col- 
lect them from his own works. Dis- 
satisfied with the government of Lygdamis, 
tyrant of Halicarnassus, he retired for a 
season to the island of Samos, where he is 
said to have cultivated the Ionic dialect of 
the Greek, the language there prevalent ; 
and before he was thirty years of age he 
joined in a successful attempt to expel the 
tyrant. But the banishment of Lygdamis 
did not give tranquillity to Halicarnassus, 
and Herodotus, who himself had become 
an object of dislike, again left his native 
country, and joined a colony which the 
Athenians sent to Thurium in Southern 
Italy, b. c. 443, where he is said to 
have died. We are indebted to Hero- 
dotus alone for the history of the origin 
and growth of the Persian monarchy, 
and of those of the earlier Medes and 
Assyrians ; for the origin of the king- 
dom of Lydia; its destruction by Cyrus 
and the different expeditions of that cele- 
brated conqueror ; the conquest of Egypt 
by Cambyses, and the most minute and 
exact description of that country and its 
inhabitants ; the constant wars of the suc- 



cessors of Cyrus ; and particularly, the ex- 
pedition of Darius against the Scythians. 
Herodotus is said to have publicly re- 
peated his History at the Olympic games, 
and to have received such applause, that 
the names of the nine Muses were unani- 
mously given to the nine books into which 
it is divided. 

Heroes, a term of doubtful derivation, 
applied originally to all warriors indiscri- 
minately ; but in later times restricted to 
persons who were supposed to be endowed 
with a superhuman, though not a divine, 
nature, who were honoured with sacred 
rites, and were imagined to have the 
power of dispensing good or evil to their 
worshippers. It was gradually combined 
with the notion of prodigious strength and 
gigantic stature ; but these were not essen- 
tial ingredients in the nature or compo- 
sition of a hero. 

Heroopolis, a city of Egypt, half way 
between Pelusium and Arsinoe, on the 
Sinus Arabicus, founded by the Greeks 
for commercial purposes. 

Herophila, a Sibyl, who came to Rome 
in the reign of Tarquin. See Sibylla. 

Herophilus, a celebrated physician, 
a native of Chalcedon, of the family of 
the Asclepiades, and a disciple of Praxa- 
goras. He lived under Ptolemy Soter, 
and his name occupies a high place in the 
list of ancient physicians. 

Herse, a daughter of Cecrops, king of 
Athens, beloved by Mercury. The god 
disclosed his love to Aglauros, Herse's 
sister, in hopes of facilitating his suit to 
Herse; but Aglauros, through jealousy, 
having discovered the amour, Mercury 
struck her with his caduceus, and changed 
her into a stone. Herse became mother of 
Cephalus by Mercury, and, after death, re- 
ceived divine honours at Athens. 

Hersephoria, festivals at Athens in 
honour of Minerva, or more probably of 
Herse. 

Hersilia, one of the Sabines carried 
away by the Romans at the celebration of 
the Consualia. She became the wife of 
Romulus, and after her death she re- 
ceived divine honours under the name of 
Hora (Youth). 

Hertha (sometimes written Aertha, 
Aortha, and Eorthe), in German my- 
thology, the name generally assigned in 
modern times to the chief divinity of - the 
ancient German and Scandinavian nations. 
She was worshipped under a variety of 
names, of which the chief were exactly 
analogous to those of Terra, Rhea, Cybele, 
and Ops, among the Greeks and Romans. 
Long before the Christian era the know- 



HER 



HES 



281 



ledge of Hertha appeared to have been 
extended over a great portion of northern 
Europe ; for in his work, De Moribvs Ger- 
manorum, c. 40., in which the reader will 
find a graphic description of the peculiari- 
ties of her worship, Tacitus speaks of the 
wonderful unanimity which tribes that had 
no other feature in common displayed in 
worshipping this goddess, whom he desig- 
nates Hertbus, or Mother Earth. Her 
chief sanctuary was situated, according to 
the same authority, in a sacred grove in 
an island of the ocean, in insula oceani, 
which, by some writers, has been supposed 
to be Riga, and by others Zetland or He- 
ligoland ; but no modern researches have 
been able accurately to fix its locality. A 
great deal of curious information upon 
this subject is to be found in Grimm's 
Deutsche Mythologie, chap. x. 

Heruli, a savage nation in the northern 
parts of Europe, which attacked the Roman 
power in its decline. 

Hesiodcs, a celebrated Greek poet, born 
at Ascra, a village at the foot of Mount 
Helicon, whither his father had migrated 
from Cuma in iEolis. He is supposed 
to have been contemporary with Homer. 
Dissatisfied with the award of the judges 
in the matter of his patrimony, he retired 
to Orchomenus, and is said to have met 
his death at the hands of some young men 
who suspected him of an intrigue with 
their sister. Three poems still exist which 
bear the name of Hesiod, "the Theogony," 
"the Shield of Hercules," and " the Works 
and Days." Of these "the "Works and Days " 
— a didactic poem on agricultural sub- 
jects — is supposed by some critics to be 
the only genuine production of Hesiod. 

Hesione, a daughter of Laomedon, 
king of Troy, by Strymo, daughter of the 
Scamander. It fell to her lot to be ex- 
posed to a sea-monster, to appease the 
resentment of Apollo and Neptune, whom 
Laomedon had offended. Hercules pro- 
mised to deliver her, provided he received 
six beautiful horses. Laomedon having con- 
sented, Hercules attacked the monster, and 
killed him with his club ; but Laomedon 
having refused to fulfil his engagement, 
Hercules besieged Troy, and put the king 
and all his family to the sword, except 
Podarces, or Priam, who had advised his 
father to give the promised horses to his 
sister's deliverer. The conqueror then gave 
Hesione in marriage to his friend Telamon, 
who had assisted him during the war, and 
allowed her to choose one among the cap- 
tives to be set at liberty. When she had 
fixed upon her brother Podarces, Hercules 
replied that he must first be made a slave. 



and then she might give something for him 
and redeem him. She took her golden 
veil off her head, and with it bought him, 
and hence he was afterwards named Pria- 
mus (Purchased), instead of Podarces 
( Swift- foot). Hesione was taken to Greece 
by Telamon, where she became the mother 
of Teucer. 

Hesperia, a name applied by the poets 
to Italy, as lying to the west of Greece. 
It is derived from eo-irepa, "evening," so 
that Hesperia properly means " the even- 
ing-land," i. e. the western region. It is 
also, though less frequently, applied to 
Spain, as lying west of Italy. 

Hesperides, the daughters of Night, or 
the grand-daughters of Hesperus the bro- 
ther of Atlas, three or seven in number, 
possessors of the fabulous garden of golden 
fruit watched over by an enchanted dragon 
at the western extremity of the earth. It 
was one of the labours of Hercules to pro- 
cure some of the golden apples of the Hes- 
perides. By the advice of Prometheus, 
the hero resolved not to take the apples 
himself, but to request Atlas to procure 
them for him. Atlas assented, and placed 
.the burden of the heavens on the shoulders 
of Hercules while he went in quest of the 
apples. At his return, Hercules expressed 
his wish to ease his burden, and when Atlas 
assisted him to remove his inconvenience, 
Hercules artfully left the burden, and 
seized the apples, which Atlas had thrown 
on the ground. According to other ac- 
counts, Hercules gathered the apples him- 
self, without the assistance of Atlas, having 
previously killed the watchful dragon which 
kept the tree. This monster, which was the 
offspring of Typhon, had 100 heads, and 
never slept. Its name was Ladon. 

Hespekidum insula, generally thought 
to correspond to the Cape de Verd islands. 

Hesperis, I. (See Hesperus.) — II. 
See Berenice IX. 

Hesperitis, a country of Africa. 

Hesperus, I., a son of Iapetus, brother 
to Atlas, who came to Italy, which, accord- 
ing to one legend, received the name of 
Hesperia from him. His daughter Hespe- 
ris married Atlas, and, according to one 
legend, became mother of the Atlantides 
and Hesperides. — II. A name applied to 
the planet Venus when it appeared after 
the setting of the sun ; called Phosphorus 
or Lucifer when it preceded the sun. 

Hesus, a deity among the Gauls, equi- 
valent to the Roman Mars. 

Hesychius, I., a native of Alexandria ; 
placed by different writers in the fourth, 
and at the end of the sixth century ; ce- 
lebrated as a lexicographer, and supposed 



282 



HET 



HET 



by some to be the same person as the 
patriarch of Jerusalem of that name. — II. 
Presbyter Hierosolymitanus, flourished a. d. 
415, an interpreter of Scripture, who must 
not be confounded with another Hesychius, 
of a later age, also a presbyter, and after- 
wards bishop of Jerusalem. He died a.d.428. 

Hetruria and Etuuria. See Hetrusci. 

Hetrusci or Etrusci, an ancient and 
flourishing people of Italy, who occupied 
the tract now called Tuscany, and great part 
of the modern Papal states ; a region ex- 
tending from the Apennines north of Flo- 
rence to the Tiber, from which tradition 
reported them to have expelled a still older 
nation, the Umbrians. Conflicting notions 
prevailed among the ancients as to the 
country of their origin ; but common opi- 
nion regarded it as oriental; while the 
most detfnite tradition was that which re- 
presented them as descendants of the Sy. 
rians of Asia Minor. Among the moderns, 
some call them " indigenous." Others 
maintain the oriental theory of the ancients ; 
some derive them from Greece through the 
enigmatical Pelasgians ; others, adopting 
the adventurous conjecture of Niebuhr, 
bring one race from the north through the 
passes of the Alps, to meet with another 
from the East on the shores of the Tyrrhene 
Sea, and form, by their amalgamation, the 
Etruscan people. At a period long ante- 
cedent to the existence of Rome, they sent 
out colonies, which spread over the plains 
of Lombardy as far as Mantua and Adria, 
and even into the defiles of the Rhoetian 
mountains ; while in the south they sub- 
dued and colonized the beautiful region of 
Campania. They were early expelled from 
their conquests, both in the north and south 
of Italy ; but they maintained their great 
federation in the central part of the pen- 
insula, or Etruria Proper, for many ages 
more ; and in this, their earliest and prin- 
cipal seat, they attained to a degree of 
power and proficiency in all the mechanical 
branches of civilization which no ancient 
people ever surpassed. They had twelve 
principal cities or states, each forming an 
independent community, but united by a 
federative league, resembling that of the 
cantons of Switzerland ; and of these the 
principal were Veii, the rival of Rome, 
Casre, the ancient Agylla, the seat of a 
people even older than the Etruscans, 
by whom they were driven out ; Tarquinii, 
the religious and political metropolis of the 
federation, (all of which are utterly de- 
stroyed) ; and Cortona, Perusia, and Vul- 
sinii, which stand on the very foundations 
which the Etruscans laid, and occupy the 
exact surface of the ancient cities. Corn, 



wine, oil, and cattle were the staple pro- 
ducts of the land ; but the Etrurians were 
a commercial, even more than an agricul- 
tural people. They traded with the East, 
and imported from Egypt many a strange 
mystery, which conjecture has not yet 
approached, and many a process of art, 
which modern ingenuity has never revived. 
They were evidently in constant and inti- 
mate connection with Greece. Their com- 
merce extended to the far South ; for their 
artists were well acquainted with the co- 
lour and physiognomy of the negro race. 
They brought from the West those precious 
metals, of which they made so lavish a use 
for purposes of ornament. They gave name 
to the sea which bathed their shores, and 
contested its supremacy with the Phoeni- 
cians ; and, together with their wealth, 
they possessed a fixed, durable system of 
society, in which civil and religious insti- 
tutions were more intimately interwoven 
than in any other state of antiquity ; 
scarcely excepting Egypt herself, the mo- 
ther of ancient polity. They had a lan- 
guage and a literature of their own ; arts 
of war and of peace, of which a part are 
transferred into the usages of Rome, but 
the greater and more valuable portions 
perished with them ; they had all the mag- 
nificence, all the refinements of ancient 
life — the games and shows of Greece, the 
domestic and personal comforts, and more 
than the luxuries of Egypt ; the family 
worship and family institutions of early 
Rome ; and all with a national type and 
character peculiarly their own. All these 
facts have been brought to light by modern 
research ; but the picture, though it seems 
almost to live and breathe, is absolutely 
mute ; for the literature of Etruria was 
nearly all destroyed in the Roman conquest, 
and in the absence of a known language, 
it is only in their sepulchres, which have 
been found to contain innumerable vases 
of terra cotta, fresco paintings, and other 
works of art, that the history of this peo- 
ple must be sought. Upon this important 
subject, to which the labours of modern 
philologists have been assiduously directed, 
our limits necessarily preclude us from en- 
tering, and we must content ourselves 
with referring the reader for full inform- 
ation to the learned work of Micali, Miil- 
ler's History of the Etruscans, and to Mrs. 
Hamilton Gray's interesting Tour to the 
Sepulchres of Etruria. The oldest govern- 
ment of the Etruscan cities was purely 
aristocratic ; and it was not until compa- 
ratively recent times that individual Lueu- 
mones and Lartes, out of the governing 
houses, were raised to the royal dignity 



HIB 



HIE 



283 



Such were Lars Tolumnius of Clusium, 
and the conqueror of Rome, Lars Por- 
senna. But such royalty does not seem 
to have been durable. The same family 
which had furnished kings to the state for a 
season, remained great and flourishing as 
a patrician house, after the commonwealth 
had returned to its former condition. It 
is not until the very last days of Etruscan 
independence that we hear of popular in- 
surrections ; but these served in their turn 
to weaken the remaining force of the mighty 
confederacy, and to aid the sword of the 
Gaul and the Roman in the work of sub- 
jugation. It is now universally admitted 
that the Romans borrowed from the Etrus- 
cans their most important arts and institu- 
tions, their religion, magistracies, archi- 
tecture, and knowledge of navigation. Long 
before the Romans possessed a single ship, 
the flag of the Etruscans was seen, as above 
remarked, on every sea known to antiquity, 
and even when the power of Rome had 
attained considerable solidity, she trembled 
before her menacing neighbours with Por- 
senna at their head. But the " Eternal 
city " was destined finally to triumph over 
all opposition. Weakened by long civil 
dissensions, and by the devastations of the 
Gauls, twice routed with terrible slaughter 
at the Vadimonian Lake, the Etrurian 
nation gave up the conflict. Single cities, 
however, carried it on to their own destruc- 
tion ; and at last, after a series of intense 
struggles continued during 400 years from 
the foundation of Rome, the complete sub- 
jugation of Etruria was effected in the 
downfall of its metropolis, Tarquinii. 

Hibernia. See Ierne. 

Hierapolis, I., Bambig, a city of Syria, 
near the Euphrates, south of Zeugma. Its 
Greek appellation, Hierapolis, is equivalent 
to the Syrian Bambyce, or " Holy City," 
which it derived from the Syrian goddess 
Atergatis being worshipped there. — II. 
A city of Phrygia, near the confines of 
Lydia, north-west of Laodicea. 

Hierichus. See Jeuicho. 

Hiero, I., tyrant of Syracuse, succeeded 
his brother Gelon on the throne, b. c. 478. 
He rendered himself odious in the be- 
ginning of his reign by his cruelty and 
avarice; and, being ambitious of extending 
his dominions, made war against Theron, 
tyrant of Agrigentum, took Himera and 
Naxos ; and, having joined his fleet to that 
of the people of Cumas, he succeeded in 
clearing the Tyrrhenian Sea of the Etrus- 
can and other pirates who infested it. His 
chariots repeatedly won the prize at the 
Olympic games, and his success on those 
occasions formed the theme of some of the 



odes of Pindar, who was his guest and 
friend. iEschylus, Simonides, Bacchylides, 
and Epicharmus were also well received 
at his court. He died, after a reign of 
eighteen years, b. c. 467, leaving the crown 
to his brother Thrasybulus. — II. The 
second of the name, son of Hierocles, a 
wealthy citizen of Syracuse, and a de- 
scendant of Gelon, distinguished himself 
in early life by his brilliant qualities, and 
served with distinction under Pyrrhus in 
his Sicilian campaigns. After Pyrrhus 
had suddenly abandoned Sicily, the Syra- 
cusan troops, being in want of a trusty 
leader, chose Hiero by acclamation, and 
the senate and citizens, after some demur, 
ratified the choice, b. c. 275. After va- 
rious successful operations against the 
Mamertines, Hiero returned to Syracuse, 
where, through the influence of Leptmes, 
his father-in-law, a leading man among the 
aristocratic party, he was proclaimed king, 
b. c. 270. Having subsequently joined his 
enemies in besieging Messana, he was 
beaten by App. Claudius, Roman consul, 
and obliged to retire to Syracuse, where 
he was blocked up. Seeing all hopes 
of victory lost, he made peace with the 
Romans, and during his long life proved 
faithful to his engagements. He reigned 
fifty-nine years, and died in his ninety- 
fourth year, about b. c. 216. With him 
the glory and independence of Syracuse 
may be said to have expired. 

Hierocles, I., a rhetorician of Alabanda 
in Caria, who lived in the beginning of the 
first century before the Christian era, and 
excelled in what Cicero termed the Asiatic 
style of eloquence. — II. A lawyer, who 
wrote a work on veterinary medicine, ad- 
dressed to Cassianus Bassus, of which three 
chapters are preserved in the sixteenth 
book of the " Geoponica." — III. Sur- 
named the grammarian, to distinguish him 
from the philosopher of the same name, a 
Greek writer supposed to have been con- 
temporary with Justinian. He composed, 
under the title of Swc/cStj/xos (" Travelling 
Companion"), a description of the sixty- 
four provinces that formed the Byzantine 
empire, and of the 935 cities situated in 
them. — IV. A New Platonist, who 
flourished at Alexandrea about the middle 
of the fifth century. He has left us a com- 
mentary " on the Golden Verses of Pytha- 
goras," and a treatise " on Providence, 
Destiny, and Free-will." — V. A prefect 
of Bithynia, and afterwards of Alexandrea, 
said to have been the principal adviser of 
the persecution of the Christians in the 
reign of Dioclesian. He wrote two works 
against Christianity, entitled " Truth-lov- 



284 



HIE 



HIE 



ing Words to the Christians," in which he 
endeavoured to show that the Scriptures 
abounded in contradictions, and tried to 
prove that Apollonius of Tyana had per- 
formed greater miracles than our Saviour. 

Hieronica lex, a law instituted by 
Hiero, tyrant of Sicily, to settle the quan- 
tity of corn and the price and time of re- 
ceiving it, between the farmers of Sicily and 
the collector of the corn-tax at Rome. 

Hiero nymus, I., a tyrant of Sicily, 
succeeded his father or grandfather, Hiero, 
when only fifteen years old, b. c. 216. He 
rendered himself odious by his cruelty, 
oppression, and debauchery ; abjured the 
alliance of Rome which Hiero had ob- 
served with so much honour and advan- 
tage ; and he was finally assassinated, and 
all his family overwhelmed in his fall, and 
totally extirpated, b. o. 214. — II. A na- 
tive of Cardia, in the Thracian Chersonese, 
and one of the companions of Alexander 
the Great, after whose death he attached 
himself to Eumenes. Made prisoner in 
the battle in which that chieftain was 
betrayed by his own followers, he was 
kindly treated by Antigonus, who intrusted 
him with the government of Ccelesyria and 
Phoenicia, and charged him with an ex- 
pedition, the object of which was to seize 
upon the country around the Lake As- 
phaltites. After the defeat of Antigonus 
at the battle of Ipsus, and his death, Hie- 
ronymus remained faithful to his son De- 
metrius. At a later period he entered 
into the service of Pyrrhus, king of Epi- 
rus, whom he accompanied in his Ita- 
lian campaign, and is said to have at- 
tained the age of 104 years. — III. A 
Peripatetic philosopher, born in the island 
of Rhodes, towards the close of the third 
century b. c. • Cicero praises his ability, 
but doubts the propriety of his being ranked 
under the Peripatetic sect, since he placed 
the summum bonum in freedom from painful 
emotion, a doctrine belonging to the Epi- 
curean school. — IV. A celebrated father 
of the church, better known by the English 
form of his name, St. Jerome, was born of 
Christian parents, a. d. 331, on the con- 
fines of Pannonia and Dalmatia, at the 
town of Stridon or Stridonium. After 
fulfilling the expectations of his parents in 
his early progress at Rome, whither his 
father had sent him, he turned his atten- 
tion to rhetoric, Hebrew, and divinity in 
which he made great progress ; and after 
travelling through France and Italy, he 
eventually retired to Jerusalem, whence 
he proceeded to Antioch, where, after suf- 
fering great distress both of body and 
mind for some years, he was ordained a 



presbyter by Paulinus a. d. 378. He soon 
after visited Constantinople, in order to 
avail himself of the advice and instruction 
of Gregory Nazianzene, and, on his return, 
accompanied Paulinus to Rome, where his 
merit and learning soon made him known 
to Pope Damasus, who appointed him his 
secretary, and also director of the Roman 
ladies who had devoted themselves to a 
religious life. There appear to be circum- 
stances in the life of Jerome at this period 
which are not cleared up. It is, however, 
certain that Serinus, the successor of Da- 
masus, did not entertain the same esteem 
for him which Damasus had shown, and 
that Jerome left Rome and retired to 
a monastery at Bethlehem. In this re- 
tirement he employed himself in writing 
on the questions which then divided the 
opinions of Christians ; and here it is be- 
lieved he died, at the age of eighty years. 

Hierophilus, a Greek physician, who 
instructed his daughter Agnodice in mid- 
wifery, &c. See Agnodice. 

Hierosolyma, Jerusalem, a celebrated 
city of Palestine, and the capital of Juda?a. 
Jerusalem has been usually supposed to 
be identical with the Salem of which Mel- 
chizedek was king in the time of Abraham, 
b. c. 1913. When the Israelites entered the 
Holy Land 500 years afterwards, it was 
in the possession of the Jebusites, de- 
scendants of Canaan. Joshua, soon after 
his entrance into Canaan, " fought against 
Jerusalem, and took it, and smote it with 
the edge of the sword, and set the city on 
fire ;" but the citadel on Mount Zion was 
held by the Jebusites till they were dis- 
lodged by David, who made Jerusalem the 
metropolis of his kingdom, and his dwell- 
ing in " the stronghold of Zion." He 
enlarged the city and built a beautiful 
palace : it was further embellished by his 
son Solomon, who in the years 1012 — 
1004 b. c. erected its magnificent temple. 
Palestine was afterwards successively in- 
vaded by the Egyptians, Assyrians, and 
Babylonians, the last of whom, under Ne- 
buchadnezzar, b. c. 588, took and destroyed 
the city, burnt the temple, and carried the 
people captive to Babylon. After a bond- 
age of nearly seventy years, the Jews were 
restored to their city, by Cyrus the Per- 
sian, and about 515 b. c. they rebuilt the 
temple, under the superintendence of Ze- 
rubbabel and Nehemiah. Alexander the 
Great is said by Josephus to have visited 
Jerusalem in peace, and to have respected 
the religion of the Jews : but be this as it 
may, Ptolemy Soter, one of his generals, 
seized upon Syria and Palestine, sacked 
the Holy City, and carried off a large 



HIK 



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285 



portion of its inhabitants to Alexandria. 
Later monarchs of the Macedonian empire, 
who attempted to introduce the pagan 
worship, were successfully opposed by the 
Maccabees, and the liberty of Judaea was 
at length restored, 167 b. c. The all-ab- 
sorbing power of Rome finally put a 
period to Jewish independence, the whole 
of Syria being reduced by Pompey, and 
made a proconsular province. Jerusalem, 
however, was merely tributary, and did 
not lose its nominal sovereignty till after 
the birth of Christ, when it became the 
residence of a procurator. The repeated 
rebellions of the Jews at length roused the 
vengeance of the Romans; and, a. n. 70, 
the city was taken by Titus, after one of 
the most memorable and destructive sieges 
of which history has preserved any account. 
The Jews, though rent by intestine fac- 
tions, defended themselves with invincible 
obstinacy ; they contemptuously rejected 
every proposal for a surrender, and braved 
alike the attacks of the Romans, and the 
still more dreadful attacks of famine. But 
their resistance was unavailing, except for 
their own destruction ; and the city, being 
taken, was completely destroyed, along 
with the temple, three towers only being 
left as memorials of its existence and de- 
struction. According to Josephus, no 
fewer than 1,100,000 persons fell in the 
siege, exclusive of above 100,000 taken 
prisoners. But the ardent zeal of the 
Jewish nation for their holy city and tem- 
ple soon caused both to be again rebuilt ; 
but fresh commotions compelled the em- 
peror Hadrian once more to raze the city 
to the ground, and build on its site iElia 
Capitolina. Upon the accession to the 
throne, however, of the Christian emperors, 
the name of Jerusalem revived; but the 
city thus restored was much less in com- 
pass than the ancient city. 

Hiketaon, a son of Laomedon, king of 
Troy, and Strymo, daughter of the Sca- 
mander, and brother of Priam, Hesione, &c. 

Hilleviones, a people of Scandinavia, 
who occupied the only known part of this 
country. 

Himella, Aia, a small river in the 
country of the Sabines. 

Himera, I., a city of Sicily, near the 
mouth of a cognominal river, founded by 
the people of Zancle, and, after a course 
of prosperity of 240 years' duration, de- 
stroyed by the Carthaginians under Han- 
nibal. Such of its citizens as survived 
this calamity found an asylum at Ther- 
mae, — 1 1. Two rivers of Sicily bear this 
name. The one, Fhune Grande, falls into 
the Tuscan Sea. The other, Flume Salso, 



divides the island in almost two parts, 
and formed the ancient boundary be- 
tween the Carthaginian and Syracusan 
dependencies in Sicily. 

Himilco, the name of several Cartha- 
ginians. — I. A Carthaginian commander, 
who is said by Pliny to have been con- 
temporary with Hanno the navigator, and 
sent by his government to explore the 
north-western coast of Europe. A few 
fragments of this voyage are preserved by 
Avienus. — II. A Carthaginian, who com- 
manded in the wars with Dionysius I., 
tyrant of Syracuse, b. c. 405 — 368. He 
took Gela, Messana, and many other cities 
in Sicily, and at length besieged Syracuse 
by sea and land ; but he was defeated by 
Dionysius, who burned most of the Car- 
thaginian vessels. — III. A supporter of 
the Barca party at Carthage, sent by the 
Carthaginian government to oppose Mar- 
cellus in Sicily. 

Hipr-ARCHus, I., a son of Pisistratus, 
whom he succeeded as tyrant of Athens 
in conjunction with his brother Hippias. 
The seduction of a sister of Harmodius 
raised him many enemies ; and he was 
assassinated by a desperate band of con- 
spirators, with Harmodius and Aristogei- 
ton at their head, b. c. 513. — II. The 
most eminent among the ancient astro- 
nomers, was a native of Nicaea in Bi- 
thynia, and flourished about a century 
and a half before the Christian era. He 
resided some time in the island of Rhodes, 
whence he has derived the appellation of 
Rhodius, but he afterwards went to Alex- 
andria, at that time the great school of 
science. He has been styled the patri- 
arch of astronomy, and was certainly the 
first who treated this science in a phi- 
losophic manner. He discovered the pre- 
cession of the equinoxes ; calculated the 
eclipses ; determined the revolutions and 
mean motions of the planets ; invented the 
stereographical method of projection ; num- 
bered and catalogued the fixed stars ; and, 
in short, laid the solid foundations of geo- 
graphical and trigonometrical science. 

Hippias, prince of Athens, was the son 
of Pisistratus, at whose death he assumed 
the government, in conjunction with his 
brother Hipparchus ; but the latter being 
assassinated by a band of conspirators, while 
conducting a solemn procession to the tem- 
ple of Minerva, Hippias immediately seized 
the reins of government, and revenged the 
death of his brother by putting to death 
all of whom he entertained the least sus- 
picion. His tyranny at last became so ob- 
noxious to the citizens, that they bribed 
the priests of the Delphic oracle to com- 



286 



HIP 



HIP 



mand the Spartans to break off their al- 
liance with him; and, being obliged to 
yield to the united attack of his foreign 
and domestic enemies, he was expelled 
from the city, b. c. 510. He afterwards 
found means to induce Darius to apply to 
the Athenians in his favour ; and their de- 
cisive refusal kindled the 'first war of the 
Persians against the European Greeks. 
The fate of Hippias was at length de- 
cided on the field of Marathon, where, 
with the Persian army, he fell, fighting 
against his countrymen, b. c. 490 

Hifpius, a surname of Neptune, from 
his having raised a horse from the earth in 
his contest with Minerva about giving a 
name to Athens. 

Hippo Regius, I., a city of Africa, in 
that part of Numidia called the Western 
Province, named Regius from its having 
been one of the royal cities of the Numi- 
dian kings. Near the ancient site is a 
town named Bona. — II. Zarytus, a town 
of Africa, on the coast, west of Utica; 
now Ben-Zert, corrupted into Biserte. 

Hippocentauri, a race of monsters who 
dwelt in Thessaly. See Centauri. 

Hippocoon, I., a son of CEbalus, slain by 
Hercules for having driven his brother 
Tyndarus from the kingdom of Laceda?- 
mon. He was at the chace of the Caly- 
donian boar. — II. A friend of iEneas, 
son of Hyrtacus, who distinguished himself 
in the funeral games of Sicily. 

Hippocrates, the most celebrated phy- 
sician of antiquity, was born in Cos, one 
of the Cyclades, b. c. 360. Few particu- 
lars of his history are known. He was 
son of Heraclides, a member of the family 
of the Asclepiades, the descendants of 
iEsculapius, under whose care he studied 
medicine ; and, on reaching maturity, he 
pursued his philosophical studies under 
Gorgias of Leontini and Democritus. He 
spent some time at the court of Per- 
diccas, visited Thrace, Scythia, and many 
other countries, and afterwards returned to 
Larissa in Thessaly, where he died in his 
ninety-ninth year. For delivering Athens 
from a pestilence in the beginning of the 
Peloponnesian war, he was publicly re- 
warded with a golden crown, the privi- 
leges of a citizen of Athens, and initiation 
into the Eleusinian mysteries ; and after 
death he received, with the name of Great, 
the same honours which were paid to 
Hercules. The number of his works is 
very considerable ; but great difficulty has 
arisen in distinguishing what is authentic 
from what is falsely ascribed to the father 
of medicine. 

Hippocrene, a celebrated fountain of 



Bceotia, on Mount Helicon, sacred to the 
Muses. It was fabled to have burst from 
the ground, when struck by the feet of 
Pegasus ; whence the name, 'iirirov Kpxjvr), 
" horse's fountain." See Aganippe. 

Hippo dame and Hippodamia, I., a 
daughter of GEnomaus, king of Pisa in 
Elis, and wife of Pelops, son of Tantalus, 
and mother of Atreus and Thyestes, &c. 
(See QZnomaus. ) — II. A daughter of 
Adrastus, king of Argos, and wife of 
Pirithous, king of the Lapitha?. The fes- 
tivity on the day of her marriage was inter- 
rupted by the violence of the Centaurs, 
which led to their conflicts with the Lapithae. 

Hippodromus, from iWos and dp6/j.os, a 
place wherein chariot and horse-races were 
performed, and horses exercised. 

Hippolyte, I., a queen of the Amazons, 
given in marriage to Theseus by Hercules, 
who conquered her, and carried away her 
famous girdle by the command of Eury- 
stheus. Another account represents her 
to have been slain by Hercules. — II. See 
Astydamia. 

Hippolytus, T., a son of Theseus and 
Hippolyte, or, according to others, of 
Antiope. His step-mother, Pha?dra, hav- 
ing falsely accused him before Theseus of 
dishonourable conduct, the latter prayed 
to Neptune for vengeance upon his son ; 
and as Hippolytus was driving his chariot 
along the sea-shore, the god sent a monster 
which so terrified his horses, that they 
burst away in fury, when the chariot was 
dashed to pieces, and the driver was 
dragged to death. According to some 
accounts, he was restored to life by JE- 
sculapius, and afterwards transported by 
Diana into Italy, where, under the name 
of Virbius, he was worshipped in the grove 
of Aricia. When the tragical end of Hip- 
polytus was known at Athens, Phasdra 
confessed her crime, and hung herself in 
despair. The death of Hippolytus and pas- 
sion of Phaadra form the subject of one 
of the Tragedies of Euripides and Seneca. 
Pha?dra was buried at Trcezene. She was 
represented in a painting, in Apollo's tem- 
ple at Delphi, as suspended in the air, while 
her sister Ariadne stood near her, with 
fixed eyes. — II. A Christian writer in the 
third century, the disciple of Irenaeus and 
instructor of Origen. The seat of his 
principal labours in propagating the Gospel 
was at Rome, where probably he suffered 
martyrdom, a.d. 230, under Alexander 
Severus. 

Hippomedon, a son of Nisimachus and 
Mythidice, and one of the seven chiefs who 
went against Thebes. He was killed by 
Ismarus, son of Acastus. 



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287 



Hippomenes, a son of Macareus and 
Merope, and, according to some, the suc- 
cessful suitor of Atalanta. See Atalanta. 

Hippomolgi, a people of Scythia, who, 
as the derivation of the term implies, lived 
on the milk of mares. 

Hipfona, a goddess who presided over 
horses. Her statues were placed in stahles. 

Hipfonax, a Greek poet, born at Ephe- 
sus, b. c. 540. His satirical writings 
obliged him to quit his native place, and 
to retire to Clazomenae. The statuaries 
Bupalus and Anthermus, availing them- 
selves of the deformity of his person, made 
a statue of the poet which excited univer- 
sal ridicule ; but he so amply avenged him- 
self by his satirical invectives, that they 
hanged themselves in despair. To Hip- 
ponax are attributed some great improve- 
ments in the structure of the Iambic mea- 
sure. The few fragments of his writings 
which remain are so identified with those 
of Ananius, that it is impossible to dis- 
tinguish between them. 

Hipponium, Bivona, called also Vibo 
Valentia, a town of Italy, on the western 
coast of the territory of the Brutii, south- 
west from Scylacium, founded by the Locri 
Epizephyrii. After numerous vicissitudes 
it became a Roman colony, a. u. c. 560. 

HippopSdes, a people of Scythia, who 
had horses' feet, whence the name. The 
appellation was probably given them on 
account of their swiftness of foot. 

Hippotades, the patronymic of iEolus, 
grandson of Hippotas, by Segesta, as also 
of Amastrus, his son, who was killed in 
the Rutulian war. 

Hippothoon. See Alope. 

Hippothoontis, one of the twelve Athe- 
nian tribes, so called from Hippothoon, 
son of Neptune. 

Hira, or Alexandria, Mesjid-ali , or 
Meham-ali, a town of Asia in Babylonia, 
near the Euphrates. It was the residence 
of a dynasty of princes, called by the gene- 
ral name of Alamundari, who aided the 
Persians and Parthians against the Ro- 
mans. 

Hirpini, a people of Italy, who formed 
a part of the Samnites, and were situated 
south of Samnium Proper. Their terri- 
tory comprehended the towns of Bene- 
ventum, Caudium, Abellinum, and Comp- 
sa. They began to be distinguished from 
the rest of the Samnites towards the end of 
the second Punic war. 

Hirtius, Aulus, a Roman patrician, 
who early applied himself to the study of 
rhetoric, in which he greatly distinguished 
himself. He was an intimate friend of 
Cicero, and served with distinction in the 



Gallic war under Caesar, to whom he re- 
mained attached till his death. He after- 
wards took part with the senate against 
Antony ; and, being elected to the con- 
sulship, marched with his colleague Pansa 
to the assistance of Brutus, when besieged 
at Mutina, and defeated Antony, but both 
the consuls were killed in the battle b. c. 
43. Hirtius and Pansa were the last of the 
free Roman consuls elect. Hirtius is said 
to be the author of a supplementary part 
of Caesar's Commentaries. 

Hispalis, a famous city of Spain, on 
the Baetis, corresponding to Seville. Man- 
nert thinks that it was the same as the 
ancient Tartessus. When Hispalis be- 
came a Roman colony, the name was 
changed to Julia Romulensis. 

HisrANiA, or HispanLe, an extensive 
country, in the south-west of Europe ; 
bounded on the north by the Pyrenees 
and Sinus Cantabricus, Bay of Biscay, 
west by the Atlantic, south by the At- 
lantic, Fretum Herculeum, Straits of Gib- 
raltar, and the Mediterranean, which last 
bounds it also on the east. The Greeks 
called it Iberia, but attached at different 
periods different ideas to the name. The 
coast of Spain on the Atlantic, they called 
Tartessis : and the interior of the country 
Celtice (KeATiK^), a name applied to the 
whole north-western part of Europe ; but 
in later times they understood by Iberia 
the whole of Spain. The Phoenicians 
were the first civilised people that visited 
Spain, more than 1000 years before Christ : 
they founded Gades, Malaca, &c. After- 
wards the inhabitants of Massilia, in Gaul, 
built Rhoda, now Bosas, and Emporia?, 
now Ampurias, in the north-east corner of 
the Peninsula. The Carthaginians, com- 
ing next, built Tarraco, Barcino, and 
Nova Carthago, and held possession of a 
great part of the country, till they were 
expelled by the Romans ; who, after con- 
tending for the possession of Spain for a 
period of 200 years before Christ, became 
its sole masters at the end of the second 
Punic war. In the time of the Roman 
Republic, Hispania was divided into 
Duae Hispania?, Citerior, and Ulterior, 
by the river Iberus. Under Augustus, 
it was divided into three parts: — 1. Tar- 
raconensis, comprising all the north and 
north-east part, from the Uurius and 
Tader to the Pyrenees, in which were the 
native tribes, Callaici, Astures, Cantabri, 
Concani, Vascones, Ilergetes, Celtiberi, 
&c. ; 2. Bastica, all the southern part, as 
far north as the Anas and Tader, in which 
were the Turdetani, Bastuli Paeni, &c. ; 
and 3. Lusitania, the western and central 



2S8 



HIS 



HON 



part, corresponding to the modern Portu- j 
gal, between the Anas, the Durius, and j 
the Atlantic, in which division were the j 
Vettones, and the country called Cuneus. 
Hispania remained in possession of the 
Romans down to the fifth century of the 
Christian era. For the next 300 years, it was 
occupied by the Barbarians who overturned 
the Roman empire, particularly by the Van- 
dals and Goths ; and for seven centuries 
after, by the Saracens or Moors. The 
Spanish Christians who had taken refuge 
in the mountains of Asturias encroached 
by degrees on the Mahometans, pressing 
them southward, and erecting a number 
of separate kingdoms, which were all 
united, under the government of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella, a. n. 1479. 

Histi^ea. See Oreus. 

Histi^otis. See Esti^eotis. 

Histi^eus, a tyrant of Miletus, who, 
when the Scythian chiefs had resolved to 
cut down the bridge over the Danube, in j 
order to destroy the Persian army, induced 
them to abandon their design, and was in j 
consequence held in high estimation by 
Darius, who rewarded him with a grant 
of land. Megabazus, however, having in- 
sinuated the danger of leaving so powerful 
a person in Thrace, Darius persuaded 
Histiaeus to accompany him to Susa, where 
he detained him in a kind of 'honourable 
captivity. Meanwhile the latter secretly j 
urged his nephew Aristagoras, whom he J 
had left in the government of Miletus, to 
excite the Ionians to revolt ; and on this I 
taking place he prevailed on Darius to 
allow him to quell it, but soon availed 
himself of his liberty to place himself at 
the head of the rebels, and, after various 
disasters and defeats, was captured by 
Artaphernes, and crucified. 

Homerus, I., the most celebrated poet 
of antiquity, and the most ancient of all 
the profane writers. Of his parentage, his 
age, his rank, and the circumstances of his 
life and death, we know so little that can 
be relied on, that it would be hopeless to 
attempt to give even an outline of the va- 
rious opinions that have been broached 
respecting him. The most commonly re- 
ceived account makes him to have been a 
native of some of the Greek colonies of 
Asia Minor, and to have lived about the 
ninth century before the Christian era 
Seven cities disputed the honour of having 
given him birth. 

" Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodos 
Argos, Athenae, 
Orbis de patria certat, Homere, tua." 

In his two most celebrated poems, the Iliad 
and Odyssey, Homer has displayed the 



most consummate knowledge of human 
nature, and has secured immortality by 
the sublimity, fire, sweetness, and elegance 
of his poetry. None of his successors 
have been able to surpass, or even to 
equal, their great master. In his Iliad, 
Homer has described the resentment of 
Achilles, and its fatal consequences in the 
Grecian army before the walls of Troy. 
In the Odyssey, the poet has taken for his 
subject the return of Ulysses into his coun- 
try, with the many misfortunes which 
attended his voyage after the fall of Troy. 
The poetry of Homer was so universally 
admired that, in ancient times, every man 
of learning could repeat with facility any 
passage in the Iliad or Odyssey ; and such 
was the universal veneration for their au- 
thor, that the ancients not only raised 
temples and altars to him, but offered 
sacrifices, and worshipped him as a god. 
Alexander was so fond of Homer, that 
he generally placed his compositions 
under his pillow. It is said that Pisis- 
tratus, tyrant of Athens, first collected 
and arranged the Iliad and Odyssey in 
the manner in which they now appear 
to us ; and to the well-directed pursuits 
of Lycurgus we are indebted for their 
preservation. For the last half century, 
the learned world has been eagerly discus- 
sing the question whether the Homeric 
poems are really the production of the 
man whose name they -bear, and trans- 
mitted to posterity by the singular class 
called the Rhapsodists, or whether they 
were not the joint composition of various 
writers, collected and remodelled at a later 
age. Upon this question our limits ne- 
cessarily preclude us from entering ; but 
the reader will find the gist of the matter 
fully given in Thirlwall's History of Greece, 
vol. i. — II. One of the Greek poets called 
the Tragic Pleiades, called, for the sake 
of distinction, the Younger, was born at 
Hierapolis, b. c. 263. 

Hohonasa, Ermenak, a strong fortress 
of Cilicia Trachea, on the confines of 
Isauria; or, according to Mannert, in 
Pisidia. The inhabitants, a wild and 
plundering people, were finally subdued 
by the Roman commander Quirinus. 

Hoxoria, daughter of Constantius and 
Placidia, and sister of Valentinian III., 
was born about a. d. 414. She accompa- 
nied her mother to Byzantium, where she 
was received with great kindness by Theo- 
dosius II. ; but having afterwards engaged 
in an intrigue with her chamberlain Eu- 
genius, the consequences of which soon 
became apparent, she was immured in a 
nunnery. Here she found means to con- 



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vey a ring secretly to the celebrated At- 
tila, as a pledge of her affection ; but on 
his demanding her in marriage, she was 
sent back to Italy, and imprisoned till she 
died. 

Honorius, second son of Theodosius 
the Great, whorn he succeeded on the 
throne of the West (his brother Arcadius 
having obtained that of the East), was 
born at Constantinople a. b. 384. As his 
character opened, he appeared ill adapted 
to his high station ; but, fortunately for 
the emperor, the government was intrust- 
ed to the able hands of his minister Stili- 
cho. His reign was chiefly remarkable 
for the invasion of Italy by Alaric, king 
of the Goths. During this period Ho- 
norius retired to Liguria ; but he was 
soon afterwards enabled to return to Rome 
in triumph, accompanied by his minister, 
who had defeated the invader. In the 
year 404 Honorius left Rome for Ra- 
venna, where he established his court : 
but in the following year he was roused 
from his lethargy by an irruption of the 
barbarians into Italy, and the next year, 
the Vandals, the Alani, the Alemanni, and 
other barbarians, crossed the Rhine and 
invaded Gaul. Perplexed and harassed 
on every side, he yielded to the suggestions 
of his courtiers, and put to death his faith- 
ful minister Stilicho, on a false accusation 
of treason ; and his death was the signal 
for resumed vigour on the part of Attila, 
who took Rome and plundered it, a. d. 
410. In the midst of the universal ruin 
which threatened the empire, Honorius re- 
mained shut up in Ravenna, where he 
died of a dropsy in his thirty-ninth year, 
a. d. 423. 

Horapollo, or Horus Apollo, a gram- 
marian of Egypt, who taught, first at 
Alexandria, and afterwards at Constanti- 
nople, in the reign of Theodosius. He is 
the author of a treatise on Hieroglyphics. 

Horje ( Gr. *{2pcu), divinities regarded 
in two points of view — as the goddesses 
of the seasons, and hours of the day ; 
and their number is stated in different 
ways accordingly. Their duty was to 
hold the gates of heaven, which they 
opened to send forth the chariot of the 
sun in the morning, and receive it again 
in the evening. No classical poet has 
described them with greater beauty than 
Shelley, in his celebrated passage of his 
" Prometheus Unbound." These goddesses 
are often depicted as forming the train 
of Venus. 

Horatia, the sister of the Horatii, killed 
by her surviving brother for deploring the 
aeath of her betrothed, one of the Curiatii, 



and for reproaching him with the deed by 
which she had lost her lover. 

Horatius, Q. Flaccus, I., a celebrated 
Roman poet, born at Venusia, b. c. 65. 
His father, a freedman, though poor, gave 
his son an excellent education, and sent 
him to Athens to complete his studies, at 
the age of twenty years. He there joined 
the army of Brutus, became a military 
trihune, and fought in the last battle for 
Roman freedom at Philippi, though his 
courage failed him and he owed his pre- 
servation to a timely flight. On his return 
to Rome he applied himself to poetry. 
His talents claimed the attention of Virgil 
and Varius, who recommended him to 
Mecaenas, and from this period the life of 
Horace flowed on in a smooth and gentle 
course. Satisfied with the competency 
which the kindness of Mecaenas had be- 
stowed, he neglected the ialls of ambition, 
and steadily resisted all the solicitations 
of his friends that he would enter upon 
a political career. He even refused to 
become the secretary of Augustus, who, 
however, invited him to his table, and, 
while sitting at his meals with Virgil at 
his right and Horace at his left, often 
ridiculed the short breath of the former, 
and the watery eyes of the latter, by ob- 
serving that he sat between tears and sighs, 
Ego sum inter suspiria et lacrymas. Horace 
was warm in his friendships ; and if ever any 
ill-judged reflection had caused offence, he 
made every concession which could effect 
a reconciliation. The natural cheerful- 
ness of his mind, fortified by his pre- 
ference for the philosophical tenets of Aris- 
tippus, was admirably suited to his posi- 
tion ; for whether he appeared at the im- 
perial court, or listening to the rude jokes 
of the peasantry on his Sabine farm, he 
was equally at home. The last years of 
his life were saddened by the death of his 
most intimate friends, Virgil, Tibullus, 
and Varius ; but the severest blow he had 
to sustain was inflicted by the dissolution 
of Mecasnas. He had declared that he 
could never survive the loss of one who was 
" part of his soul," and his prediction was 
verified ; for the poet survived the patron 
only three weeks. He died b. c. 8, in the 
fifty-ninth year of his age, bequeathing all 
his possessions to Augustus. The produc- 
tions of Horace consist of Odes, Epodes, 
Satires, and Epistles. In his Odes he has 
imitated Pindar and Anacreon. Though 
confessedly inferior to the former, he bears 
the palm over the latter by his more refined 
sentiments, the ease of his expressions, and 
the variety of his numbers. In his Sa- 
tires and Epistles, Horace displays much 
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290 



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wit and humour, but above all good sense ; 
and his style, simple and unadorned, 
differs little from prosaical composition. 
In his Art of Poetry he has shown much 
judgment, and has rendered in Latin 
hexameters, what Aristotle had, some cen- 
turies before, delivered to his pupils in 
Greek prose. — II. The name of three 
brave Roman twin-brothers, who, according 
to the old Roman legend, fought against 
the three Curiatii, three Alban twin- 
brothers, about b. c. 667. Mutual acts of 
violence had given rise to a war between 
the Albans and the Romans : and the two 
hostile armies were drawn up at the Fossa 
Cluilia, when it was agreed to avert a 
general battle by a combat of the three bro- 
thers on each side. In the first attack two 
of the Horatii were killed, but the only 
surviving brother, by joining artifice to 
valour, obtained the victory. Pretending 
to fly from the field of battle, he easily 
separated his antagonists, and, attacking 
them one by one, was enabled to conquer 
them all. As he returned victorious to 
Rome, his sister reproached him with the 
murder of one of the Curiatii, to whom 
she was promised in marriage. Incensed 
at the rebuke, he killed his sister ; and 
his violence having raised the indignation 
of the people, he was tried and con- 
demned. His services pleaded in his 
favour ; and death was exchanged for a 
more moderate, but ignominious punish- 
ment, and he was only compelled to pass 
under the yoke. A trophy was raised in 
the Roman forum, on which he suspended 
the spoils of the conquered Curiatii. — 
III. A consul, who, while dedicating the 
temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, was in- 
formed of the death of his son, but merg- 
ing the feelings of the parent in the sacred 
character which he then bore, he con- 
tinued the ceremony, after ordering the 
body to be buried. — IV. Codes. See 

COCLES. 

Horesti, a people of Scotland, men- 
tioned by Tacitus. In Agricola's time 
they seem to have been the inhabitants of 
what is now Angus. 

Hormisdas, or Hormouz, a name 
common to many members of the royal 
family of Persia. One of the members of 
this family having made his escape from 
prison in the troubles which occurred 
during the minority of Sapor, sought re- 
fuge at the court of Constantius, and 
rose to high rank in the Roman army. 
He was a Christian. 

Hortensia, a celebrated Roman lady, 
daughter of the orator Hortensius, whose 
eloquence she had inherited in the most 



eminent degree. When the triumvirs had 
obliged 14,000 women to give on oath an 
account of their possessions, to defray the 
expenses of the state, Hortensia undertook 
to plead their cause, and was so successful, 
that 1000 of her female fellow-sufferers 
escaped from the avarice of the trium- 
virate. The harangue was extant in the 
time of Quintilian, who speaks of it with 
applause. 

Hortensius, Q., a celebrated orator, 
was born b. c. 11 8, of an equestrian fa- 
mily, and began to distinguish himself in 
the Roman forum at the age of nineteen. 
In the contest between Marius and Sylla 
he remained neuter, was one of the twenty 
quaestors established by Sylla, and after- 
wards obtained the offices of aedile, praetor, 
and lastly consul, with Q,. C. Metellus 
Creticus, b. c. 69. As an orator he for 
a long time balanced the reputation of 
Cicero ; but as his Orations are lost, we 
can only judge of him by the account 
which his rival and his friend gives of his 
abilities. Hortensius acquired great wealth, 
not, as Cicero says, by the most honour- 
able means ; but he spent it liberally ; 
and his villas at Tusculum, and many other 
places, are mentioned as splendid. He 
died b. c. 59, shortly before the fall of the 
republic, leaving a large inheritance to his 
children. Not less than 10,000 casks of 
Arvisian wine were found in his cellar 
after his death. 

Horus, a son of Isis and Osiris, one of 
the deities of the Egyptians, equivalent 
to the Apollo of the Greeks and Romans. 
He was represented as the conqueror of 
Typhon, and had a magnificent temple at 
Apollinopolis Magna. 

Ho st i ma, Ostiglia, a village on the 
Padus, Po, in the vicinity of Cremona. 

Hostius, a Roman, contemporary of 
Lucilius the satirist, and the author of a 
poem on the Istrian war, some fragments 
of which have reached our time. 

Hunni, one of the northern nations 
which, under their king Attila, committed 
dreadful ravages in the Roman empire. 
They seem to have been of Tartar origin, 
and their ancient seat was immediately on 
the north side of the great wall of China, 
which was built to check their incursions. 
In the first century of the Christian era 
they emigrated westward as far as the 
Volga, and, having driven out the Alanni, 
took possession of the whole country be- 
tween the Tanais and the Volga. Here 
they remained two centuries : but during 
the reign of Valens they forced their way 
to the Danube ; and soon afterwards their 
proximity to the Roman empire led them 



HYA 



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£91 



into collision with the Romans, upon whom 
their visitations were frightful, if not last- 
ing. After the death of Attila, the va- 
rious tribes of which the Huns were com- 
posed, being weakened by internal divi- 
sions, fell an easy prey to the Goths, who 
drove them beyond the Tanais. Some of 
them had previously obtained a settlement 
in Pannonia, to which country they gave 
the name of Hungary; but we subsequently 
hear of them as sometimes at war with the 
emperors of Constantinople, and some- 
times as their allies against the Persians. 
They never afterwards occupy a promi- 
nent place, and after the reign of Heraclius 
they disappear from history. 

HyacinthIa, a great national festival 
celebrated annually at Amyclae by the 
Amyclzeans and Spartans jointly, in ho- 
nour of Hyaeinthus and Apollo. It con- 
tinued for three days. During the first 
and last days there was nothing but la- 
mentation for the death of Hyaeinthus ; 
but on the second there were various 
games and exhibitions, and songs and fes- 
tivity abounded in honour of Apollo. 
The melancholy character of the com- 
mencement and termination of this fes- 
tival was foreign to all other festivals of 
Apollo. 

Hyacixthus, a beautiful youth of Amy- 
else, beloved by Apollo. "While playing 
one day at quoits with the god, he was 
struck on the head by the quoit of the 
latter, and killed. Disconsolate at his 
death, Apollo changed him into the flower 
which bears his name, and on whose petals 
Grecian fancy saw traced at, at, the notes 
of grief. Some legends relate that Ze- 
phyrus, enraged at the preference Hya- 
cynthus showed for Apollo over himself, 
blew the discus, when launched by Apollo, 
against the head of the youth, and killed 
him. The Amycla?ans established yearly 
festivals in honour of Hyaeinthus. See 

HvACINTHIA. 

Hyades, daughters of Atlas, king of 
Mauritania, so disconsolate at the death of 
their brother Hyas, killed by a wild boar, 
that the gods in compassion translated 
them to the skies, and placed them in the 
Bull's forehead, where they still continued 
to weep, and were thence supposed to pre- 
sage rain. Their names, as given by Pbe- 
recydes, are iEsula, Ambrosia, Eudora, Co- 
ronis, Dione, and Polyxo ; but Hesiod 
calls them Phaesula, Coronis, Cleea, Pha;o, 
and Eudora. 

Hya:mpeia, one of the two lofty rocks 
which rose perpendicularly from behind 
Delphi, and obtained for Parnassus the 
epithet " two-headed." The other was 



called Naupleia. From these elevated 
crags, criminals were hurled by the Del- 
phians. 

Hyampolis, one of the most ancient 
cities of Phocis, situated in the northern 
extremity of the province. It was founded 
by the Hyantes, one of the earliest tribes 
of Greece ; and, after falling successively 
into the hands of the Thessalians and Per- 
sians, was finally destroyed by Philip and 
the Amphictyons. Its ruins are still 
visible near Bogdana. 

Hyantes, name of an ancient people 
of Bceotia, who succeeded the Ectenes in 
the possession of that country, when the 
latter were exterminated by a plague. 
The epithet Hyantius is sometimes ap- 
plied to Actaeon, as equivalent to Boeotus. 

Hyantis, an ancient name of Bceotia, 
from the Hyantes. See Hyantes. 

Hyas, son of Atlas, king of Mauritania, 
and brother of the Hyades. He was ex- 
tremely fond of hunting, and lost his life 
in an encounter with a bear or lion, or, as 
some say, from the bite of an asp, to the 
inconsolable grief of his sisters. See Hy- 
ades. 

Hybla, the name of three towns in 
Sicily : Hybla Major, Minor, and Parva. 

— I. The first, famous for its honey and 
bees, was situated near the south of Mt. 
iEtna, on a hill of the same name with 
the city ; near it ran the Simsethus. — II. 
Called also Kerala, now Cctlcitct Git one, 
was situated in the south of Sicily, and is 
placed in the itinerary of Antonine on 
the route from Agrigentum to Syracuse ; 
III. A town above Syracuse. It was 
also denominated Galaotis, but more fre- 
quently Megara, whence the gulf to the 
south was called Megarensis Sinus. 

Hydaspes, I., a river of India, one of 
the tributaries of the Indus. D'Anville 
makes it the modern Shantrou; Mannert 
is in favour of the Behut ; but the true 
modern name is the Ilhum. Alexander- 
crossed this river to give battle to Porus. 

— II. A friend of iEneas, killed in the 
Rutulian war. 

Hydra, a celebrated monster, which in- 
fested the lake Lerna in Peloponnesus, the 
fruit of Echidna's union with Typhon. It 
had 100 heads, and as soon as one was cut 
off, two grew up, if the wound was not 
stopped by fire. It was one of the labours 
of Hercules to destroy this monster ; this 
he effected with the assistance of Iolaus, 
who applied a burning iron to the wounds 
as soon as one head was cut off. White 
Hercules was destroying the Hydra, Juno 
sent a sea-crab to bite his foot. This new 
enemy was soon dispatched ; and the god- 
o 2 



292 



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dess, unable to lessen the fame of Hercules, 
placed the crab among the constellations, 
now called Cancer. The conqueror dipped 
his arrows in the gall of the Hydra, and 
all the wounds which he gave proved in- 
curable. 

Hydraotes, Ravee, a tributary of the 
Indus. It was sometimes called Hyarotes, 
and sometimes Rhuadis. 

Hydruntum and Hydrus, a port and 
city of Calabria, about fifty miles south of 
Brundusium. It was the nearest port of 
Italy to Greece, the distance being only 
fifty miles ; a circumstance which led 
Pyrrhus, and afterwards Varro, Pompey's 
lieutenant, to form the project of throwing 
a bridge across the Adriatic. Though so 
favourably situated, Hydrus, Otranto, is 
but an insignificant town. A small cog- 
nominal river, now the Idro, flowed near 
the town. 

Hyempsal, a son of Micipsa, brother 
of Adherbal, murdered by Jugurtha, after 
the death of his father. 

Hygieia (Gr. vyieia, health.'), the 
goddess of health, in the Greek mytho- 
logy, daughter or wife of iEsculapius, 
according to the different recitals of ge- 
nealogists. Her statues (of which the 
most celebrated was at Sicyon) sometimes 
represented her attended by a large serpent 
coiled round her body, and elevating its 
head above her arm to drink of a - cup 
which she held in her hand. Isis, in 
Egyptian monuments, appears sometimes 
in a similar attitude. The employment 
of the serpent as a mythological symbol of 
life and health has been by some derived 
from the history contained in the first 
chapter of Genesis. 

HygInus, C. Jul., an ancient gram- 
marian and teacher, mentioned by Sue- 
tonius as a native of Spain, brought to 
Rome by Caesar, and appointed keeper of 
the Palatine library. He was acquainted 
with Ovid and other literary characters of 
the day, and was said to be the imitator 
of Corn. Alexander, a Greek grammarian. 
His compositions, several of which re- 
main, have been mutilated; and their bad 
Latinity induces some to suppose them 
spurious. 

Hylactor (vAci/cre'co, to bark), one of 
Action's dogs. 

Hyllus, a name given to several of the 
Centaurs. 

Hylas, I., a son of Theodamas, king 
of Mysia, and of Menodice, who accom- 
panied Hercules in the Argonautic expedi- 
tion. On the Asiatic coast the Argonauts 
landed to take a supply of fresh water, 
and Hylas went to a fountain with a 



pitcher, but fell in and was drowned. The 
poets have embellished this story, by say- 
ing that the Nymphs, enamoured of the 
beautifid Hylas, carried him away ; and 
Hercules, disconsolate at the loss of his 
favourite, filled the woods with his com- 
plaints, and, at last, abandoned the Ar- 
gonautic expedition to seek him. — II. A 
river of Bithynia, flowing into the Sinus 
Cianus. The inhabitants of Cius cele- 
brated an annual festival in honour of Hy- 
las, who was carried ofF by the Nymphs, 
in the neighbourhood of this river, which 
was named after him. 

Hyllus, I., a son of Hercules and 
Dejanira. According to the common 
legend he was persecuted, as his father had 
been, by Eurystheus, and obliged to fly 
from the Peloponnesus. The Athenians 
gave a kind reception to Hyllus and the 
rest of the Heraclida;, and marched against 
Eurystheus. Hyllus obtained a victory, 
killed Eurystheus, and sent his head to 
Alcmena, his grandmother. Some time 
after he attempted to recover the Pelo- 
ponnesus with the Heraclidae, and was 
killed by Echemus, king of Arcadia. 
(See Heraclidae, Hercules.) — II. A 
river of Lydia, which falls into the Her- 
mus. Strabo states that, in his time, it 
was named Phrygius. Pliny calls it the 
Phryx, makes it distinct from the Hyllus, 
and adds that it gave a name to the Phry- 
gian nation. 

Hymen^us and Hymen, the god of 
marriage among the Greeks, son of Bac- 
chus and Venus, and, according to others, 
of Apollo and one of the Muses. The 
origin of the worship of this divinity is at- 
tributed to the following story : — A young 
Athenian, named Hymenaeus, in humble 
circumstances, having become enamoured 
of the daughter of one of the noblest of his 
countrymen, from whose society he was 
debarred, attired himself in female habili- 
ments, and joined a religious procession to 
Eleusis, in which his mistress took part. 
On their way thither, the parties who 
composed it were attacked by pirates, who 
carried them into captivity ; but Hyme- 
naeus seized the opportunity, while they 
were asleep, of putting them to death ; and 
departing immediately for Athens, engaged 
to restore all the ladies to their families 
on condition of his obtaining permission 
to marry the object of his affection. The 
Athenians consented ; the nuptials of Hy- 
menaeus were crowned with happiness ; 
and from that period the Greeks instituted 
festivals in his honour and invoked him at 
the celebration of their marriages. The 
formula employed on these occasions was 



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293 



" O Hymenaj Hymen, Hymen O Hyme- 
naee ! " Hymen was generally represented 
as crowned with flowers, chiefly with mar- 
joram or roses, holding a burning torch in 
one hand, in the other a purple vest. 

Hymettus, a mountain of Attica, with- 
in three miles of Athens, celebrated for its 
honey. Hymettus is neither high nor 
picturesque, but a flat ridge of bare rocks. 
The sides are covered with brown shrubs 
and heath, whose flowers scent the air 
with perfume. The honey of Hymettus 
is still held in repute at Athens, being dis- 
tinguished by a superior flavour. 

Hypanis, the name of several rivers 
among the ancients, of which the principal 
were — I., Bog, a river of European Scythia, 
which, after a south-east course of 400 miles, 
falls into the Borysthenes, and with it into 
the Euxine. — II. Another, rising on 
Mount Caucasus, and falling into the 
Palus Ma^otis. (See Vardanus.) ■ — ■ III. 
Hypanis was also the name of a Trojan 
who joined himself to iEneas, but was 
killed by his own people, who took him 
for one of the enemy, in the night on which 
Troy was burned by the Greeks. 

Hypata, the chief town of the .ZEnianes 
in Thessaly, on the river Sperchius. It 
was called Nese-patrse in the middle ages, 
and its ruins are still visible on the site 
called Castritza. 

Hypatia, one of the most celebrated 
women of antiquity, was born at Alex- 
andria about the end of the fourth cen- 
tury of our era. She was the daughter of 
Theon the mathematician, disciple of 
Procles, and wife of the philosopher Iso- 
dorus y and is as much celebrated for her 
personal charms and for her virtues as for 
the extent and variety of her mental en- 
dowments. After spending some time at 
Athens, she returned to Alexandria, where 
she opened a school of philosophy, and her 
house was the resort of the most distin- 
guished philosophers of the day. She 
was an Eclectic ; but the exact sciences 
formed the basis of all her instructions, 
and she applied their demonstrations to 
the principles of the speculative sciences, 
being the first who introduced a rigorous 
method into the teaching of philosophy. 
She numbered among her disciples many 
celebrated men, and among others Sy- 
nesius, afterwards bishop of Ptolemais, 
who preserved during his whole life the 
most friendly feelings towards her, although 
she constantly refused to become a convert 
to Christianity. Orestes, governor of 
Alexandria, frequently had recourse to 
Hypatia for advice. When Cyril, the 
patriarch of Alexandria, was desirous of 



expelling the Jews, Hypatia counselled 
Orestes to resist his demand ; upon which 
the partisans of the bishop, having at their 
head an ecclesiastic named Peter, seized 
upon Hypatia as she was proceeding to 
her school, forced her to descend from 
her chariot, and dragged her into a neigh- 
bouring church, where they stripped her of 
her vestments, and inhumanly put her to 
death. Her body was then torn to pieces, 
and the palpitating members were dragged 
through the streets and finally consigned 
to the flames, a.d. 415. The works of 
Hypatia were lost in the conflagration of 
the Alexandrian library. 

Hyperborei (Gr. xmep, beyond, and /3o- 
peas, the north wind), the name given by 
the ancients to the unknown inhabitants of 
the most northern regions of the globe, 
who, as their name implied, were sup- 
posed to be placed beyond the influence 
of the north wind, and consequently to 
enjoy a mild and delightful climate. The 
question of the existence and exact situa- 
tion of the Hyperboreans long formed one 
of the most intricate in the whole compass 
of ancient history ; but the general opinion 
now inclines to regard them as synonym- 
ous with the Laplanders, Norwegians, and 
some other nations of northern Europe. 

Hyperea, a fountain of Thessaly, placed 
by some near Argos Pelasgicum, by others, 
near Phera?. 

Hyperesia, the more ancient name of 
JEgira, a city of Achaia. See .ZEgira. 

HYPERinES, an Athenian orator, the 
cotemporary and rival of Demosthenes, 
distinguished himself by the active part 
which he took in the Athenian republic. 
After the Lamiac war, he pronounced the 
funeral oration over those who had fallen, 
a considerable fragment of which still 
exists, e. c. 322, he fled from Athens to 
iEgina, and thence to Hermione, where 
he was put to death by order of Anti- 
pater. 

Hyperion, a son of Ccelus and Terra, 
who married Thea, by whom he had Au- 
rora, the Sun and Moon. In Homer, 
Hyperion is often taken for the Sun itself ; 
and being by birth one of the Titans, Titan 
is sometimes used synonymously with the 
Sun. The meaning of the name is, He who 
moves on high. 

Hypermnestra, one of the fifty daugh- 
ters of Danaus, who disobeyed her father's 
commands when he ordered her and her 
sisters to murder their husbands on the 
night of their nuptials. Her father sum- 
moned her to appear before a tribunal 
for her disobedience, but the people ac- 
quitted her, and Danaus became reconciled 
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294 



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HYS 



to her husband, Lynceus, and left them 
his kingdom. See Danaides. 

Hyphasis, Beyah, a tributary of the In- 
dus. It formed the limit of Alexander's 
conquests; and on its banks he erected 
altars in memory of his expedition. 

Htfsa, Belici, a river of Sicily, falling 
into the Crinisus. 

Hypsicles, an astronomer of Alexan- 
dria, who flourished under Ptolemy Phys- 
con about 146 b. c, and is supposed to 
be the author of the fourteenth and fif- 
teenth Books appended to Euclid's Ele- 
ments, and a treatise upon some astrono- 
mical subjects. 

Hypsicrates, a Phoenician, who wrote 
a History of his country in the Phoenician 
language, which was saved from the flames 
of Carthage, and translated into Greek. 

Hypsipyle, a queen of Lemnos, daugh- 
ter of Thoas. During her reign, Yenus, 
whose altars had been universally slighted, 
rendered the Lemnian women so disagree- 
able to their husbands that they neglected 
them for the company of their female 
slaves. Incensed at this neglect they re- 
solved on revenge, and agreed unanimously 
to put to death their male relations, Hyp- 
sipyle alone excepted, who spared the life 
of her father Thoas. Soon after this cruel 
murder, the Argonauts landed at Lemnos, 
in their expedition to Colchis, and re- 
mained for some time in the island, en- 
joying the society of the Lemnian women. 
When her countrywomen discovered that 
Hypsipyle had saved the life of her father, 
they sold her into slavery. She fell into 
the hands of Lycurgus, king of Nemea, 
who placed his infant son, Opheltes, under 
her care ; and her negligence having led 
to the death of her pupil (see Opheltes), 
Lycurgus sought to avenge himself, but 
she was saved from his resentment by 
Adrastus and the other Argive chieftains. 

Hyrcanxa, a large country of Asia, 
lying at the south-eastern angle of the 
Caspian sea, bounded on the south by a 
range of mountains called Koronus which 
separated it from Parthia, on the north 
by the Ox us, and on the east by the pro- 
vince of Margiana, or, according to others, 
by Nisaea. Previously to the Persian 
conquest, Hyrcania was subject to the 
Chorasmii. It subsequently formed part 
of a Persian satrapy, till it fell under the 
power of Alexander, and ultimately be- 
came an independent monarchy. The 
country was mountainous, but very fertile, 
though uncultivated Its chief towns were 
Telabroce, Samariane, Carta, Tape, and 
Hyrcania, or, according to Arrian, Zadra- 
carta, the capital. 



Hyrcanum mare, the south-eastern part 
of the Caspian Sea, lying along the coasts 
of Hyrcania. See Caspium Mare. 

Hyrcaxus, a name common to several 
high -priests of the Jews. 

Hyria, I., a town built by the Cretans, 
who assumed the name of Iapyges Mes- 
sapii, situated in the interior of the coun- 
try, between Tarentum and Brundisium ; 
Strabo calls it Ouria, the Latins Uria ; 
now Oria. — II. A town of Bceotia in 
the vicinity of Aulis. 

Hyrieus and Hyreus, a peasant, or, as 
some say, a prince of Tanagra, who en- 
tertained Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury, 
when travelling over Bceotia. Childless, 
he asked of the gods to give him a son 
without marrying, as he had promised his 
wife, lately dead, that be never would marry 
again. The gods, to reward the hospitality 
of Hyreus, took the hide of the bull which 
he had sacrificed the day before to their 
divinity, and ordered him to bury it for 
nine months. In nine months, Hyreus 
opened the earth, and found a beautiful 
child in the bull's hide, whom he called 
Orion. (See Orion.) — II. An Arcadian 
monarch, for whom Agamedes and Tro- 
phonius constructed a treasury. 

Htrtacus, a Trojan of Mt. Ida, father 
of Nisus, to whom Priam resigned his 
first wife Arispe, when he received Hecuba 
in exchange. He was hence called Hyr- 
tacides. This patronymic was given also 
to Hippocoon. 

Hysia, I., a town of Bceotia, at the 
foot of Mt. Cithaeron, and east of Plataea. 
It was in ruins in the time of Pausanias ; 
but traces of its existence are to be found 
near the village of Platonia. — II. A small 
town of Argolis, not far from the village 
of Cenehreae, and on the road from Argos 
to Tegea in Arcadia. It was destroyed 
by the Lacedaemonians in the Pelopon- 
nesian war. 

Hystaspes, a noble Persian of the fa- 
mily of the Achaemenides ; son of Ar- 
sames. His son Darius reigned in Persia 
after the murder of the usurper Smerdis. 
It is said, by Ctesias, that he was desirous 
to see the royal monument, which his son 

, had built between two mountains, but the 
priests, who carried him, slipped the cord 

! with which he was suspended, in ascend- 

I ing the mountain, and he died of the fall. 

j Hystaspes first introduced the mys- 

] teries of the Indian Brachmans into Per- 
sia, and to his researches in India the 
sciences were indebted. Darius is called 

; Hystaspes, or son of Hystaspes, to dis- 
tinguish him from his royal successors of 

; the same name. 



IAC 



IAS 



295 



I. 

Iacchus, a surname of Bacchus, or 
Dionysus, indicative of his being the son 
of Ceres, and not, according to the com- 
mon legend, of Semele. It is said to be 
of Phoenician origin, and signifies " an 
infant at the breast," a great many ancient 
monuments representing Ceres with an in- 
fant Bacchus in this position. 

Ialysus, a town of the island of Rhodes 
eighty stadia from the city of Rhodes. It 
was built by Ialysus, of whom Protogenes 
was making a beautiful painting, when 
Demetrius Poliorcetes took Rhodes, but 
its vicinity to the capital proved so in- 
jurious to its growth, that it became re- 
duced in Strabo's time to a village. 

Iambe, a servant-maid of Metanira, 
wife of Celeus, king of Eleusis, who suc- 
ceeded by her jokes in exhilarating Ceres, 
when she travelled over Attica in quest 
of Proserpine. She is said to have given 
her name to the Iambic measure, of which 
Archilochus is generally regarded as the 
inventor. 

Iamblichus, I., an ancient philosopher, 
a native of Syria, and educated at Babylon. 
On Trajan's conquest of Assyria, he was 
reduced to slavery, but he recovered his 
liberty under Antoninus. His Romance 
in the Greek language, on the Loves of 
Simonides and Rhodane, in 16 Books, is 
said to have been destroyed by fire in 
1671, in the Escurial. — II. A celebrated 
Neo-Platonist of the fourth century of our 
era, born at Chalcis in Syria. He was a 
disciple of Porphyry, and versed in the 
mysteries of the Plotinian system, which he 
taught with success. He commanded the 
reverence of his followers by high preten- 
sions to theological powers, which he pro- 
fessed to receive by intercourse with in- 
visible beings, and wrote various works, 
among others, a Life of Pythagoras, in- 
terspersed with fabulous accounts of the 
actions of that philosopher, which some 
think was intended to be opposed to the 
miracles of our Saviour. He was a great 
favourite with Julian, who ranked him 
equal to Plato. His style is inelegant ; 
and he borrows largely from others, espe- 
cially Porphyry. 

Iamid^;, certain prophets among the 
Greeks, descended from Iamus, a son of 
Apollo, who received the gift of prophecy 
from his father, and transmitted it to his 
posterity. 

Ianthe, a girl of Crete, who married 
Iphis. 



Iapetus, a son of Ccelus and Terra, 
and one of the Titans. He married Asia, 
or, according to others, Clymene, by whom 
he had Atlas, Epimetheus, Mencetius, and 
Prometheus, and was looked on by the 
Greeks as the father of all mankind. 
His sons received the patronymic Iapetio- 
nides. 

Iapydes, a people of Dalmatia, who 
dwelt contiguous to Istria, under the 
range of Mount Albius, and whose coun- 
try answers to a province of Croatia called 
Morlakia. They were a warlike people, 
and only fell under the Roman sway in 
the time of Augustus. Their chief town 
was Metulum. 

Iapygia, called also Messapia, a division 
of Italy, forming what is called the heel 
of the boot, and containing two nations, 
the Calabri on the north-east, and the 
Salentini on the south-west side. The in- 
habitants were universally believed to be 
the aborigines of the country; but the 
name of the country is said to be derived 
from Iapyx, a son of Dasdalus. 

Iapygium, or Salentinum Promonto- 
rium, now Capo di Leuca, at the southern 
extremity of Iapygia. 

Iapyx, L, son of Dasdalus, who con- 
quered a part of Italy, which he called 
Iapygia. — II. A wind, which blows from 
Apulia, favourable to such as sailed from 
Italy towards Greece. It is identical with 
the > Ap7ea'T7?s of the Greeks. 

Iarbas, a son of Jupiter and Garamantis, 
king of Gaetulia, whose name has been 
transmitted in connection with the story 
of Dido. See Dido. 

I a sides, a patronymic given to Palinu- 
rus, as descended from a person named 
Iasus. 

Iasion, and Iasus, a son of Jupiter and 
Electra, one of the Atlantides, or, accord- 
ing to others, of Kratos {strength), and Phro- 
nia {prudence), who reigned over Arcadia, 
where he applied himself to agriculture. 
Ceres is said to have borne him a son 
named Plutus, the god of wealth ; but the 
offended Jupiter struck the mortal lover 
with his thunder. This legend is one of 
the simplest, setting forth the truth that 
the union of strength and wisdom invariably 
leads to wealth. 

- Iasis, a name given to Atalanta, daugh- 
ter of Iasus. 

Iassus, a rich and flourishing city of 
Asia Minor, on a small island near Caria, 
and giving to the adjacent bay the name 
of Sinus lassius. The inhabitants were 
chiefly occupied with fisheries. Many 
vestiges of the ancient city still remain at 
Assem. 
1 o 4 



29S 



IAX 



ICE 



Iaxartes, Syr-Daria, a large river of 
Asia, rising in the chain of Mons Imaus, 
flowing into the Sea of Aral, after a course 
of 900 miles. Herodotus called the Iax- 
artes by the name of Araxes, and con- 
founded it with the Oxus. The Greeks 
too confounded it with the Tanais in the 
time of Alexander, partly out of flattery 
to that monarch. 

Iazyges, a people of Scythia. Of these 
there were the Iazyges Maeotae, who oc- 
cupied the northern coast of the Palus 
Mceotis ; Iazyges Metanastae, called by 
Pliny Sarmates, who inhabited the angular 
territory formed by the Tibiscus, the Da- 
nube, and Dacia ; and the Iazyges Basilii, 
a people of Sarmatia, between the Tyras 
and Borysthenes. Their territory now 
forms part of Hungary, and of the Bannat 
of Timeswar. 

Ieeri, a powerful nation of Spain, along 
the Iberus, who, mingling with the Celtic 
tribes, took the name of Celtiberi ; thought 
to have come from Iberia in Asia. 

Iberia, I., a country of Asia, answering 
to Imeriti and Georgia, bounded on the 
west by Colchis, north by Mt. Caucasus, 
east by Albania, and south by Armenia. 
According to some, who derive the name 
from the Kur, the country ought rather to 
be called Korgia or Kurgia. Pompey in- 
vaded it, made great slaughter of the 
inhabitants, and obliged them to surrender 
by setting fire to the woods, to which they 
had fled for safety. — II. An ancient name 
of Spain, derived from the Iberus. See 

HlSPANIA. 

Iberus, I., one of the largest rivers in 
Spain, rising among the Cantabri, and 
flowing into the Mediterranean. It is now 
the Ebro, and is in general very rapid and 
unfit for navigation, full of rocks and 
shoals. This river was made the boundary 
between the Carthaginian and Roman 
possessions in this country after the close 
of the first Punic war. — II. A river of 
Iberia in Asia, flowing from Mt. Cau- 
casus into the Cyrus, probably the modern 
Iora. 

Ibis, a lost poem of Callimachus, in 
which he bitterly satirises the ingratitude 
of his pupil, the poet Apollonius. Ovid 
has also written a satirical poem under 
the same title, which is alleged to be di- 
rected against Hyginus, a false friend of 
the poet. 

Ibycus, a lyric poet of Rhegium, who 
flourished about b. c. 528. He resided 
some time in Samos, at the court of Poly- 
crates ; but little is known of his personal 
history except his death, which is related 
as follows : — he was assailed in a retired 



spot by robbers ; and at the moment of 
his death, observing some cranes flying over 
head, he implored them to avenge his fate. 
Some time after, as the murderers were 
in the market-place, one of them observed 
some cranes in the air, and remarked to 
his companions, " Here are the Avengers of 
Ibycus." These words, coupled with the 
recent murder of Ibycus, raised suspicions: 
the assassins were seized, and confessed 
their guilt. 

Icaria, Nicaria, a small island in the 
iEgean Sea near Samos. 

Icarium Mare, a part of the iEgean 
Sea near the islands of Myconos and Gya- 
ros. The ancient mythologists deduce 
the name from Icarus, who fell into it, 
and was drowned; but others derive it 
from a Phoenician term, signifying " the 
sea of fish" in which it abounded. See 
Icarus. 

Icarius, L, an Athenian, father of Eri- 
gone. Having been taught by Bacchus 
the culture of the vine, he gave some wine 
to certain peasants, who, ignorant of its 
nature, drank it with avidity, but think- 
ing themselves poisoned, killed the do- 
nor. When they came to their senses, they 
buried him ; and his daughter, Erigone, 
being guided to the spot by her father's 
faithful dog Ma?ra, hung herself in de- 
spair. Icarius was fabled to have been 
changed after death into the Constellation 
Bootes, Erigone into Virgo, while Maera 
became the dog Canis. — II. A son of 
(Ebalus of Lacedaemon, brother of Tyn- 
darus, and father of Penelope, wife of 
Ulysses by Peribasa. Being greatly at- 
tached to his daughter, he wished her 
husband to settle at Lacedaemon ; but the 
latter refused, and the decision was left to 
Penelope, who only blushed, and covered 
her face with a veil, upon which Icarius 
raised a temple to Modesty on the spot. 

Icarus, a son of Daedalus, who, with 
his father, fled with wings from Crete to 
escape the resentment of Minos. His 
flight being too high, proved fatal to him ; 
for the sun melted the wax which ce- 
mented his wings ; and he fell into that 
part of the iEgean Sea, which was called 
after his name. See Daedalus. 

Iccius, a lieutenant of Agrippa in 
Sicily. Horace ridicules him for aban- 
doning philosophy and the Muses for 
military employments. 

Icelos (Gr. dtceXos, like), one of the 
sons of Somnus, who changed himself into 
all sorts of animals, whence the name. 

Iceni, called also Simeni and Cenimagni, 
a people of Britain, north of the Trinoban- 
tes, inhabiting what answers now to Suffolk, 



ICH 



IDO 



297 



Norfolk, Cambridge, and Huntingdon. They 
at first submitted to the Roman power, but 
afterwards revolting in the reign of Clau- 
dius, were defeated by Ostorius Scapula, the 
second Roman governor of Britain, a. d. 
50, and reduced to subjection. They 
again revolted under Boadicea, but were 
totally defeated by Suetonius Paulinus, 
a. d. 61, and entirely subjugated. Their 
capital was Venta Icenorum, now Caister, 
near Norwich. 

Ichxm, I., a town of Macedonia, placed 
by Herodotus in the district of Botiasa, and 
situated probably at the mouth of the 
Lydias. — II. A city of Thessaly, in the 
district of Phthiotis, famous for the worship 
of Themis. 

Ichxusa, an ancient name of Sardinia, 
which it received from its likeness to a 
human foot (?x vos > a trace). 

Ichthyophagi, a name given by the 
Greek geographers to several tribes of 
barbarians in different parts of the world, 
indicating a people " living upon fish." 

Ichthyophagortjm Sinus, a bay on the 
north-eastern coast of Arabia Felix. 

Icilius, L., L, a tribune of the people, 
who made a law by which Mount Aven- 
tine was given to the Roman people to 
build houses on, a. u. c. 397. — II. A 
tribune, who made a law, a. u. c. 261, that 
forbade any man to interrupt a tribune 
while speaking in an assembly — III. A 
tribune, who signalised himself by his in- 
veterate enmity against the Roman senate, 
and took an active part in the manage- 
ment of affairs after the murder of Vir- 
ginia, as whose lover he is generally re- 
presented. See Virginia. 
Icius. See Itius Portus. 
Iconjum, an ancient city of Asia Minor, 
and the capital of Lycaonia, said to have 
been named from a small image (eiKoviov) 
of Medusa, erected here by Perseus. It 
was a well-built town, situated in a fine 
country on the great post road between 
Sardis and Susa, and is celebrated in 
sacred history as a scene of Paul's perse- 
cution by the unbelieving inhabitants. 
Frequent mention is made of this city 
under the Byzantine emperors. The an- 
cient name is now slightly corrupted into 
Konieh, a large city, and the capital of 
Caramania. 

Iculisma, AngouJeme, a town of Gaul, 
on the Charente. 

Ida, I., the general name given to the 
mountain range which sweeps round the 
plain of Troy. The highest peak, which 
by Homer is called Gargarus, rises to 
an elevation of more than five thou- 
sand feet. It was the source of many 



streams, and was famous for being the 
scene where Paris adjudged to Venus the 
prize of beauty. — II. The highest and 
most celebrated mountain of Crete, rising 
nearly in the centre of the island, and 
celebrated for being the birth-place of Ju- 
piter, who was brought up here by the 
Corybantes. 

Id^ea, the surname of Cybele, because 
she was worshipped on Mount Ida. 

Id^i Dactyli, priests of Cybele in 
Phrygia ; so called, according to Sophocles, 
because they Avere five in number, thus 
corresponding with the number of the 
ringers (MktvXoi), from which the name is 
derived. Their functions appear to have 
been similar to those of the Corybantes 
and Curetes, other priests of the same god- 
dess hi Phrygia and Crete. 

Id^us, 1., a surname of Jupiter, from 
his being born on Mt. Ida, in Crete. — II. 
An arms-bearer and charioteer of king 
Priam, killed during the Trojan war. — 
III. One of the attendants of Ascanius. 

Idalium, a height and grove of Cyprus 
near the promontory of Pedalium. It 
was the favourite abode of Venus, hence 
called Idalia; and the scene of the death 
of Adonis. The hill was called Idalium 
by Virgil, and the groves Idalia, the latter 
being properly the name of the whole 
region. 

Idas, a son of Aphareus, by Arene, and 
brother of Lynceus. He took part in the 
Argonautic expedition, and married Mar- 
pessa, daughter of Evenus, king of JEtolia, 
who was carried away by Apollo, but af- 
terwards restored. (See Marpessa. ) For 
the story of the fate of Idas, see Castor and 
Pollux. 

Idistavisus, a plain of Germany where 
Germanicus defeated Arminius, supposed 
by Mannert to have lain to the east of the 
Weser, and south of Minden. 

Idmon, I., son of Apollo and Asteria, 
and the prophet of the Argonauts. He 
was killed in hunting a wild boar in Bi- 
thynia, and received a splendid funeral. — 
II. A dyer of Colophon, father of Arachne. 

Idojieneus, succeeded his father Deu- 
calion on the throne of Crete, and accom- 
panied the Greeks to the Trojan war with 
a fleet of ninety ships. During this war, 
he rendered himself famous by hio valour. 
On his way home he made a vow to 
Neptune, in a dangerous tempest, that if 
he escaped he would offer to the god what- 
ever living creature first presented itself to 
his eye on the Cretan shore. This was no 
other than his son, who came to congratu- 
late him on his safe return ; but Idomeneus 
performed his promise, and the inhumanity 
o 5 



298 



IDO 



ILI 



of his sacrifice rendered him so odious to 
his subjects, that he left Crete in quest of 
a settlement, came to Italy, and founded 
a city on the coast of Calabria, which 
he called Salentia. (See Salentini.) He 
died in extreme old age, after witnessing 
the prosperity of his new kingdom. 

Idothea, a daughter of Prcetus, king 
of Argos, restored to her senses, with her 
sisters, by Melampus. See Prcetides. 

Idubeda, a range of mountains in Spain, 
commencing among the Cantabri, and ex- 
tending nearly in a south-eastern direction 
until it terminates on the Mediterranean 
coast, near Saguntum, which lay at its 
foot. The most remarkable parts of this 
range are the two Sierras of Occa and Mo- 
lina, and Mons Crunus, Moncuyo. 

TdumjEA, usually called Edoin in the 
Old Testament, was used to designate the 
mountainous district in the north of 
Arabia, extending from the south of the 
Dead Sea to the bay of iElana in the Red 
Sea ; but in the time of our Saviour it 
included a considerable portion of the 
southern part of Palestine, and extended 
on the south-west as far as the Lake 
Serbonis. The original inhabitants were 
descendants of Esau, and their history is 
clearly traced in the writings of the Old 
Testament. Under the Roman emperors, 
the whole of Judaea was frequently called 
Idumaea. The country was famous for its 
palm-trees. 

Ierne, Juverna, Ivernia, or Hibernia, 
the ancient names of Ireland. The early his- 
tory of Ireland is largely tinctured with 
fable ; and as it was not visited by the 
Romans, the statements of Strabo, and other 
writers of antiquity, respecting the country 
and its inhabitants, being founded on ru- 
mour, are not entitled to much weight. 

Igilgilis, Jijel, a town of Mauritania 
Canadensis, north of Cirta. 

Igilium, Giglio, an island of Italy, near 
the coast of Etruria, off the promontory 
of Argentarius. 

Ignatius, one of the apostolical fathers, 
bishop of Antioch in Syria, from a. d. 67 
to a. d. 107. He was torn to pieces in 
the amphitheatre at Rome by lions, dur- 
ing a persecution, a. d. 107, in the reign of 
Trajan. Four of his epistles have reached 
our times. 

Iguvium, Gubbio, a town of Umbria, on 
the Via Flaminia, south of Tifernum, and 
at the foot of the main chain of the Apen- 
nines. It was a municipal town, and of 
some consequence, in the time of Caesar. 
Several bronze tablets, covered with in- 
scriptions in the Umbrian and Latin cha- 
racters, were discovered here ^1^,1440, 



which have been the subject of numerous 
learned dissertations in modern times. 

I lb a or Ilva, Elba, an island of the 
Tyrrhene Sea, two miles from the Conti- 
nent. The Greeks called it iEthalia. It 
was famous in antiquity for its rich iron 
mines ; and in modern times for being the 
first place of banishment assigned to Na- 
poleon. 

Ilercaones and Ilercaonenses, apeople 
of Spain, on both sides of the Iberus, near 
its mouth. Dertosa ( Tortosa) and Tarraco 
( Tarragona) were two of their towns. 

Ii.erda, the capital city of the Ilergetes, 
in Spain, on the Sicoris, Segre, a tributary 
of the Iberus. In the plain immediately 
below it, Scipio gained a signal victory 
over the Carthaginian Hanno, b. c. 216 ; 
and 150 years later, it was celebrated for 
the resistance it made to Caesar under the 
lieutenancy of Pompey, Afranius, and Pe- 
treius, who were, however, finally defeated. 
It is now Lerida in Catalonia. 

Ilergetes. See Ilerda. 

Ilia or Rhea, a daughter of Numitor, 
king of Alba, consecrated by her uncle 
Amulius to the service of Vesta, that she 
might not become a mother to dispossess 
him of his crown. Violence, however, having 
been offered to Ilia, she brought forth Ro- 
mulus and Remus, who drove the usurper 
from his throne, and restored the crown to 
their grandfather Numitor. Ilia was buried 
alive by Amulius for violating the laws of 
Vesta. Because her tomb was near the 
Tiber, some suppose that she married the 
god of that river. 

Iliades, I., a surname given to Romu- 
lus, as son of Ilia. — II. A name given to 
the Trojan women. 

Ilias, the oldest epic poem in exist- 
ence ; commonly attributed to Homer, but 
according to some modern hypotheses the 
work of several hands. The theme of the 
poem is the siege of Ilium (whence its 
name) or Troy ; or, more properly speak- 
ing, the quarrel of Achilles with Aga- 
memnon, general of the Grecian army 
before that city. It consists of twenty- 
four books. The first book relates the 
origin of the quarrel ; and the residue of 
the poem contains an account of the ef- 
forts made by Agamemnon and the chiefs 
who adhered to his party to conquer the 
Trojans without the aid of Achilles, their 
defeat, the pacification of Achilles, his re- 
sumption of arms in the common cause, 
and the death of Hector by his hand. 
Neither the landing of the chieftains, nor 
the conclusion of the war and capture of 
Troy, come within its range. 

Ilienses, a people of Sardinia, said to 



ILI 



IMA 



299 



have been descended from some Trojans 
who settled there after the destruction of 
Troy. They were driven into the moun- 
tains by Libyan colonies. 

Ilione, the eldest daughter of Priam, 
and wife of Polymnestor, king of Thrace. 

Ilissus, a small stream of Attica, rising 
north-east of Athens, and, after a course of 
a few miles, losing itself in the marshes. 
In the time of Plato it appears to have 
been a perennial stream, but it is now 
almost always dry. 

Ilithyia, a Grecian goddess, who pre- 
sided over childbirth, equivalent to the 
Juno Lucina of the Romans. In the Iliad 
Homer mentions the name in the plural, 
and calls them the daughters of Juno ; 
but in the Odyssey, in Hesiod, and Pin- 
dar, the number is reduced to one. The 
term signifies literally, " light-wanderer" 
a probable epithet of the Moon ; and as 
a woman's time was reckoned by moons, 
Ilithyia, as a moon goddess, was naturally 
said to preside over childbirth. 

Ilium or Ilion, L, the true appellation 
of the city of Troy, Troja, the name ap- 
plied to it by the Roman writers being, 
strictly speaking, the name of the district. 
(See Troja.) — II. Novum, a city of the 
Troad whose site must not be confounded 
with that of the more ancient cognominal 
city. It was originally a small village, 
enlarged by the Macedonians from the time 
of Alexander, and subsequently by the 
Romans. After the battle of Pharsalia it 
was visited by Julius Csesar, who conferred 
upon the inhabitants numerous privileges, 
and in token of his descent instituted those 
games to which Virgil has alluded in the 
iEneid, and which the Romans called 
Ludi Trojani. The site is now called 
Eski Kalafatli. 

Illiberis, Elne, a town of Gaul, through 
which Hannibal passed as he marched into 
Italy. It was rebuilt by Constantine, who 
called it Helenensis Civitas in honour of 
his mother Helena, and is famous for being 
the scene of that emperor's death. 

Illice, Elche, a city of the Contestani 
in Spain, north-east of Carthago Nova. 
The Sinus Illicitanus, Bay of Alicant, 
extended from Carthago Nova to the Dia- 
nium Promontorium. 

Illipula, two towns of Spain, one of 
which is called Major, the other Minor. 

Illiturgis, Iliturgis, or Iliturgi, called 
Andujar, in Roman times Forum Iulium, 
a city of Spain, not far from Castulo and 
Mentesa> near the Ba?tis, situated on a 
steep and rugged rock. Appian calls it 
Ilurgia, and it is the same with the Ilurgis 
of Ptolemy, and the Uurgea of Stephanus 



of Byzantium. It was destroyed by Scipio, 
b. c. 210, but was soon afterwards re- 
peopled. 

Illyricum, Illyris, and Illyria, con- 
sisted chiefly of a stripe of sea-coast be- 
tween the Hadriatic on one side, and on 
the other a chain of mountains called, in 
different parts, Albii, Bcebii, and Scardus 
or Scodrus, which run parallel with that 
sea, and are connected with the Alps to 
the west, and with Mount Hsemus to the 
east. Illyricum was separated from Italy 
by the Arsia, and its south-eastern limit 
is generally reckoned the Drilo, Drin, 
though the country between that river and 
the confines of Epirus was also inhabited 
by Illyrian tribes. Illyricum was divided 
into two provinces — Liburnia, between the 
Arsia and the Titius, Kerca; and Dalmatia, 
between the Titius and Drilo. (See Li- 
burnia ; Dalmatia.) The country be- 
tween the Drilo and the Acroceraunian 
promontory was peopled by various Il- 
lyrian tribes, and watered by a number 
of rivers, the chief of which were the 
Apsus, Cavroni, on which was Eordea, 
now Berat ; and the Aous, Vojutza, on 
which Stena Pelagoniae, the Pass of Klis- 
surct; the modern town of Tepeleni ; ana 
Apollonia, Polina. Along the coast of 
this tract were the towns, Epidamnus, af- 
terwards Dyracchium, now Durazzo, Ori- 
cum, and Aulon, Avlona. The most re- 
markable of the numerous islands along 
this coast are, Scardona, now Isola Grossa; 
Issa, Lissa, opposite to Zara; Corcyra 
Nigra, Curzola ; and Melita, Meleda. Il- 
lyricum became a Roman province after 
Gentius its king had been conquered by 
the praetor Anicius ; and its frontiers sub- 
sequently received such an extension as to 
comprise the districts of Noricum, Pan- 
nonia, and Mcesia. It now forms part of 
Croatia, Bosnia, and Sclavonia. 

Ilus, the fourth king of Troy, son of 
Tros by Callirrhoe, daughter of the Sca- 
mander. He married Eurydice, daughter 
of Adrastus, by whom he had Themis, 
and Laomedon, father of Priam. He 
embellished Troy, so called from his father 
Tros, and gave it the name of Ilium. Ju- 
piter gave him the Palladium, a celebrated 
statue of Minerva, and promised that as 
long as it remained in Troy the town 
would be impregnable. When the tem- 
ple of Minerva was in flames, Ilus rush- 
ed into the middle of the fire to save 
the Palladium ; for which action he was 
deprived of his sight by the goddess, 
though he recovered it some time after. 

Ilva. See Ilba. 

Imaus, a large chain of mountains, 
o 6 



300 



1MB 



IND 



which divides Scythia into Scythia intra j 
Imaum and Scythia extra Imaum ; being, 
in fact, merely a continuation of the great 
Tauric range. 

Imbracides, a patronymic of Asius, as 
son of Imbracus. 

Imbrasides, a patronymic given to 
Glaucus and Lades, as sons of Irnbra- 
sus. 

Imbrasus, or Parthenius, I., a river of 
Samos. Juno, worshipped on the banks, 
received the surname of Imbrasia. — II. 
The father of Pirus, leader of the Thra- 
cians during the Trojan war. 

Imbros, Imbro, an island of the iEgean 
sea, with a small river and town of the 
same name, twenty-two miles east of 
Lemnos. It was famous for the worship 
of the Cabiri. The Athenians derived 
from Imbros excellent darters and tar- 
geteers. 

Inachid^:, the name of. the first eight 
successors of Inachus on the throne of 
Argos. 

Inachides, a patronymic, I., of Epa- 
phus, as grandson of Inachus, and, II., of 
Perseus, descended from Inachus. 

Inachis, a patronymic of Io, as daughter 
of Inachus. 

Inachus, I., a son of Oceanus and 
Tethys, and father of Io. He was said 
to have founded the kingdom of Argos, 
and to have been succeeded by his son 
Phoroneus, b. c. 1807. He gave his name 
to a river of which he became the tutelar 
deity. Inachus and Phor&neus were 
the persons to whom the Argives consi- 
dered themselves indebted for a know- 
ledge of the useful arts, and the establish- 
ment of social order. — II. A river of 
Argolis, flowing at the foot of the Acro- 
polis of Argos and falling into the Bay 
of Nauplia. It derived its name from 
Inachus, first king of Argos, who became 
after death its tutelar deity. — III. A river 
of the Amphilochian district in Acarnania, 
which rises in Mt. Pindus, and after unit- 
ing its waters with those of the Achelous, 
was said to pass under the sea, and finally 
to emerge at Argos in the Peloponnesus. 

Inarime. See .ZEnaria. 

Inarus, a son of Psammetichus, king of 
that part of Libya which borders upon 
Egypt. By the aid of the Athenians, 
who happened to be engaged in an expedi- 
tion against Cyprus, he wrested from Arta- 
xerxes, the Persian monarch, a great part 
of Egypt ; but was eventually overcome, 
captured, and crucified, b. c. 456. 

Incitatus, a horse which Caligula made 
high-priest. 

India, an extensive country of Asia. 



j formerly divided into India intra Gangem 
and extra Gangem. The first division 
answers to Hindostan ; the latter to the 
Birman empire, Pegu, Siam, Laos, Cam- 
bodia, Cochin China, Tonquin, and Malacca. 
India took its name from the Indus, which 
formed its western boundary. The name 
of India has always been celebrated in the 
"Western world, not only as a region 
abounding in rich products, but as an 
early seat and fountain of civilisation and 
philosophy. Whatever literary talent or 
application, however, the Hindoos might 
possess, none of it was turned to history ; 
of which only some faint traces appear, 
amid the most extravagant fables. The 
first authentic notice is afforded by the 
invasion of Alexander ; but that event, so 
celebrated in Greek history, was a mere 
partial inroad, producing no lasting effects. 
Yet the narratives of this expedition are 
precious, in so far as they show that the 
Hindoos were then precisely the same 
people as now ; divided into castes, ad- 
dicted to ascetic superstition, religious 
suicide, and abstruse philosophy. It does 
not appear that India was then the seat of 
any extensive empire ; but it was divided 
among a number of smaller states. The 
expedition of Seleucus and the embassy of 
Megasthenes brought to light the existence 
of a great empire, of which the capital was 
Palibothra on the Ganges ; but the his- 
tories neither of the East nor of the West 
convey any details of the dynasty which 
reigned in that mighty metropolis. The 
interposition of the hostile monarchy of 
the Parthians cut off all communication 
between Rome and India, though one 
embassy from the latter country is said to 
have reached the court of Augustus. The 
Mahometan conquest by the Gaznevide 
dynasty formed the era at which a regular 
series of authentic history commences for 
India. The bold and rough population 
who inhabit the mountains of Afghanistan 
enabled Mahmoud the Great to unite all 
the west of India, with Khorassan and 
great part of Tartary, into one empire. 
His dynasty, indeed, was subverted by that 
of Ghori, which was followed by the long 
series of the Patan emperors. In 1398 
they were vanquished by Timour ; but it 
was more than a century afterwards that 
Baber founded the Mogul empire, which, 
extended under Akbar and Aurengzebe, 
displayed a power and splendour scarcely 
equalled by any monarchy even of Asia. 

Indigetes, the title of a class of Latin 
divinities, concerning whose exact import 
there is some dispute ; but it is probably 
most correctly referred to deified heroes, 



IND 

who became tutelary deities after death, 
as Hercules, Romulus, &c. The word is 
of very doubtful etymology. 

Indigeti, a people of Spain. 

Indus, a celebrated river of India, fall- 
ing, after a course of 1800 miles, into the 
Indian Ocean. The sources have not yet 
been fully explored ; but general consent 
places them on the northern declivity of 
the Ceilas branch of the Himmalayah 
mountains. 

Inferum Mare. See Tyrrhenum 
Mare. 

Ino, a daughter of Cadmus and Har- 
monia, nursed of Bacchus, and second 
wife of Athamas, king of Thebes. See 
Athamas. 

Inoa, festivals celebrated in several parts 
of Greece in honour of Ino, but chiefly at 
Megara, Epidaurus, Limera, in Laconia, 
and on the Corinthian Isthmus, where 
they consisted of contests and sacrifices, 
and were said to have been instituted by 
Sisyphus. 

Inopus, a river of Delos, watering the 
plain in which stood the town of Delos. 

Inous, a patronymic of the god Pala> 
mon, as son of Ino. 

Insubres, the most numerous and pow- 
erful tribe of the Cisalpine Gauls, whose 
territory, although not properly defined, 
seems to have been marked out by the 
Ticinus and Addua. They were supposed 
to be of Gallic origin. They took an 
active part in the Gallic wars against the 
Romans, and zealously co-operated with 
Hannibal in his invasion of Italy. Their 
capital was Mediolanum, Milan, which 
they founded on their arrival in Italy. 

Insula Sacra, an island formed at the 
mouth of the Tiber, by the separation of 
the two branches of that river. 

Intaphernes, one of the seven Persian 
noblemen who conspired against Smerdis, 
who usurped the crown of Persia. He 
was so disappointed at not obtaining the 
crown, that he fomented seditions against 
Darius, who had been raised to the throne 
after the death of the usurper, and was put 
to death. 

Intemelium Albium, a maritime city 
of Liguria, and the capital of the Intemelii, 
now Vintimiglia. It was situated a little 
south-west of Albium Ingaunum, Albenga, 
capital of the Ingauni. 

Interamna, L, Terni, an ancient city of 
Umbria, so called from its being situated 
between two branches of the Nar (inter 
amnes). It was founded in the reign of 
Numa, and in the course of time became 
one of the most distinguished municipal 
cities in Italy. It was said to be the 



I0B SOI 

birth-place of Tacitus the historian, and of 
the emperor of the same name. — II. A 
city of Picenum, in the territory of the Pra?- 
tutii, now Teramo. — III. A city of new 
Latium, on the Liris, usually called Inter- 
amna ad Lirim, to distinguish it from the 
other cities of the same name. It was co- 
lonised a. u. c. 440 ; but subsequently took 
part with Hannibal against the Romans. 
Ponte Como and Terame Castrume have 
both been said to occupy its ancient site. 

Interrex, a person appointed to dis- 
charge the royal functions during a va- 
cancy of the throne. The Romans first 
elected an interrex after the death of Ro- 
mulus, and the custom was continued 
while the monarchy lasted. The manner 
of their election was this : the senate 
chose ten individuals out of its body, each 
of whom discharged the functions of 
royalty for five days in an order appointed 
by lot. It has been supposed that these 
ten senators were not elected, but they 
were the respective seniors of the ten 
decuries into which the original body of 
patricians was divided, and that this office 
devolved on them by virtue of their rank. 
An interrex was also appointed sometimes 
under the republic to preside over elec- 
tions of magistrates, &c, when the consuls 
were absent, or their election declared 
void, and no dictator had been created. 

Inui Castrum. See Castrum Inui. 

Io, daughter of Inachus, or, according 
to others, of Jasus or Pirene, priestess of 
Juno at Argos. Jupiter became ena- 
moured of her ; and, to elude the sus- 
picions of Juno, changed her into a beau- 
tiful heifer. But the goddess, who well 
knew the fraud, obtained from her husband 
the animal, whose beauty she had conde- 
scended to commend. Juno commanded 
the hundred- eyed Argus to watch the 
heifer ; but Jupiter sent Mercury to de- 
stroy Argus, and restore her to liberty. 
(See Argus.) Io, freed from the vigilance 
of Argus, was now persecuted by Juno, 
who sent one of the Furies, or rather a 
malicious insect, to torment her. She 
wandered over the earth, and crossed over 
the sea, till at last she stopped on the 
banks of the Nile, where she resumed her 
former shape, and gave birth to Epaphus. 
She afterwards married Telegonus, king of 
Egypt, or Osiris according to others. 
After death she received divine honours, 
and was worshipped under the name of 
Isis. She is sometimes called Phoronis, 
from her brother Phoroneus. 

Iobates and Jobates, a king of Lycia, 
father of Stenobaea, wife of Prcetus, king 
of Argos. See Bellerophon. 



302 



IOL 



IOP 



Iolas, a friend of iEneas, killed by 
Catillus in the Rutulian wars. 

Iolaus, a son of Iphiclus, king of Thes- 
saly, who assisted Hercules in overcoming 
the Hydra. (See Hydra.) He was re- 
stored to youth and vigour by Hebe, at 
the request of Hercules ; and afterwards 
assisted the Heraclidae against Eurystheus, 
whom he killed with his own hand. He 
was buried in Sardinia. 

Iolchos, a town of Thessaly in the dis- 
trict of Magnesia, at the head of the Sinus 
Pelasgicus, celebrated as the birth-place of 
Jason. It was founded by Cretheus, son 
of iEolus and Enaretta, and subsequently 
attained to great importance ; but its ruin 
was ultimately completed by the founda- 
tion of Demetrias in its immediate vicinity. 
Iolchos was the place whence the Argo 
started on its expedition. 

Iole, a daughter of Eurytus, king of 
(Echalia. Her father promised her in 
marriage to Hercules, but refused to per- 
form his engagements, and Iole was car- 
ried away by force. To extinguish the 
love of Hercules for Iole, Dejanira sent 
him the poisoned tunic, which caused his 
death. After the death of Hercules, Iole 
married his son Hyllus, by Dejanira. 

Ion, I., the son of Xuthus, and reputed 
progenitor of the Ionic race. ( See Iones. ) 
— II. Surnamed Xuthus, a Tragic poet 
of Chios, greatly commended by Aristo- 
phanes and Athenseus. He began to ex- 
hibit about b. c. 451, was a friend of So- 
crates, and died about b. c. 419. Only 
the names of eleven of his dramas have been 
ascertained. He must not be confounded 
with Ion of Ephesus, the rhapsodist. 

Iones, one of the four main original 
races of Greece. Their origin is involved in 
great obscurity. They are frequently said 
to have owed their name to Ion, son of 
Xuthus ; but an impenetrable veil, which 
no learning or researches have hitherto 
been able to pierce, rests upon their origin. 
But whatever may be the historical origin 
of the Ionians, not many years after the 
Trojan war they were settled in Attica, 
in the northern part of the Peloponnesus, 
and along the coast of the Corinthian Gulf; 
and they soon came to be identified with 
the Athenians. See Ionia II. 

Ionia, I., a district of Asia Minor, in 
which Ionians from Attica settled about 
b. c. 1050. It extended from the river 
Hermus along the shore of the iEgean Sea 
to Miletus, but its southern limits varied 
at different times. Ionia was divided into 
twelve small states, united by a confederacy, 
Priene, Miletus, Colophon, Clazomenaa, 
Ephesus, Lebedos, Teos, Phocaea, Erythra?, 



Smyrna, and the capitals of Samos and 
Chios. The inhabitants of Ionia built a 
temple called Pan- Ionium, from the con- 
course of people which flocked thither from 
every part of Ionia. They remained in- 
dependent of a foreign yoke, till the time 
of Croesus, who subdued their country and 
incorporated it with his Lydian kingdom. 
From the Lydian they passed to the 
Persian sway, thence to the Macedonian, 
and were finally reduced by the Romans 
under the dictator Sylla. In refinement 
and the cultivation of the arts they were 
equal, if not superior, to their European 
brethren; and they can boast of the all 
but unrivalled excellence of their poets, his- 
torians, philosophers, sculptors, architects, 
and musicians. — II. Ancient name given 
to that part of the Peloponnesus occupied 
by the Ionians, previously to their being 
driven out by the Achaeans, b. c. 11 50, 
from whom the district subsequently took 
the name of Achaia. 

Ionium Mare, a name given to that part 
of the Mediterranean which separates the 
Peloponnesus from Southern Italy. It 
was fabled to have received its name from 
the wanderings of Io in this quarter ; but 
it is more probable that the name was 
derived from the great Ionic race. The 
statements of the ancient writers regarding 
the situation and extent of the Ionian Sea, 
are very fluctuating ; but the name was re- 
tained by the later Greeks and Romans, 
and is perpetuated to the present day 
among the Italians. 

Iope and Joppa, Jaffa, a city of Pa- 
lestine on the coast, north-west of Jeru- 
salem and south of Caesarea. Tradition 
assigns to Joppa an exceedingly ancient 
date. Joshua defined the possessions 
of the tribe of Dan as including " the 
border before Joppa." In the time of 
Solomon, it was, no doubt, a port of 
some consequence ; for Hiram, king of 
Tyre, sent a letter to the former monarch, 
then engaged in building the temple at 
Jerusalem, saying, " We will cut wood out 
of Lebanon as much as thou shalt need ; 
and we will bring it thee in floats by sea 
to Joppa, and thou shalt carry it up to 
Jerusalem:" and from this place Jonah 
took his passage in a ship going to Tarshish, 
when "he fled from the presence of the 
Lord." In the New Testament it is men- 
tioned as the place where Peter had the 
vision which revealed to him the duty of 
preaching Christianity to the Gentiles as 
well as the Jews ; and where he raised to 
life Dorcas, a faithful disciple, " full of 
good works and almsdeeds." Among the 
Greeks and Romans, also, Joppa had the 



IOP 



IRE 



303 



reputation of being very ancient. It is 
stated by Pliny to be the place where 
Andromeda was exposed to the sea 
monster, from which she was rescued by 
Perseus. Roland suspects that this fable 
may have its origin in, or be connected 
with, the history of Jonah. In a. d. 66, 
during the Jewish wars, it was repeatedly 
taken, and finally all but destroyed ; and 
during the crusades it was so entirely 
ruined by Saladin, that it had scarcely any 
buildings left, except its two castles. 

Iophon, a son of Sophocles, after whose 
death he became a creditable dramatist. 
He gained the second prize, b. c. 428, when 
Euripides obtained the first. 

Ios, Nio, an island in the iEgean Sea, 
north of Thera, said to have been the bu- 
rial place of Homer. 

Iphicles, a son of Amphitryon and 
Alcmena, born at the same birth with 
Hercules. See Hercules. 

Iphiclus, son of Phylacus and Clymene, 
a king of Phylace in Phthiotis, whose 
name is connected with one of the legends 
relative to Melampus. 

Iphicrates, a celebrated Athenian ge- 
neral of low origin but remarkable abili- 
ties. He first distinguished himself during 
the war that terminated with the peace 
of Antalcidas, b. c. 387, by substituting 
light, in the room of the heavy, arms which 
his countrymen had previously borne, and 
gamed numerous victories over the Pelo- 
ponnesian states. He afterwards rose to 
the highest offices in the state ; made war 
against the Thracians, obtained a decisive 
victory over the Spartans, b. c. 3S2, as- 
sisted the Persian king against Egypt. 
b. c. 374, relieved Corcyra a year later, 
and served with great reputation on nu- 
merous other occasions. He married a 
daughter of Cotys, king of Thrace ; and 
the period of his death is unknown. 

Iphigenia, a daughter of Agamemnon 
and Clytemnestra, whose story has been a 
favourite theme with the poets of all coun- 
tries. It is variously related, but the fol- 
lowing version is that most generally 
adopted. . The Grecian ships on repairing 
to Troy were long detained at Aulis, in 
Boeotia, by adverse winds raised by Diana, 
in vengeance for the death of a consecrated 
stag which Agamemnon had slain ; and 
the soothsayer Calchas declared that they 
should be unable to set forth, unless the 
wrath of the goddess were appeased by the 
sacrifice of Iphigenia, daughter of the 
guilty chief. Agamemnon consented ; but 
at the moment when the knife was about 
to be plunged into Iphigenia's bosom, 
Diana bore her away to Tauris, where 



she became her priestess, and left in her 
stead a doe before the altar. She after- 
wards fled from Tauris with her brother 
Orestes and his friend Pylades. (See Py- 
lades and Orestes.) The story of Iphi- 
genia is Post- Homeric. She is called 
Iphianassa in the Iliad, and is only men- 
tioned as one of the three daughters of 
Agamemnon. 

Iphimedia. See Aloeus. 

Iphis, I. See Anaxarete. — II. A 
daughter of Ligdus and Telethusa, of 
Crete, whose story is related by Ovid, 
Met. ix. 666, kc. 

Iphitus, I., a son of Eurytus, king of 
GZchalia, whom Hercules killed by throw- 
ing him from the walls of Tyrinthus. — 
II. A king of Elis, son of Praxonides, 
in the age of Lycurgus ; famous in history 
for having re-established the Olympic 
games 470 years after their first institu- 
tion, about b. c. 884. The first whose 
name was there inscribed was Corcebus. 

Ipsus, a city of Phrygia, near Synnada, 
in the plains adjacent to which was fought 
the celehrated battle, b. c. 301, between 
Antigonus and his son Demetrius on the 
one side, and Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysi- 
machus, and Cassander, on the other. The 
former led into the field an army of above 
70,000 foot, 10,000 horse, 75 elephants. 
The forces of the latter consisted of 64,000 
infantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 ele- 
phants, 120 armed chariots. Antigonus 
and his son were completely defeated, and 
the former lost his life in the battle. 

Ira, a city of Messenia, famous for 
having supported a siege of eleven years 
against the Lacedaemonians. Its capture, 
b. c. 671 , put an end to the second Mes- 
senian war. This city is not to be con- 
founded with Ire, another Messenian city, 
which is identified with Abia. See Abia. 

Iren^eus, a native of Greece, disciple 
of Polycarp, and bishop of Lyons in 
France, a. d. 177. The time of his birth, 
and place of his nativity, are not satis- 
factorily ascertained. It is commonly sup- 
posed that he suffered martyrdom in the 
beginning of the third century ; but even 
this point is not accurately known. Of 
his numerous writings, all, with the ex- 
ception of a few fragments, have perished, 
except his " Five Books against He- 
resies." 

Iresus, a beautiful country in Libya, 
not far from Cyrene. AVhen Battus, in 
obedience to the oracle, was seeking a place 
of settlement, the Libyans who were his 
guides led him through Iresus by night to 
prevent his settling there. Milton calls it 
Irassa, on the authority of Pindar. 



§04 IRI 

Iris, L, a daughter of Thaumas and 
Electra, one of the Oceanides, messenger 
of Juno, and goddess of the rainbow. 
Her identification with the rainbow was 
unknown to the early writers of Greece. 
— II. A river of Pontus, rising on the 
confines of Armenia Minor, and flowing 
j .lto the sea south-east of Amisus. It is 
called by the Turks Tokat-lu, and near its 
mouth Jekil-Ermak, or the Green River. 

Irus, a beggar of Ithaca, who executed 
the commissions of Penelope's suitors. 
When Ulysses returned home, disguised 
in a beggar's dress, Irus hindered him 
from entering the gates, and even chal- 
lenged him to fight ; but Ulysses brought 
him to the ground with a blow, and 
dragged him out of the house. 

Is, a city eight days' journey from 
Babylon, near which flows a river of the 
same name, which empties itself into the 
Euphrates. The site is occupied by the 
modern Hit. 

Isadas, a Spartan youth, who, when 
the Thebans under Epaminondas sud- 
denly invaded the city, rushed from the 
bath naked, with a sword in one hand 
and a buckler in the other, threw himself 
into the midst of the battle, heading a 
body of his countrymen, and performed 
prodigies of valour. He was honoured 
by the Ephori with a chaplet for his gal- 
lantry ; but was fined, at the same time, 
for having dared to appear without his 
armour. 

Is^eus, L, one of the ten Athenian 
orators, born either at Chalcis or at 
Athens. The period both of his birth 
and of his death is uncertain ; but he was 
a pupil of Lysias, and one of the masters 
of Demosthenes, and his talents were chiefly 
developed after the Peloponnesian war. 
Of sixty-four orations ascribed to Isaeus, 
eleven have reached our times ; and of 
these, ten have been translated by Sir W. 
Jones. — II. A native of Assyria, who 
came to Rome a. d. 17, where he became 
a successful pleader. 

Isapis, Savio, frequently called Sapis, a 
river of Umbria, which rose near Sarsina, 
and fell into the Adriatic, not far from 
the Rubicon. 

Isar and Isara, L, Is ire, a river of 
Gaul, on which Fabius routed the Allo- 
broges. It rises at the east of Savoy, and 
falls into the Rhone near Faience. — II. 
The Oise, falling into the Seine below 
Paris. The Celtic name of Briva Isara?, 
a place on this river, has been translated 
into Pont- Oise. 

Isaura, the capital of Isauria, near the 
confines of Phrygia. It was a strong and 



ISI 

wealthy city, the inhabitants of which en- 
riched themselves by plundering the neigh- 
bouring region. Alexander subdued it ; 
but the inhabitants put his governor to 
death, and, on being attacked by Per- 
diccas, set fire to the city. It was after- 
wards rebuilt, and again destroyed, b. c. 
77, by the Roman consul Servilius, who 
obtained the surname of Isauricus. An- 
other Isaura was subsequently built in its 
vicinity by Amyntas, king of Galatia, and 
was in existence in the third century, 
Trebellianus having raised here the stand- 
ard of revolt, and made it his capital. 

Isauria, a country of Asia Minor, north 
of Cilicia Trachea, and south of Lycaonia, 
whose inhabitants were remarkable for 
the violence and rapine exercised against 
their neighbours. Its limits have not 
been accurately defined by the ancient 
writers. The chief town was Isaura. 

Isauricus, a surname of P. Servilius, 
from his conquest over the Isaurians, 
b. c. 77. 

Ischenia, an annual festival at Olym- 
pia, in honour of Ischenus, grandson of 
Mercury and Hierea, who, in time of fa- 
mine, devoted himself for his country, 
and was honoured with a monument near 
Olympia. 

Ischojiache, the wife of Pirithous. 

Isia, festivals of nine days' duration in 
honour of Isis. They were adopted by 
the Romans, but were abolished by a 
decree of the senate, a. u. c. 696, on ac- 
count of their licentiousness, and again 
re-established, 200 years after, by Corn- 
modus. 

Isiacorum Portus, a harbour on the 
shore of the Euxine, in the north-east of 
Moesia Inferior, near the mouth of the 
Danube. 

Isidorus, a name common to several 
bishops, saints, and martyrs of the early 
Christian church. It was also the name 
of a native of Charax, who lived in the 
reign of Caligula, and published a de- 
scription of Parthia. The original work 
no longer exists entire, but an extract from 
it has been published in Hudson's Minor 
Geographers. 

Isis, one of the chief deities in the 
Egyptian mythology. It is difficult 
amidst the mass of contradictory asser- 
tions to ascertain the real origin and at- 
tributes of this divinity ; for, while the 
Egyptians themselves are said to have 
confined their worship chiefly to Isis and 
Osiris (see Osiris), the Greek and Latin 
writers, though exceedingly discrepant in 
details, assert broadly that these two divi- 
nities included, under different names, the 



ISM 



ISS 



805 



whole pagan mythology. It would be futile 
in this place to trace the attempt of the 
Greeks to identify I sis with Io, the daugh- 
ter of Inachus, whom they represent to 
have been introduced into Egypt under 
the form of a cow, and in that shape wor- 
shipped by the inhabitants of the country. 
By the Egyptians themselves Isis was re- 
garded as the sister or sister- wife of Osiris, 
who concurred with her in the endeavour 
to polish and civilise their subjects, to 
teach them agriculture, and several other 
necessary arts of life. Among the higher 
and more philosophical theologians she 
was made the symbol of Pantheistic di- 
vinity : see especially the remarkable pas- 
sage at the end of the Golden Ass of 
Apuleius. By the people she was wor- 
shipped as the goddess of fecundity, and 
in her honour an annual festival was insti- 
tuted which lasted seven days. The cow 
was sacred to her. She was represented 
variously, though most usually as a woman 
with the horns of a cow, and sometimes 
with the lotus in her head and the sistrum 
in her hand. Her priests were bound to 
observe perpetual chastity ; but on her 
worship passing into foreign countries, her 
rites became merely a cloak for sacerdotal 
licentiousness, which at last reached such a 
pitch that they were prohibited at Rome ; 
and Tiberius, in the hope of annihilating 
them for ever, ordered the images of the 
goddess to be thrown into the river. The 
worship of Isis, however, was afterwards 
revived, and furnished an ample theme for 
the indignant pen of Juvenal. The Isiac 
Table in the Turin Museum, which was so 
long supposed by the learned to represent 
the mysteries of Isis, " has been judged by 
Champollion to be the work of an un- 
initiated artist little acquainted with the 
worship of the goddess, and probably of 
the age of Hadrian." 

Ismarus (Ismara, pi.), the name of one 
of the lateral branches of Mt. Rhodope, se- 
parating the valley of the Schcenus from 
the lower valley of the Hebrus, and ter- 
minating in the Ismarium Promontorium, 
Cape Marogna. Its slopes were celebrated 
in the remotest ages for its vineyards. A 
town Ismarus, belonging to the Cicones, 
was taken and destroyed by Ulysses. The 
word Ismarius is indiscriminately used 
for Thracian. 

Ismene, a daughter of (Edipus and Jo- 
casta, who, when her sister Antigone had 
been condemned to be buried alive by 
Creon, for giving burial to her brother 
Polynices, declared herself as guilty as her 
sister, and insisted on being equally pu- 
nished with her. 



Ismenias, a Theban polemarch, in con- 
junction with Leontiadas, who, when the 
latter, b. c. 382, delivered up the citadel to 
Phoebidas, emissary of Sparta, entered his 
protest against the measure : but he was 
afterwards seized, accused of corruption, 
and executed. 

Ismenides, an epithet applied to the 
Theban women, from Ismenus, a river of 
Boeotia. 

Ismenus, a son of Apollo and Melia, 
one of the Nereides, who gave his name 
to a river of Boeotia, near Thebes, falling 
into the Euripus. Hence Apollo is called 
Ismenius. 

Isocrates, a celebrated orator, or rather 
oratorical writer, was born at Athens, b. c. 
436. His principal teachers were Gor- 
gias, Prodicus, Tisias, and Theramenes. 
On account of his weak voice and natural 
timidity, he took but little share himself in 
public speaking, but he applied himself with 
the greatest ardour to giving instruction in 
the art of eloquence, and preparing orations 
for others. He taught rhetoric both at 
Chios and Athens, and he numbered among 
his pupils most of the distinguished men 
of his time. He amassed immense riches. 
The defeat of the Athenians at Cherona?a 
had such an effect on his spirits that he 
died, after he had been four days without 
aliment, in his ninety-ninth year, about 
b. c. 338. He has always been admired 
for the sweetness and graceful simplicity 
of his style, harmony of his expressions, 
and dignity of his language. The remains 
of his Orations extant inspire the highest 
veneration for his abilities, as a moralist, 
orator, and man. 

Issa, Lissa, a celebrated island in the 
Hadriatic, on the coast of Dalmatia, colo- 
nised by some Greeks from Syracuse. It 
afterwards fell under the power of the 
Romans ; and, in the time of Csesar, ap- 
pears to have been very nourishing. Its 
wine was highly esteemed. 

Issedones, the principal nation in Se- 
rica, whose metropolis was Sera, Kant- 
schu, in the Chinese province of Shen-Si, 
without the great wall. They had also 
two towns, both called Issedon, but dis- 
tinguished by the epithets of Serica and 
Scythica. 

Issus, Aiasse, a town of Cilicia Cam- 
pestris, on the confines of Syria, famous 
for a battle fought between Alexander 
the Great and the Persians under Da- 
rius their king, Oct. b.c. 333. In this 
battle the Persians lost 100,000 foot, 
10,000 horse, and the Macedonians only 
300 foot, 150 horse, according to Diod. S. 
The Persian army, according to Justin, 



306 



1ST 



ITA 



consisted of 400,000 foot, 100,000 horse ; 
and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of 
the latter, were left dead on the spot, 
40,000 taken prisoners. The loss of the 
Macedonians was no more than 130 foot, 
and 150 horse. This spot is likewise 
famous for the defeat of Niger by Severus, 
A. d. 194. 

Ister, I., a native of Cyrene, who 
flourished under Ptolemy III. of Egypt. 
He was a disciple of Callimachus ; and 
wrote several historical works, a few frag- 
ments only of which remain. — II. The 
name of the Eastern part of the Danube, 
after its junction with the Savus or Saave. 
See Danubius. 

Isthmia, one of the four great national 
festivals of the Greeks, deriving its name 
from the Isthmus of Corinth, where they 
were celebrated. They were instituted 
in commemoration of Melicerta, changed 
into a sea- deity, when his mother Ino had 
thrown herself into the sea with him in 
her arms. After they had been celebrated 
for some time with great regularity, an 
interruption took place, at the expiration 
of which they were re-established by 
Theseus in honour of Neptune. These 
games were common to all the Grecian 
states, with the exception of the Elteans, 
against whom a curse had been pronounced, 
should they ever present themselves there. 
They were held near a temple of Neptune, 
who presided over them, and were cele- 
brated every third year, according to some 
accounts, but others assign them a period 
of one or four years. The contests were 
the same as in the other sacred games : 
the victors were crowned with garlands 
of pine leaves. 

Isthmus, a small neck of land, which 
joins a country to another, and prevents 
the sea from making them separate, such 
as that of Corinth, called often the Isthmus 
by way of eminence, which joins Pelo- 
ponnesus to Greece. 

Isti^otis. See Estijeotis. 

Istria, a peninsula west of Liburnia, 
bounded on the south and west by the Ha- 
driatic ; anciently a part of Illyricum, but 
conquered by the Romans between the 
first and second Punic wars, and annexed 
to Italy. It still retains its ancient name. 

Istropolis, a city of Thrace, on the 
coast of the Euxine, below the mouth of 
the Ister, said to have been founded by a 
Milesian colony. 

Isus and Antifhits, sons of Priam, who 
were seized by Achilles, as they fed their 
father's flocks on Mount Ida, but were re- 
deemed by Priam, and both subsequently 
killed by Agamemnon. 



Itabyrius, a lofty mountain of Galilaea 
Inferior, supposed to be the modern 
Thabor, and crowned by a fortified city 
called Atabyrion. See Atabyrion. 

Italia, a celebrated country of Europe, 
bounded on the north by the Alps, south 
by the Ionian Sea, north-east by the Ha- 
driatic or Mare Superum, south-west by 
the Mare Tyrrhenum, or Inferum. It was 
called Hesperia by the Greeks, from its 
western situation in relation to Greece, and 
from the Latin poets received the appella- 
tion of Ausonia, GZnotria, and Saturnia. 
When the Greeks became first acquainted 
with this country, they observed it to be 
peopled by several distinct nations as they 
thought ; hence they divided it into six 
countries or regions, Ausonia or Opica, 
Henetia, Iapygia, Liguria, Ombria, and 
Tyrrhenia. At a later period, Italy was di- 
vided into three parts : the northern, Gallia 
Cisalpina ; middle, Italia Propria ; southern, 
Magna Grascia. Its principal states were 
Gallia Cisalpina, Etruria, Umbria, Pice- 
num, Latium, Campania, Samnium and 
Hirpini, Apulia, Calabria, Lucania, and 
Bruttiorum Ager. Originally the whole 
of Italy appears to have been peopled by 
one common race, the Itali, (who were 
fabled to derive their name from Italus, an 
ancient king, and) who were spread 
from the Alps to the southernmost ex- 
tremity of the land ; each community, how- 
ever, being known at the same time by 
a specific and peculiar appellation, as La- 
tini, Umbri, &c. These different states have 
been separately considered, and we shall 
merely subjoin the chief historical epochs 
of the whole country. Italy, besides the 
aboriginal population, that is, the tribes of 
whose first settlement there is no record, 
is said to have been colonised at an early 
period from various quarters: — 1. from 
Pallanteum, in Arcadia, by Evander, who 
settled on the banks of the Tiber, some 
time before the Trojan war, and built on 
the Palatine hill ; 2. from Asia Minor, 
by Tyrrhenus, with a colony of Lydians, 
and by Antenor, the Trojan, who led 
a band of Heneti into Italy after the 
fall of Troy, and founded Patavium; 
3. from iEtolia, by Diomede, the Gre- 
cian hero, who settled in Apulia, and 
built Argyripa, or Arpi ; 4. by iEneas, 
with his Trojan followers ; and 5. by the 
Gauls who overran the northern part. All 
these tribes and colonies fell successively 
under the power of Rome, during the first 
500 years of her existence as a state. Du- 
ring the next 700 years, Italy formed a 
part, first of the Roman Republic, and 
then of the Empire. Odoacer, a Barba- 



ITA 



1X1 



307 



rian adventurer, was crowned king of Italy, 
a. d. 476, and during the next thousand 
years, comprehending what are called the 
Middle Ages, the Republics of modern 
Italy were produced, flourished, and de- 
cayed. 

Italic a, I., the name given to Corfi- 
nium, the capital of the Peligni in Italy, 
during the Social war. (See Corfinium.) 
— II. A city of Spain, north of Hispalis, 
supposed to correspond to Sevilla la Vieja. 
It was founded by P. Scipio in the second 
Punic war; and was the birth-place of 
the emperor Trajan. 

Italicus. See Silius Italicus. 

Italus, an Arcadian prince, who was 
fabled to have come to Ausonia or Hes- 
peria, which was named from him Italia. 
He received divine honours after death. 

Ithaca, a celebrated island in the 
Ionian Sea, north-east of Cephallenia. It 
had a city of the same name, celebrated as 
the residence of Ulysses. The island is 
rocky and mountainous, and measures 
about twenty-five miles in circumference. 
The modern name is Theaki. 

IthacesLe, three islands opposite Vibo, 
on the coast of the Brutii, correspond- 
ing, it is thought, to the modern Braces, 
Praca, and TorriceUa. 

Ithome, I., a town of Thessaly in the 
vicinity of Metropolis, whose site has not 
been accurately ascertained. — II. A for- 
tress of Messenia on a cognominal moun- 
tain, which was said to have derived its 
name from Ithome, one of the Nymphs 
that nourished Jupiter. It was celebrated 
for its ten years' defence against the Spar- 
tans in the last Messenian war, b. c. 724. 
Ithome and Acrocorinthus were called the 
two horns of the Peloponnesus. 

Itius Portus, a harbour of Gaul, 
whence Caesar set sail for Britain. It is 
probably Witsand, or Vissan ; but Calais, 
Boulogne, and Etaples have each their 
respective advocates for the honour of 
being the Itius Portus of antiquity. Caesar 
landed at Portus Lemanis, Lymne, a little 
below Dover. 

Itun^e iEsTUARitJM, the Solway Firth, in 
Scotland. 

Itur^ea, a province of Syria, beyond 
Jordan, whose inhabitants were very skil- 
ful in drawing the bow. It lay on the 
north-eastern side of the land of Israel, 
and is supposed to have been the country 
at present known by the name of Djedour, 
situated between Damascus and the Lake 
of Tiberias. It was subdued by Aristo- 
bulus, high -priest of the Jews, b. c. 106, 
and incorporated into the kingdom of Ju- 
daea. 



Itylus. See Aedon. 

Itys, a son of Tereus, king of Thrace, 
by Procne, daughter of Pandion, king of 
Athens. He was killed by his mother, 
when about six years old, and served up 
before his father. He was changed into 
a pheasant, his mother into a swallow, and 
his father into an owl. See Philomela. 

Iulis, the chief town of the island of 
Ceos, probably represented by the modern 
Zea, which gives its name to the island. It 
was the birth-place of two of the greatest 
lyric poets of Greece, Simonides and 
Bacchylides, and of Erasistratus, the phy- 
sician, and Ariston, the Peripatetic philo- 
sopher. When Iulis was besieged by the 
Athenians, the inhabitants issued a decree 
that all sexagenarians should destroy 
themselves by poison, that a sufficient 
maintenance might remain for the sur- 
vivors. 

Iulus, I., the name of Ascanius, son of 
iEneas. (See Ascanius.) — II. A son of 
Ascanius, born in Lavinium. In the suc- 
cession to the kingdom of Alba, iEneas 
Sylvius, son of jEneas and Lavinia, was 
preferred to him. He was, however, made 
chief priest. 

IxioN, king of Thessaly, son of Phle- 
gyas, Peision, Antion, or Mars, by Pe- 
rimela, daughter of Amythaon. He ob- 
tained the hand of Dia, daughter of 
Deioneus, having, according to the usage 
of the heroic ages, promised his father- 
in-law large gifts ; but not keeping his 
engagement, Deioneus seized his horses 
and detained them as a pledge. Ixion 
concealing his resentment invited Deio- 
neus to a festival at Larissa ; and on 
his arrival treacherously threw him into 
a pit, which he had previously filled 
with wood and burning coals. After 
this deed Ixion became deranged ; but 
the atrocity of his crime was such that 
neither gods nor men would grant him 
expiation, until Jupiter himself took pity 
upon him, purified him, and admitted him 
to his table in Olympus. Unmindful, 
however, of his obligations to his celestial 
benefactor, he cast an eye of desire upon 
Juno; but the goddess, being in concert 
with her lord, substituted a cloud mould- 
ed in her own form; which Ixion em- 
braced, and became the father of the Cen- 
taurs. To punish his ingratitude, Jupiter 
hurled him, with his thunder, into Erebus, 
where, bound to an ever-revolving wheel, 
he atones for his offence by endless tor- 
ments. 

Ixionides, a patronymic of Pirithous, 
the centaur, a son of Ixion. 



308 



JAN 



JAS 



J. 

Janiculum, a hill of Rome, on the 
right bank of the Tiber, and connected 
with the city by means of the Sublician 
bridge, the first ever built across that 
river, and perhaps in Italy. It was used 
as a citadel to give warning, or to protect 
against an invasion, as its summit com- 
manded an excellent view. From its 
sparkling sands it got the name of Mons 
Aureus, corrupted into Montorio. 

Janus, one of the most celebrated 
divinities of ancient Rome, and the only 
one who had no equivalent in the Grecian 
mythology. He was represented as a son 
of Apollo, who emigrated from Thessaly, 
and came to Italy, where he built a small 
town on the Tiber, which he called Ja- 
niculum. During his reign Saturn came 
to Italy, and in return for the hospitality 
he received, instructed his entertainers in 
agriculture and the arts of civilised life. 
Peace, prosperity, and happiness were 
every where diffused under the joint sway 
of Janus and Saturnus, the latter of whom 
founded Saturnia on what was afterwards 
called the Capitoline Hill, immediately 
opposite to Janiculum. The coins of the 
two monarchs were impressed on one side 
with a double head, typical of the wisdom 
of Janus, which enabled him to look into 
futurity as well as back upon the past, 
while the reverse bore a ship, in honour of 
Saturnus, who came from beyond the seas. 
After death Janus was ranked among the 
gods, for the civilisation which he had 
introduced among the wild inhabitants of 
Italy. Such is a brief view of the manner 
in which the ancient Romans attempted to 
account historically for the origin of the 
worship of Janus, to whom greater rever- 
ence was accorded than to any of their 
numerous divinities. As the origin of the 
name implies (janua, a gate), Janus was 
the god of gates, but of gates in the most 
extended sense of the word, of the gates of 
heaven, earth, sea, and sky ; and in token 
of his office he bore a key in his hand. 
Moreover, as the commencement of any 
undertaking may be regarded as the en- 
trance into it, he was invariably invoked 
the first of all the gods, as through him 
alone prayers were said to be able to reach 
the others. The first month of the year 
received its name from him ; he shared 
the homage rendered to Juno on the first 
day of every month, and he presided over 
the dawn of every day. Janus was usually 
represented with two heads (hence he was 
called Bifrons) looking in opposite direc- 



tions, grasping a key in his left hand and 
a staff in his right ; though he was occa- 
sionally represented with four heads, hence 
his epithet Quadrifrons. Sometimes he 
holds the number 300 in one hand, in the 
other -65, to show that he presides over the 
year. He was sometimes supposed to be 
equivalent to Chaos, presiding as he did 
over the beginning of all things, while 
some believed him to be a personification 
of heaven, and others maintained that he 
represented the united divinities of Apollo 
and Diana. But the most probable theory 
assigns him a Tuscan origin. He had 
numerous temples at Rome. The temples 
of Janus Quadrifrons were built with four 
equal sides, with a door and three win- 
dows on each side. The four doors were 
the emblems of the four seasons of the 
year ; the three windows in each of the 
sides, of the three months of each season ; 
all together, the twelve months of the year. 
His temple at Rome was kept open in the 
time of war, and shut in peace. The 
warlike disposition of the Romans is mani- 
fest from the fact that this temple was 
only shut six times in 800 years : viz. 
once in the reign of Numa ; at the con- 
clusion of the first Punic war ; thrice in 
the reign of Augustus ; and once again 
under Nero. 

Jason, I., a celebrated hero, son of Al- 
cimede, daughter of Phylacus, and iE'soh, 
the son of Cretheus, and Tyro, daughter of 
Salmoneus. Tyro, before her union with 
Cretheus, son of iEolus, had two sons, 
Pelias and Neleus, by Neptune, the 
former of whom dethroned JEson, who had 
succeeded his father oh the throne of Iol- 
chos, and sought also the life of Jason ; an 
oracle having declared that one of the 
descendants of iEolus would dethrone the 
usurper. iEson, however, gave out that 
Jason was dead, and meanwhile had him 
conveyed secretly to the Centaur Chiron, 
with the request that he would bring 
him up. After he had made progress 
in every branch of science, Jason left 
the Centaur, and, in compliance with 
the command of the oracle, proceeded to 
Iolchos to regain his father's kingdom, 
His progress was stopped by the inunda- 
tion of the Evenus or Enipeus, over which 
he was carried by Juno, who had changed 
herself into an old woman. In crossing 
the stream he lost one of his sandals, and 
on his arrival at Iolchos, the singularity 
of his dress attracted the people, and 
drew a crowd round him. Pelias came to 
see him with the rest, and as he had been 
warned by the oracle to beware of a man 
who should appear at Iolchos with one foot 



JAS 



JAS 



309 



bare, and the other shod, the appearance 
of Jason alarmed him. His tenors were 
soon after augmented, when Jason, ac- 
companied by his friends, repaired to the 
palace of Pelias, and boldly demanded the 
kingdom, which he had unjustly usurped. 
Pelias, to postpone his claims to the crown, 
reminded him that lEetes, king of Colchis, 
had inhumanly murdered their relation 
Phryxus ; that such a treatment called for 
punishment, and the undertaking would 
be accompanied With much glory ; alleg- 
ing his old age <pad prevented him from 
avenging the death of Phryxus, and, if 
Jason would undertake the expedition, he 
would cheerfully resign to him the crown 
of Iolehos, when he returned from Colchis. 
Jason readily accepted a proposal which 
promised military fame. His expedition 
was made known ; the bravest of the 
Greeks accompanied him. They em- 
barked on board the ship Argo x and after 
numerous adventures arrived at Colchis. 
On their arrival at iEa, the capital of 
Colchis, Jason exjdained the causes of his 
voyage to iEetes ; but the conditions on 
which he was to recover the golden fleece 
were so hard that the Argonauts must 
have perished in the attempt, had not 
Medea, the king's daughter, fallen in love 
with their leader. After mutual oaths of 
fidelity, Medea pledged herself to deliver 
the Argonauts from her father's hard con- 
ditions, if Jason agreed to marry her and 
carry her with him into Greece. He was 
to tame two bulls which had brazen feet 
and horns, and vomited clouds of fire, to 
tie them to a plough made of adamant, 
and to plough a field of two acres never 
before cultivated. After this he was to 
sow in the plain the teeth of a dragon, 
from which an armed multitude were to 
rise up, and to be all destroyed by his 
hands. This done, he was to kill an ever- 
watchful dragon, which lay at the bottom 
of the tree on which the golden fleece was 
suspended. All these labours were to be 
performed in one day ; but throughMedea's 
assistance, whose knowledge of herbs and 
magic was unparalleled, Jason tamed the 
bulls, ploughed the field, sowed the dragon's 
teeth, and when the armed men sprang 
from the earth, he threw a stone in the 
midst of them, when they immediately 
turned their weapons one against the other, 
till they all perished. After this he went 
to the dragon, and, by means of enchanted 
herbs and a draught which Medea had 
given him, lulled the monster to sleep, ob- 
tained the golden fleece, and immediately 
set ssil with Medea. iEetes, to revenge 
the perfidy of his daughter, Medea, sent 



his son Absyrtus to pursue the fugitives, 
but he was seized and murdered. (See Ab- 
syrtus. ) After many disasters the Argo- 
nauts came in sight of the promontory of 
Malea in the Peloponnesus, where Jason 
was purified of the murder of Absyrtus, 
and soon afterwards arrived safe in Thes- 
saly. The return of the Argonauts into 
Thessaly was celebrated with festivity ; 
but iEson, Jason's father, was unable to 
attend on account of old age. This ob- 
struction was removed ; Medea restored 
yEson to the vigour of youth. ( See iEsox. ) 
Pelias was then cut off by the instru- 
mentality of Medea ; but Jason was driven 
from the country by Acastus, son of Pe- 
lias, and compelled to retire to Corinth 
with Medea. Jason's partiality for Glauce, 
daughter of the king of Corinth, after- 
wards disturbed their matrimonial happi- 
ness ; but his infidelity was revenged by 
Medea, who destroyed her children in the 
presence of their father. After his sepa- 
ration from Medea, Jason lived an un- 
settled life ; and while one day reposing 
by the side of the ship which had carried 
him to Colchis a beam fell and crushed 
him to death. This event had been pre- 
dicted by Medea. (See Medea.) — II. 
A tyrant of Thessaly, born at Phera?, 
and descended from one of the richest and 
most distinguished families of that city. 
He usurped the supreme power in his 
native place while still quite young, about 
b. c. 375 ; reduced nearly all Thessaly under 
his sway ; and caused himself to be invested 
with the title of generalissimo, which soon 
became, in his hands, only another name 
for monarch of the country. The success 
which attended his other expeditions also 
against the Dolopes, the Phocians, &c, his 
alliance with Athens, Macedon, Thebes, 
in fine, his rare military talents, embold- 
ened him to think of undertaking some 
enterprise against Persia; but before he 
could put these schemes into operation, 
he was assassinated while celebrating some 
public games at Phera3, in the third 
year of his reign. He cultivated letters 
and the oratorical art, and was intimate 
with Isocrates, and Gorgias of Leontini. 
He had contracted a friendship also with 
Timotheus, the son of Conon, and went 
himself to Athens to save him from a 
capital accusation. — III. A native of Argos, 
who lived in the age of Hadrian and wrote 
a History of Greece in four books, which 
ended with the capture of Athens. 

JasonidjE, a patronymic of Thoas and 
Euneus, sons of Jason and Hypsipyle, 
queen of Lemnos. 

Jasomium Projioktorium, a promon- 



310 



JEN 



JUB 



tory of Pontus, north-east of Polemonium, 
so called from the ship Argo having an- 
chored in its vicinity. The modern name 
is Cape Jasoun. 

Jenysus, a city of Syria, not far from 
Gaza. The modern village of Kan Jones 
marks the ancient site. 

Jericho, a city of Judaea, in the tribe of 
Benjamin, north-east of Jerusalem. It 
■was called by the Greeks Hierichus, from 
its abounding in dates. 

Jerusalem, the capital of Judaea. See 

HlEROSOLYMA. 

Jocasta, a daughter of Menoecus, and 
wife of Laius, king of Thebes, by whom 
she had GSdipus. She was afterwards 
united to GZdipus without knowing who 
he was, and had by him Eteocles, Poly- 
nices, &c. (See Laius, GZdipus.) On 
discovering that CEdipus was her own off- 
spring, she hung herself in despair. 

Joppa. See Iope. 

Jordanes, a famous river of Palestine, 
rising in the Lake of Phiala, about ten 
miles north of Caesarea Philippi, and after 
a course of about 150 miles flowing into 
the Dead Sea. Manner t makes the river 
rise in Mount Paneas. 

Jornandes, called by some Jordanus, a 
Goth by birth, secretary to one of the 
kings of the Alans, and, as some believe, 
afterwards bishop of Ravenna. In 552 
a. d. he wrote a history of the Goths, &c. 

Josephus Flavius, a celebrated Jewish 
historian, born in Jerusalem, a. d. 37. He 
was son of Mathias, a priest, and on the 
mother's side was descended from the 
family of the Maccabees. He was so early 
distinguished for his love of study, that in 
his fourteenth year he was frequently con- 
sulted concerning difficult points in the law ; 
and after several years of deep inquiry into 
the opinions of the three prevailing sects 
of the Jews, the Pharisees, Sadducees, and 
Essenes, he joined the sect of the Phari- 
sees. Having in his twenty-sixth year 
undertaken a voyage to Home for the 
purpose of obtaining the release of some 
Jewish captives whom Felix had sent to 
the capital, he nearly lost his life by ship- 
wreck, but was saved by a ship from Cy- 
rene, and through the influence of Pop- 
paea, the wife of Nero, succeeded in the 
object of his mission. On his return to 
Jerusalem he found the Jews on the eve 
of rebellion against Rome, and after some 
fruitless attempts to oppose their determi- 
nation, joined their cause and held various 
commands in the Jewish army. At Jota- 
pata, in Galilee, he signalised his military 
abilities in supporting a siege of forty- 
seven days against Vespasian and Titus ; 



but the city finally yielded, and on its 
capture there were found not less than 
40,000 Jews slain. Josephus saved his 
life by flying into a cave ; but he after- 
wards surrendered himself to Vespasian ; 
and gained the conqueror's esteem by fore- 
telling that he would become one day the 
master of the Roman empire. Josephus 
was present at the siege of Jerusalem by 
Titus, and obtained permission to carry 
away all the sacred books. He afterwards 
accompanied Titus to Rome, where he was 
honoured with the name and privileges of 
a Roman citizen, together with a large 
estate in Judaea, and an annual pension. 
After the death of Vespasian, he lived in 
great honour and esteem with Titus and 
Domitian. The period of his death is 
uncertain ; but it is generally supposed 
that he died about the beginning of the 
second century. His " History of the 
Wars of the Jews," and his " History of the 
Jewish Antiquities," have passed through 
numerous editions. Josephus has been 
admired for his lively and animated style ; 
and has been called the Livy of the 
Greeks. Though in some cases inimical 
to the Christians, St. Jerome calls him a 
Christian writer. 

Jovianus, Flavius Claudius, the son 
of Veronianus, whose family had filled 
high offices under Constantine, was born 
a. d. 331. He served in the expedition 
against the Persians under Julian, and on 
the death of the latter was proclaimed em- 
peror by the soldiers, a. d. 363. His first 
step was to retreat from Persia, and in 
order to save the Roman army, then in 
great distress for provisions, he consented 
to give up all the conquests of his prede- 
cessors beyond the Tigris. At Antioch 
he revoked all the edicts of his predecessor 
against the Christians. He then set out 
for Constantinople, and paid funeral ho- 
nours to the remains of Julian at Tarsus, 
and assumed the consular authority at An- 
cyra; but a few days afterwards he was 
found in his bed suffocated, as is supposed, 
by charcoal, a. d. 364, after a reign of 
seven months and twenty days. 

Jovinus, a native of Gaul, who, under 
the reign of Honorius, took possession of 
part of Gaul, a. d. 411. He was defeated 
by Ataulphus, and put to death at Narbo, 
a. d. 412, by Dardanus, prefect of Gaul. 

Juba, I., a king of Numidia, succeeded 
his father Hiempsal on the throne b. c. 50. 
He favoured the cause of Pompey against 
J. Caesar; defeated Curio, b. c. 49, whom 
Caesar had sent to Africa, and after the battle 
of Pharsalia joined his forces to those of 
Scipio and Cato. He was conquered in a 



JUD 



JUL 



311 



battle at Thapsus, and being totally aban- 
doned by his subjects, he killed himself 
with Petreius, who had shared his good 
fortune and adversity. His kingdom be- 
came a Roman province, of which Sallust 
was the first governor. — II. Son of Juba 
the First was led among the captives to ; 
Rome, to adorn the triumph of Caesar. 
He gained the heart of the Romans by the 
courteousness of his manners, and Au- I 
gustus rewarded his fidelity by giving him 
in marriage Cleopatra, daughter of An- j 
tony and Cleopatra, and awarding to him ; 
the kingdom of Mauritania, his paternal j 
kingdom having been formed into a Ro- i 
man province. He had a great reputation 
for learning, wrote several works on va- 
rious subjects, and died probably about j 
a. d. 17. 

Judjea, a province of Palestine, of 
which it formed the southern division. 
After the return of the Jews from the 
Babylonian captivity, the tribe of Judah 
settled first at Jerusalem, but afterwards 
gradually spreading over the whole coun- 
try, gave to it the name of Judaea. See 
Pal^estina. 

Jugurtha, the illegitimate son of Ma- 
nastabal, and grandson of Masinissa, king 
of Numidia. ATicipsa, who had inherited 
his father's kingdom, educated his nephew 
Jugurtha with his sons Adherbal and Hi- 
empsal : but Jugurtha, being of an aspiring 
disposition, was sent with a body of troops 
to the assistance of Scipio, then besieging 
Numantia, in the hope that the chances of 
war would cut off a youth whose ambition 
seemed to threaten the tranquillity of his 
children. His hopes were frustrated, for 
Jugurtha showed himself brave and active, 
and so endeared himself to the Roman 
general, that at the close of the war he was 
sent back to Alicipsa with strong recom- 
mendations from Scipio. Micipsa there- 
upon appointed him joint heir to his king- 
dom with his two sons : but after his 
uncle's death, b. c. 1 18, Jugurtha, aspiring 
to undivided sovereignty, destroyed Hi- 
empsal, and stripped Adherbal of his 
possessions, and obliged him to fly to 
Rome for safety. The Romans then ap- 
pointed a commission to portion out the 
kingdom between the two claimants ; but 
Jugurtha's gold prevailed so far over 
the senators that they assigned to him 
the best portion of the kingdom. He 
soon afterwards invaded the possessions of 
his cousin, and having put him to death 
under circumstances of great barbarity and 
presumption, the Romans sent Calpurnius, 
and subsequently Posthumius Albinus, to 
take vengeance upon him. Meanwhile, 



on the demand of the senate, he appeared 
at Rome, where he procured the assassin- 
ation of his cousin Massiva ; but being 
under the public guarantee, instead of 
being brought to trial for the crime, he 
was only ordered to leave Rome imme- 
diately. Caeeilius Metellus was at last 
sent against him, and reduced him 
to the last extremity. Mariiis, who suc- 
ceeded Metellus b. c. 107, fought with 
equal success. Still Jugurtha maintained 
his ground. But the alliance which he 
had formed with his father-in-law Bocchus, 
king of Mauritania, led to his ruin. The 
latter, seeing the overwhelming power of 
Rome, entered into negotiations with 
3Iarius, and as the price of his own safety 
betrayed Jugurtha into the hands of Sylla, 
the quaestor of Marius, after a war of five 
years. He was dragged in chains to adorn 
the triumph of Marius, after which he was 
thrown into a dungeon, where he was 
starved to death, or, according to others, 
strangled, b. c. 106. The name and wars 
of Jugurtha have been immortalised by 
the pen of Sallust. 

Julia, a name common to numerous 
ladies of antiquity, of whom the most dis- 
tinguished were, I., a daughter of J. Caesar, 
by Cornelia, famous for personal charms 
and virtues. She had been affianced to 
Serv. Caepio, and was on the eve of her 
marriage when her father bestowed her 
upon Pompey. Her amiable disposition 
prevented any outbreak between the fa- 
ther and the son-in-law ; but her sudden 
death, b. c. 53, broke all ties of intimacy, 
and hastened, if it did not produce, 
the civil war. Her funeral obsequies 
were held in the Campus Martius, amid 
the great regret of the Roman people, 
to whom she had endeared herself by 
her virtues. — II. The sister of Julius 
Caesar, wife of Accius Balbus, a Roman 
senator, and mother of Accia, mother of 
Augustus. — III. The only daughter of 
Augustus by his first wife Scribonia, re- 
markable for her beauty, genius, and licen- 
tiousness. She was thrice married ; first 
to C. Marcellus, nephew of Augustus by 
his sister Octavia, secondly to M Vipsa- 
nius Agrippa, and thirdly to Tiberius 
Claudius Nero, afterwards emperor. Such 
was the profligacy of her character, 
that Augustus was compelled to banish 
her to Pandataria off the Campanian 
coast, where she was closely confined for 
some time, and treated with the utmost 
rigour ; nor would Augustus ever forgive 
her, though he afterwards removed her 
from Pandataria to Rhegium, and some- 
what softened the severity of her treatment. 



JUL 



JUL 



When her husband Tiberius ascended the 
throne, she was again placed under great 
restraint, and finally died of ill-treatment 
and starvation, a.d. 14. — IV. A daughter 
of the preceding, by M. V. Agrippa, 
resembled her mother, both in personal 
beauty and depravity of moral character. 
She married L. Paulus, but was banished 
for her infidelities to the island of Tremitus, 
off the coast of Apulia, where she lived for 
twenty years. — V. A daughter of Drusus 
Caesar, the son of Tiberius, by Livia or 
Livilla, the daughter of Nero Claudius 
Drusus. She married first Nero Caesar, 
son of Germanicus and Agrippina, second- 
ly, Rubellius Blandus, and fell a victim 
to the intrigues of Messalina, a. d. 34. — 
VI. Daughter of Caligula and Milonia 
Caesonia. She resembled both her parents 
in the cruelty of her disposition, and was 
put to death after the assassination of her 
father. — VII. Domna, daughter of Bas- 
sianus, priest of the sun in Emesa, a city 
of Syria, and wife of the emperor Severus, 
who is said to have married her be- 
cause she had a royal nativity. She 
rendered herself conspicuous as much by 
her mental as her personal charms, and her 
learning recommended her to all the lite- 
rati of the age. She became by Severus 
the mother of Caracalla and Geta, the 
latter of whom fell a sacrifice to his bro- 
ther, and she herself was wounded while 
attempting to screen her favourite son from 
his brother's dagger. After the death of 
Caracalla, and the accession of Macrinus, 
she put an end to her existence by starva- 
tion, or she died more probably from the 
effects of a cancer on the breast. 

Juliacum, a town of Germany, Juliers. 

JuLiiE leges; a term by which various 
laws are designated, most of which were 
passed in the time of Julius Caesar and 
Augustus. 

Julianus, Flavius Claubius, a son of 
Julius Constantius, elder brother of Con- 
stantine the Great, was born at Constanti- 
nople, A. n. 331 . The two nephews of Con- 
stantine, Gallus and Julian, who, at the 
death of their uncle, had escaped from the 
ruin of their family, were long confined in 
prison, till the emergencies of the state in- 
vested the former with the title of Caesar, 
A. d. 351. On his death, a.d. 354, Julian, 
who now alone survived, and was passing 
his hours in studious retirement at Athens, 
was reluctantly declared Caesar a.d. 355, and 
appointed to the provinces of Gaul. His 
retired and scholastic education had not 
disqualified him for more active pursuits. 
He defeated the Gauls and Franks ; made 
three expeditions beyond the Rhine, and 



while his victories suspended the inroads 
of the barbarians, his civil administration 
alleviated the distresses of the people. 
Meantime his cousin Constantius was 
feebly making head against the irruptions 
of Sapor ; and to quiet the seditious com- 
parison between himself and the Caesar, 
he ordered into the East four- legions of 
the army of Gaul ; but his commands were 
disobeyed, and the discontented soldiers 
proclaimed Julian emperor. No time was 
to be lost, and the new monarch, by a hasty 
march, with a small army of veteran 
soldiers, took possession of the capital a 
month after the death of Constantius, a. d. 
361. On assuming the purple, Julian 
openly professed the religion of Rome ; 
hence he has been surnamed the Apostate, 
from having abandoned the Christian 
religion, in which he was educated ; and 
though he issued an edict of universal 
toleration, he soon showed a marked 
hostility to the Christians, numbers of 
whom, especially in the provinces, were 
imprisoned, tortured, and put to death. 
a. d. 362, desirous of proving the fal- 
lacy of the prophecies, he determined 
to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, 
but horrible balls of fire breaking out 
near the foundations rendered the place 
inaccessible to the scorched and blasted 
workmen. His chief political cares were 
the punishment of informers, who had 
been the scourge of the previous reign, 
and reforming the abuses of the court, in 
which were to be seen thousands of the 
most useless menials. He was thus enabled 
to reduce the taxes by one fifth, and to 
indulge in greater magnificence in the state 
ceremonials. Superstitious to excess, be 
sacrificed on every occasion, and performed 
with scrupulous anxiety the functions of 
sovereign pontiff. He had been scarcely 
six months at Constantinople before he set 
out on a Persian expedition, in which he 
was at first successful ; but, allowing him- 
self to be misled by a deserter, he was 
surrounded by the army of Sapor, and fell 
mortally wounded, in the thirty-second 
year of his age, a.d. 363. 

Julii, or Julia Gens, a celebrated 
Roman family which pretended to trace 
its origin to lulus, son of iEneas. J. 
Caesar and Augustus were of this family. 

Juliomagus, a city of Gaul, the capital 
of the Andecavi, whose name it subse- 
quently assumed. It is now Angers. 

Juliopolis, a city of Galatia. See Gor- 
dium. 

Julius Caesar, I. See Caesar. — II. 
Agricola. See Agricola. — III. Obse- 
quens. See Obsequens. — IV. Titianus. 



JUN 



JUP 



313 



See Titianus — V. Solinus. See Soli- 
nus. — VI. Africanus. See Africanus. 
—VII. Pollux. See Pollux. 

Juno, a celebrated deity of the Romans, 
identical with the Hera of the Greeks, and 
generally regarded as the daughter of 
Saturn and Rhea, and the sister and wife 
of Jupiter. Her nuptials with Jupiter 
were celebrated with the greatest solem- 
nity ; the gods, all mankind, and even the 
brute creation, being present. Juno thus 
became the queen of the gods, and mis- 
tress of heaven and earth ; but her con- 
jugal happiness was frequently disturbed 
by the amours of her husband ; and she 
showed herself jealous and inexorable in 
the highest degree. The repeated infi- 
delities of Jupiter at last so provoked Juno 
that she retired to Euboea. But a recon- 
ciliation was effected, which, however, was 
soon interrupted by new offences. Her 
severities to Alcmena, Ina, Athamas, Se- 
mele, &c. are well known. Jupiter pun- 
ished the cruelties she had exercised on 
his son Hercules, by suspending her from 
the heavens by a golden chain, and tying 
a heavy anvil to her feet- According to 
Hesiod, she was mother of Mars, Hebe, 
and Ilithyia, or Lucina; and was said to 
have brought forth Vulcan by only smell- 
ing a certain plant. The chief seats of 
her worship were Argos, Samos, Car- 
thage, and afterwards Rome, where sacri- 
fices were offered to her with the greatest 
solemnity. Among the birds, the hawk, 
goose, and particularly the peacock, often 
called Junonia avis, were sacred to her. 
The dittany, poppy, and lily were her 
favourite flowers. The surnames of Juno 
are various ; being derived either from 
her functions, the things over which she 
presided, or the places where her worship 
was established. She presided over mar- 
riage and child-birth, and as the goddess 
of all power and empire, and the pa- 
troness of riches, is represented sitting on 
a throne with a diadem on her head, and a 
golden sceptre in her right hand. Some 
peacocks generally sit by her, and a cuckoo 
is often perched on her sceptre, while Iris 
behind her displays the thousand colours of 
her beautiful rainbow. She is sometimes 
carried through the air in a rich chariot 
drawn by peacocks. The Roman consuls, 
when they entered on office, were always 
obliged to offer her a solemn sacrifice. 
The Juno of the Romans was called Ma- 
trona, or Romana, and was generally 
represented as veiled from head to foot. 

J u no n alia and Junonia, festivals at 
Rome in honour of Juno, the same as the 
Herasa of the Greeks, See Helijea. 



Junonia, Palma, one of the Canary 
islands, or Insula? Fortunatae. 

Junonis Insula. See Erythea. 

Junonis Promontorium, a promontory 
of Spain, on the Atlantic side of the straits 
of Gibraltar, now Cape Trafalgar. 

Jupiter, the supreme Roman deity, 
identical with the Zeus of the Greeks. He 
was the son of Saturn and Rhea. Saturn, 
who had received the kingdom of the 
world from his brother Titan, on condi- 
tion of not raising male children, devoured 
all his sons as soon as born ; but Ops se- 
creted Jupiter, and gave a stone to Saturn, 
which he devoured, on the supposition 
that it was a male child. Jupiter was 
educated in a cave on Mt. Ida in Crete, 
and fed on honey and the milk of the goat 
Amalthsea. As soon as he was a year old, 
he found himself sufficiently strong to 
make war against the Titans, who had im- 
prisoned his father. The Titans were 
conquered, and Saturn set at liberty by 
the hands of his son ; but soon afterwards, 
being apprehensive of the power of Jupiter, 
he conspired against his life, and for this 
treachery was driven from his kingdom, 
and obliged to fly for safety into Latium. 
Jupiter now became the sole master of 
the empire of the world, which he divided 
with his brothers, reserving to himself 
the kingdom of heaven, giving the empire 
of the sea to Neptune, and that of the 
infernal regions to Pluto. (For the war- 
fare of Jupiter with the Titans and Giants, 
see Titanes and Giqantes.) In the Theo- 
gony, he is represented as having married 
successively Metis, Themis, Euronyme, 
Ceres, Mnemosyne, Latona, and Juno, 
But he had innumerable intrigues with 
many mortal women, and he employed 
every species of transmutation and dis- 
guise to promote his views. (See Alc- 
mena, Antiope, Callisto, Danae, Europa, 
Leda, &c.) The most celebrated of his 
children were Minerva, who had no mother, 
but sprung armed from her father's fore- 
head, Bacchus, the Muses, Venus, Apollo 
and Diana, Mercury, Proserpine, Hercules, 
and Minos. Jupiter was the king and 
father of men, but his power extended 
over the deities also ; and every thing was 
subservient to his will except the Fates. 
From him mankind received their blessings 
and miseries ; they looked Qn him as ac- 
quainted with every thing past, present, 
and future. The worship of Jupiter sur- 
passed that of the other gods in solemnity. 
His altars were not stained with human 
blood, but he was delighted with the sa- 
crifice of goats, sheep, and white bulls. 
The oak was sacred to him, because he 
p 



S14 



JUR 



JUV 



first taught mankind to live on acorns. 
His most famous temple was at Elis 
in Olympia, where, every fourth year, the 
Olympic games were celebrated in his 
honour ; and his most favourite oracle was 
at Dodona in Epirus. The Romans con- 
sidered Jupiter as the especial patron of 
their city, and built some splendid tem- 
ples to his honour, of which that in 
the Capitol was the grandest. He is 
generally represented as sitting on a gol- 
den or ivory throne, holding in one hand 
thunderbolts just ready to be hurled, and in 
the other a sceptre of cypress : while the 
eagle stands with expanded wings at his 
feet. The derivation of the word Jupiter, 
and its Greek form Zeus, has given rise to 
many discussions among philologists ; but 
it is now universally admitted to contain 
some of the elements of the Latin dies, 
and to have implied originally the notion 
of Heaven and Day. 

Jura, a chain of mountains, which ex- 
tended from the Rhodanus, Rhone, to the 
Rhenus, Rhine, and separated Helvetia 
from the Sequani. 

Justina, wife of Valentinian I., the 
Roman emperor, and mother of Valen- 
tinian II., and of Galla, wife of the em- 
peror Theodosius. She was strongly at- 
tached to the sect of the Arians. 

Justinianus, I. Feavius, emperor of 
the East, was born of obscure parents, 
near Sardica in Moesia, about a. d. 482. 
He was the nephew of Justinus, whom 
he succeeded on the imperial throne, a. d. 
527, and his reign forms a remarkable 
epoch in the history of the world. By 
means of his generals Belisarius and Narses, 
he completely defeated the Goths and 
Vandals, reunited Africa and Italy to the 
Empire, and thus gave a temporary revival 
to the wide-extended dominion of Au- 
gustus. But the glory of his military 
exploits is far outweighed by the zeal he 
displayed for the promotion of learning 
and industry among his subjects. In his 
reign, the manufacture of silk was first 
introduced into Europe ; numerous towns 
were built, repaired, and adorned ; but 
perhaps the greatest achievement of his 
reign was the compilation of Roman law, 
with which his name has ever since been 
completely identified. (See Treeonianus.) 
He died in his eighty-fourth year, a. d. 
565. He had married Tribonia, a woman of 
unprincipled character, but left no children. 

Justinus, I., M. Junianus, or Fron- 
tinus, a Latin historian in the age of An- 
toninus, who epitomised the History of 
Trogus Pompeius. It comprehends the 
history of the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, 



Macedonian, and Roman empires, &c. 7 
and is written in a neat and elegant style. 
Nothing is known of the particulars of 
his life. — II. Surnamed Martyr, one of 
the most distinguished Christian fathers, 
was born at Flavia Neapolis, or Sichem, 
a city of Samaria, about the end of the 
first century of our era. He early attached 
himself to the Platonic doctrines ; but after 
having enlarged his mind by extensive 
travels through the East, he made a public 
profession of Christianity, a. d. 132. He 
is distinguished in ecclesiastical history by 
his apologies for the Christian faith, some of 
which have descended to our time. He 
usually resided at Rome. Here Crescens, 
a Cynic philosopher, preferred against him 
a formal charge of impiety for neglecting 
the Pagan rites ; and on his refusal to join 
in a sacrifice to the Heathen gods, he was 
condemned to be scourged, and then be- 
headed, a sentence which was put into 
execution a. n. 164. — III. The First, 
called also theElder, an emperor of the East, 
was born a. d. 450. He was by birth a 
peasant of Dacia ; but at an early age 
abandoned the employment of a shepherd 
for the profession of arms, and so distin- 
guished himself in the reigns of Leo I. 
and two of his successors, that he gradually 
attained to the highest dignities of the 
empire. On the death of Anastasius, a. d. 
516, he was proclaimed emperor ; and not 
being himself conversant with civil busi- 
ness, entrusted the government chiefly to 
his minister Proclus, and his nephew Jus- 
tinian, who succeeded him on the throne. 
He died a. d. 527, after a reign of eleven 
years. — IV. The Second, surnamed the 
Younger, an emperor of the East, succeed- 
ed his uncle Justinian, a. b. 565. After 
an unfortunate reign of nine years, during 
which he lost great part of Northern Italy, 
and saw a large portion of his Asiatic pos- 
sessions overrun by the Persians, he abdi- 
cated the crown to Tiberius, captain of the 
guards, a. r>. 574, and died four years 
afterwards in private life. 

Juturna, a water nymph in the Italian 
mythology. Her fountain near the Numi- 
cius was famed for the salubrity of its wa- 
ter ; a temple was built to her in the 
Campus Martius, and a festival called Ju- 
turnalia celebrated in her honour. Virgil 
makes Juturna the sister of Turnus, and 
says that Jupiter, in recompense for an in- 
jury he had done her, made her a goddess 
of the lakes and streams. 

Juvenilis, Decius, or Decimus Junius, 
a celebrated Roman satirist, was born, 
it is conjectured, at Aquinum, a. i>. 40. 
Few authentic particulars of his life have 



JUV 



LAB 



315 



been recorded. He is said to have come 
early to Rome, and to have passed some 
time in declaiming, after which he applied 
himself to write his famous Satires, sixteen 
of which are extant. The greater part of 
these Satires were composed in the reigns 
of Domitian and Trajan, but they were 
not published till the reign of Hadrian. 
The poet having introduced into the seventh 
Satire a pantomime named Paris, who had 
been a favourite of Domitian, Hadrian, 
who had suffered a comedian of the day 
to gain a similar ascendency over himself, 
took offence, and, under pretext of con- 
ferring an honour on the satirist, then in 
his seventy-ninth year, named him prefect 
of a legion stationed at Syene in Upper 
Egypt, where he died shortly afterwards 
in this honourable exile. His writings are 
fiery and animated. He is particularly 
severe on the vice and dissipation of the 
age ; and he may be called, without any 
doubt, the last of the Roman poets. 

Juventas, or Juventus, a Roman god- 
dess, identical with the Hebe of the 
Greeks. See Hebe. 

JuVERNA. See HxBERNIA. 

K, see C. 
L. 

Labarum, the standard of Constan- 
tine, which he caused to be formed in 
commemoration of the vision of the cross 
in the heavens. It is described as a long 
pike surmounted by a golden crown in- 
closing a monogram which contains the 
two first letters of the name of Christ, and 
is at the same time a representation of the 
figure of the cross. Ancient monuments 
exhibit the figure under two forms, or 
g (sc. %» p)> The silken banner which 
depended from it was embroidered with 
the figure of Constantine and his family. 
The labarum is engraved on some of his 
medals with the famous inscription, 

EN TOTTOI NTKA ; 
and it was preserved for a considerable 
time, and brought forward at the head of 
the armies of the emperor on important 
occasions, as the palladium or safeguard 
of the empire. The origin of the word is 
still undecided. 

Labda, daughter of Amphion, one of 
the Bacchiadee, wife of E'etion, and mother 
of Cypselus. See Cypselus I. 

LabdacIdes, a name given to (Edipus 
as descended from Labdacus. 

Labdacus, a son of Polydorus by Nyc- 
teis, daughter of Nycteus, king of Thebes. 



He was father of Laius, whose descendants 
were called Labdacides. See Laius. 

Labdalon, a hill near Syracuse, form- 
ing part of Epipohe, and fortified by the 
Athenians in their contest with Syracuse. 

Labeates, a people in the lower part of 
Dalmatia, whose territory formed the chief 
part of the dominions of Gentius. The 
capital was Scodra. Near it was situated 
Lacus Labeatis, new the Lake of Scutari. 

Labeo, a surname common to several 
distinguished Roman families, such as the 
Asconii, Antistii, Atinii, Cethegi, &c. It 
signified literally a thick~lipped person, 
from Lat. labium. Of the numerous 
persons who bore this name, the following 
were the most noted : — I. Antistius. (See 
Antistius Labeo. )- — II. Q,. Fabius, a Ro- 
man commander, who obtained a naval 
victory over the Cretans, and enjoyed the 
honours of a triumph. He was created 
consul b. c. 183, in conjunction with C. 
Marcellus, and commanded the army sta- 
tioned in Liguria. tie was accused of 
bad faith, a curious instance of which is 
related by Cicero (Off. 1 — 10. ); but was 
said to be of a literary turn, and to have 
assisted Terence in the composition of his 
comedies. 

Laberius, Decimus, a Roman knight, 
famous for his poetical talent in writing 
pantomimes. When in his sixtieth year 
he was prevailed upon by J. Csesar to ap- 
pear on the stage ; but the latter having 
taken offence at some expressions that had 
escaped from Laberius, strongly inimical 
to tyranny, bestowed the dramatic crown on 
his rival Publius Syra. After this morti- 
fication he retired to Puteoli, where he 
died about ten months after the assassina- 
tion of Caasar. A few fragments of the 
writings of Laberius still remain. 

Labicum, Colonna, a town of Italy, 
called also Lavicum, between Gabii and 
Tusculum, which became a Roman colony 
about four centuries b. c. 

Labienus, one of Cassar's lieutenants in 
the Gallic war. In the beginning of the 
civil war he left Cassar for Pompey, es- 
caped from the battle of Pharsalia, and was 

killed in that at Munda II. A son of 

the preceding, who inherited all his father's 
hatred to the party of Caesar. After the 
defeat of Brutus and Cassius he refused 
to submit to the triumvirs, and obtained a 
military command in Parthia, but was 
subsequently taken prisoner in Cilicia, and 
probably put to death. 

Laborini Campi, a name applied to the 
district between Cumae and Puteoli, now 
Terra di Lavoro. The modern name is 
probably derived from the ancient. 
v 2 



316 



LAB 



LAC 



Labradeus, a surname of Jupiter in 
Caria; from labrys, "a hatchet," which 
J upiter's statue held in its hand. 

Labynetus, a king of Babylon, sup- 
posed to be the same with Nebucho- 
donosor. 

Labyrinthus, literally a place, usually 
subterraneous, full of inextricable wind- 
ings. Ancient history gives an account 
of four celebrated labyrinths ; the Cretan, 
Egyptian, Lemnian, and Italian. The first 
was built by Daedalus at the instigation of 
Minos, to secure the Minotaur ; the second 
is said to have been constructed by Psam- 
metichus, king of Egypt; the third was 
on the island of Lemnos, and was sup- 
ported by columns of great beauty ; and 
the fourth was designed by Porsenna, king 
of Etruria, as a tomb for himself and his 
successors. Of these labyrinths the Cretan 
is most celebrated in the historical and 
mythological writings of antiquity; but 
the Egyptian was by far the most im- 
portant, both in extent and magnificence. 
The latter, which was built on the isle of 
Meroe, was a vast edifice, composed of 
twelve palaces, all contained within the 
compass of one wall, and communicating 
with each other. It had only one en- 
trance ; but the innumerable turnings and 
windings of the terraces and rooms of 
which it consisted rendered it impossible 
for those who had once entered within its 
walls to get out without a guide. It is 
said to have been designed either as a 
burial-place for the Egyptian kings, or for 
the preservation of the sacred crocodiles, 
the chief objects of Egyptian idolatry. It 
was partly demolished between the reigns 
of Augustus and Titus; but even at the 
period of Pliny's visit, its ruins were mag- 
nificent. Pococke's History of the East (vol. i. 
p. 61. &c. ), and Perry's View of the Levant 
(p. 381.), contain a plan and description of 
the modern state of this labyrinth. With 
regard to the labyrinth of Crete, no doubt 
can now remain, after the statements of 
Cockerell and Tournefort, that its exist- 
ence was a reality, and not merely a fabu- 
lous ereation of the Grecian imagination. 
According to these travellers, the island of 
Crete abounds, even at the present day, in 
extensive caverns, one of which, consisting 
principally of many long windings and 
narrow passages that can only be safely 
explored by means of a clue, exhibits a 
wonderful similarity in all essential par- 
ticulars to the famous labyrinth of Daeda- 
lus. It is impossible, at this distant period, 
to pronounce with certainty on so difficult 
-~a question ; but the substantial coincidences 
that exist between the ancient and modern 



labyrinths seem to leave little doubt as to 
their identity. 

Lacuna, an epithet applied to a female 
native of Laconia, and, among others, to 
Helen. 

Laced^mon, I., a son of Jupiter and 
Taygeta, daughter of Atlas, who married 
Sparta, daughter of Eurotas, by whom he 
had Amyclas and Eurydice, wife of Acri- 
sius. He first introduced the worship of 
the Graces into Laconia, and built a temple 
for them. From Lacedaemon and his wife, 
the capital of Laconia was called Lacedae- 
mon and Sparta. — II. A noble city of 
Peloponnesus, capital of Laconia, called 
also Sparta, now Misatra; severally known 
by the name of Lelegia, from the Leleges, 
first inhabitants of the country, or Lelex, 
one of their kings; OZbalia, from QSba- 
lus, the sixth king from Eurotas ; and He- 
catompolis, from the 100 cities which the 
whole province once contained. "When 
the Heraclidae recovered the Peloponne- 
sus, about eighty years after the Trojan 
war, Procles and Eurysthenes, sons of 
Aristodemus, enjoyed the crown together, 
and after them it was decreed that the two 
families should always fill the throne in 
conjunction. These two brothers began to 
reign b. c. 1 1 02 ; and the successors in the 
family of Procles were called Proclidae, af- 
terwards Eurypontidae; those of Eurysthe- 
nes, Eurysthenidae, and afterwards Agidae. 
It would be impossible within our limits 
to give even an outline of the history and 
institutions of this celebrated city. The 
principal events are detailed in the lives of 
its kings and legislators, &c, while for a 
brief notice of its institutions we must refer 
the reader to the terms Gerusia, Ephori,&c. 
The inhabitants of Lacedaemon have ren- 
dered themselves illustrious for courage, 
love of honour and liberty, aversion to 
sloth and luxury. Their laws commanded 
them to make war their profession. From 
their valour in the field, and moderation and 
temperance at home, they were courted 
and revered by all the neighbouring princes, 
and their assistance was severally implored 
to protect the Carthaginians, Cyreneans, 
Egyptians, Sicilians, Thracians, &c. After 
the destruction of Corinth by the Romans, 
b. c. 146, Sparta was subjugated like the 
rest of Greece ; and although it retained 
its authority for a short time, its name 
was soon blotted out from the page of 
history. 

Laced^monii, and Laceb^emones, in- 
habitants of Lacedaemon. See Laced^mon. 

Lachesis, one of the Parcae, from \a- 
X^v, " to measure out by lot." She pre- 
sided over futurity, and was represented as 



LAC 



317 



spinning the thread of life, or, according 
to others, holding the spindle. 

Lacidas. See Lacydes. 

Lacinia, a surname of Juno from her 
temple at Lacinium in Italy, which the 
Crotonians and the surrounding nations 
held in great veneration. See Crotona, 

Lacinium Promontoriuji, a celebrated 
promontory of Italy, in the territory of the 
Brutii, about six miles south of Crotona, 
famous for the temple of Juno Lacinia, 
the ruins of which still exist. The mo- 
dern name is Capo delle Colonne. See 
Crotona. 

Laconica, or Laconia, a maritime 
country of Peloponnesus, having Messenia 
on the west, and Arcadia and Argolis on 
the north. The coast of Laconia was fur- 
nished with a considerable number of sea- 
ports, towns, and commodious harbours, 
the chief of which were Trinassus, Acria, 
Gytheum, and Epidaurus. Of the nu- 
merous mountains of Laconia, the most 
famous was Taygetus, and its principal 
river was the Eurotas, on which stood 
the capital, Sparta or Lacedaemon. Lelex 
is supposed to have been the first king, 
and the sovereignty remained in his family 
till shortly before the Trojan war, when 
Menelaus and Agamemnon, descendants of 
Pelops, obtained possession of the country 
by marrying Helen and Clytemnestra, the 
daughters of Tyndarus, the last monarch 
of the ancient dynasty. In the reign of 
Tisamenus, grandson of Agamemnon, La- 
conia was invaded by the Heraclidae, and 
from this period its history is completely 
identified with that of its capital Lacedae- 
mon, which see. The term Laconic is 
taken from the mode adopted by the 
Spartans of expressing themselves in short 
and pithy sentences. See Lacf-d^emon. 

Lactaktius, a celebrated Christian 
writer, generally called Lucius Ca?lius, or 
Csecilius Firmianus, according to some a 
native of Africa, while others have con- 
jectured that he was born at Firmium in 
Italy. He was a scholar of Arnobius, a 
rhetorician of Sicca in Africa, and on the 
invitation of Diocletian he went to Nico- 
media, where he opened a school of ora- 
tory. The period of his death is uncertain, 
but it is generally placed about a. d. 325. 
His chief work is the " Divine Insti- 
tutions " The expressive purity, elegance, 
and energy of his style have gained him 
the name of the Christian Cicero. 

Lacydes, a philosopher of Cyrene, who 
filled the chair of the Platonic school at 
Athens after the death of Arcesilaus. He 
assumed this office in the fourth year of 
the 134th Olympiad. He died of a palsy, 



occasioned by excessive drinking, in the 
second year of the 141st Olympiad. 

Ladon, I., a small stream of Elis, pass- 
ing by Pylas and flowing into the Peneus. 
It is now the Derviche, or Tcheliber. — 
II. A river of Arcadia, which rises in the 
north, and, after a considerable course, 
falls into the Alpheus above Olympia. 
It was said to be the most beautiful of all 
the Grecian streams ; its banks were the 
scene of the adventures of Daphne and 
Syrinx ; one of its tributaries, the Arva- 
nius, produced fishes which sang like 
blackbirds. 

Ljelius, C, I., a Roman consul, surnamed 
Nepos, who accompanied Scipio Africanus 
the Elder in his campaigns in Spain and 
Africa. After numerous gallant achieve- 
ments, both in Africa and Spain, for which 
he was honoured with the highest com- 
mendations of Scipio, he was elected prae- 
tor, b. c. 1 97, and obtained the government 
of Sicily. Three years later, he was 
elected consul, and being appointed to the 
province of Italy, re-peopled Cremona and 
Placentia, which had been depopulated by 
war and pestilence. He wrote an account 
of Scipio's campaigns in Spain and Africa, 
of which Polybius has largely availed 
himself. — II. Son of the preceding, sur- 
named Sapiens, was celebrated as a philo- 
sopher, orator, and commander. He dis- 
tinguished himself at the siege of Car- 
thage ; was afterwards sent as prastor into 
Spain, where he broke the power of the 
chieftain Viriathus ; was elected into the 
college of augurs b. c. 11 3, and associated 
with C. Servilius Ca?pio in the consulship 
b.c. 104. Besides Scipio and other dis- 
tinguished generals, he numbered among 
his friends Pacuvius and Terence, the 
latter of whom he is said to have assisted 
in the composition of his comedies. 

Laertes, I., king of Ithaca, son of 
Arcesius and Chalcomedusa, husband of 
Anticlea, daughter of Autolycus, and re- 
puted father of Ulysses, to whom he 
ceded his crown. (See Anticlea.) He 
was one of the Argonauts. — II. A strongly 
fortified town and harbour of Cilicia, on 
the confines of Pamphylia. It was the 
birth-place of Diogenes, surnamed Laer- 
tius. 

LiESTRYGONEs, a gigantic and anthropo- 
phagous race, mentioned by Homer in the 
wanderings of Ulysses. By some they are 
supposed to be the most ancient inha- 
bitants of Sicily ; by others to be the same 
as the people of Leontium, and to have 
been neighbours to the Cyclops. The 
name of their king was Antiphates. See 
Antiphates. 

F 3 



318 



L2ET 



LAM 



L^etoria Lex, I., a law enacted at 
Rome, a. u. c. 292, ordaining that the 
plebeian magistrates should be elected at 
the Comitia Tributa. — II. A law passed 
a. u. c. 490, against the defrauding of 
minors. By this law the years of mi- 
nority were limited to 25; and no one 
below that age could make a legal bargain. 

L^vinus, I., P. Valerius, a Roman con- 
sul sent against Pyrrhus, a. u. c. 47'2. 
On being offered terms of accommodation, 
he informed the monarch that the Ro- 
mans would not accept him as an arbi- 
trator in the war with Tarentum, and 
feared him not as an enemy. He was 
defeated by Pyrrhus, near Heraclea ; but, 
subsequently, gave that monarch some 
decided checks ; and, by great general- 
ship, prevented Capua from falling into 
his hands. — II. M. Valerius, of a con- 
sular family, Avas appointed pra?tor b. c. 
214. During the period of his office he 
gained several successes over Philip of 
Macedon, and, by detaching the iEtolians 
from his side, enabled the Romans to ob- 
tain their first firm footing in Greece. 
Being associated in the consulship with 
M. Marcellus, e. c. 210, he obtained the 
province of Sicily, reduced Agrigentum, 
and, the following year, gained a splendid 
victory over the Carthaginian fleet. He 
was afterwards deputed to visit the court 
of Attalus, king of Pergamus, to obtain 
the statue of Cybele ; and, b. c. 201, was 
sent as propraetor to Macedonia against 
Philip, but died the following year. Fu- 
neral games of four days' duration were 
celebrated in his honour by his sons. — 
III. P. Val., a descendant of the pre- 
ceding, despised at Rome because he was 
distinguished by no good quality. 

Lagus, a Macedonian of mean extrac- 
tion, who married Arsinoe, daughter of 
Meleager, then pregnant by king Philip, 
and, anxious to hide the disgrace of his 
wife, exposed the child in the woods. An 
eagle, however, having preserved the life 
of the infant, Lagus adopted him, and 
called him Ptolemy, conjecturing that, as 
his life had been so miraculously pre- 
served, a high destiny awaited him. This 
Ptolemy became king of Egypt after the 
death of Alexander ; and has received the 
surname Lagus to distinguish him from 
his successors. The surname of Lagides 
was transmitted to all his descendants on 
the Egyptian throne till the reign of Cleo- 
patra. 

Lagusa, I., Christiana, an island in 
the Sinus Glaucus, near the northern 
coast of Lycia. — II., or Laguss^e, Ta- 
ockan Adasi, an island, or rather a cluster 



of islands, off the coast of Troas, to the 
north of Tenedos. 

Laiades, a patronymic of QEdipus, son 
of Laius. 

Lais, I., the most celebrated courtesan 
of Greece, was born at Hyccara in Sicily, 
whence she was transported to Athens, 
when Nicias, the Athenian general, in- 
vaded Sicily. When still very young she 
consecrated herself to the service of Venus; 
and the fame of her beauty drew together 
strangers from every part of Greece. 
Having become deeply enamoured of Hip- 
postratus, a Thessalian youth, she followed 
him into Thessaly ; but the women of the 
country, jealous of her charms, assassi- 
nated her in the temple of Venus, about 
b. c. 340. A magnificent tomb was built 
to contain her remains, and medals were 
struck in commemoration of her charms. — 
II. A Grecian courtesan, often confounded 
with the former, but who lived fifty or 
sixty years later. She is sometimes said 
to have been the daughter of Demos- 
thenes. 

Laius, a son of Labdacus, who suc- 
ceeded to the throne of Thebes, which his 
grandfather Nycteus had left to the care 
of his brother Lycus till his grandson 
came of age. He was driven from his 
kingdom by Amphion and Zethus, who 
were incensed against Lycus for the in- 
dignities Antiope had suffered; but was 
afterwards restored, and married Jocasta, 
daughter of Creon. An oracle having in- 
formed him that he should perish by the 
hand of his son, the infant which Jocasta 
had brought forth was given to a servant, 
with orders to put him to death. The 
servant, however, moved with compassion, 
exposed him on Mt. Cithasron, where his 
life was preserved by a shepherd. The 
child, called OZdipus, was educated in the 
court of Polybus, and many years after- 
wars, Laius having accidentally met his 
son in a narrow path, ordered him to make 
way for him, when a contest arose in which 
OZdipus slew his father, neither of them 
having known who the other was. See 
GZdipus. 

Lamachus, a son of Xenophanes, sent 
into Sicily with Nicias, and killed, b. c 
414, before Syracuse, where he displayed 
much courage and intrepidity. He is in- 
troduced by Aristophanes into the play of 
the Acharnenses with some degree of ridi- 
cule. 

Lambrhs, Lambrone, a river of Cisal- 
pine Gaul, issuing from the Eupilis La- 
cus, and falling into the Olona, one of the 
tributaries of the Po. 

Lamia, I., a town of Thessaly, at the 



LAM 



LAM 



219 



bottom of the Sinus Maliacus ov Lamiacus. 
It is celebrated in history as the principal 
scene of the war which was carried on be- 
tween the Macedonians under Antipater 
and the Athenians with other confederate 
Greeks. (See Lamiacum Bellum.) The 
modern Ztitoun corresponds to the ancient 
Lamia. — II. Aelius, a Homan of a dis- 
tinguished family, claiming descent from 
Lamus, the most ancient king of the La?s- 
trygones. He signalised himself in the 
wars with the Cantabri as one of the lieu- 
tenants of Augustus. 

Lamia, an imaginary being, concerning 
which many superstitious notions were 
prevalent among the Greeks and Romans ; 
sometimes represented as a species of mon- 
strous animal, sometimes as a spectre or 
vampire. The Lamia? of Pliny are ani- 
mals, with the face and head of a woman 
and tail of a serpent, inhabiting the deserts 
of Africa. According to mythologists, the 
first Lamia was a daughter of Neptune, a 
malevolent goddess, who .seizes and de- 
vours new-born infants in their cradles. 

Lamiacum Bellum, the war which hap- 
pened after the death of Alexander, when 
the Greeks, particularly the Athenians, re- 
solved to free Greece from the garrisons 
of the Macedonians. Leosthenes was ap- 
pointed commander of a numerous force, 
and marched against Antipater, who then 
presided over Macedonia. Antipater hav- 
ing entered Thessaly at the head of 1 3,000 
foot and 600 horse, was beaten by the 
Athenians and their Greek confederates, 
and fled to Lamia, b. c. 323, where he 
resolved to maintain a siege with about 
8000 or 9000 men who had escaped from 
the field of battle. Leosthenes, unable to 
take the city by storm, began to make a 
regular siege. His operations, however, were 
delayed by the frequent sallies of Antipater ; 
and Leosthenes being killed by the blow of 
a stone, Antipater made his escape out of 
Lamia, and soon after, with the assistance 
of the army of Craterus brought from 
Asia, gave the Athenians battle near Cra- 
non ; and though only 500 of their men 
were slain, they became so dispirited that 
they sued for peace from the conqueror. 
Antipater at last consented, provided they 
raised taxes in the usual manner, received 
a Macedonian garrison, defrayed the ex- 
penses of the war, and lastly delivered into 
his hands Demosthenes and Hyperides, 
the two orators whose prevailing eloquence 
had excited their countrymen against him. 
These terms were accepted by the Athe- 
nians, yet Demosthenes had time to escape 
and poison himself. Hyperides Avas car- 
ried before Antipater, who ordered his 



tongue to be cut off, and afterwards put 
him to death. 

Lampadephoria, a torch race, which 
it was customary to exhibit at certain sa- 
cred festivals at Athens. The performers 
were three young men, to one of whom, 
chosen by lot, was given a lighted torch, 
which he was to carry to the goal unex- 
tinguished ; or if he failed, to deliver it to 
the second ; who, if he failed also, gave 
it to the third : whence a metaphor is 
sometimes derived by ancient writers, to 
be applied to persons who anxiously wait 
for the death of others. If the runners 
slackened their pace, they were driven on 
by the blows of the spectators. This an- 
cient usage is beautifully applied by Lu- 
cretius to the succession of human genera- 
tions ; — 

Et, quasi cursores, vitai lampada tradunt. 

Lampedo, wife of Archidamus II. , king of 
Sparta, and celebrated for being at once the 
daughter, wife, sister, and mother of a king. 

J_iAMPETIA, t., a daughter of Apollo and 
Nea?ra; who, with her sister Phae'tusa, 
guarded her father's flocks and herds in 
Sicily when Ulysses arrived on that island. 
These herds were held sacred ; but the 
companions of Ulysses, impelled by hun- 
ger, carried away and killed some of the 
oxen. The keepers complained to their 
father, and Jupiter, at the request of 
Apollo, punished the offence of the Greeks. 
The hides appeared to walk, and the flesh 
roasting by the fire began to bellow, and 
nothing was heard but dreadful lowings. 
The companions of Ulysses embarked, but 
the resentment of Jupiter followed them. 
A storm arose, and they all perished ex- 
cept Ulysses, who saved himself on the 
broken piece of a mast. — II. One of the 
Heliades, changed into a poplar-tree at 
the death of her brother Phaethon. 

Lampridius iELius, a Latin historian 
in the fourth century, who wrote the lives 
of some of the Roman emperors. His 
style is inelegant, and his arrangement in- 
judicious. 

Lampsacus and Lampsacum, Lamsaki, 
a city of Mysia in Asia Minor, on the 
Hellespont; formerly called Pityusa, from 
the number of pine-trees which grew there. 
The neighbouring country was termed 
Abarnis or Aparnis, because Venus, who 
was here delivered of Priapus, was so dis- 
gusted with his appearance, that she dis- 
owned (airi)pv7)(T<xTo) him for her offspring. 
Priapus was the chief deity of the city, 
of which he was reckoned by some the 
founder ; and his temple there was the 
asylum of debauchery. Alexander resolved 
P 4 



S20 



LAM 



LAO 



to destroy the city, on account of the 
vices of the inhabitants ; but it was saved 
from ruin by the artifice of Anaximenes. 
See Anaximenes. 

Lamus, I., a king of the Laestrygones, 
fabled to have founded Formiae in Italy, 
and to have given their origin to the Roman 
family of the Lamiae. — II. A son of Her- 
cules and Omphale, said to have succeeded 
his mother on the throne of Lydia. — III. 
A river in the western part of Cilicia 
Campestris, Lamuzo. It gave to the ad- 
jacent district the name of Lamotis. 

Lancia, the name of two towns in Lu- 
sitania, distinguished by the appellations 
of Oppidana and Transcudana. The for- 
mer, now La Guarda, was on the fron- 
tiers of the Lusitani, near the sources of 
the Munda, Mondego. The latter lay to 
the east of the former, and is now Ciudad 
Rodrigo. It was called Transcudana, be- 
cause it lay beyond the Cuda. 

Langobardi, a people of Germany, on 
the Albis, Elbe, and the Viadras, Oder, 
in part of what is now called Brandenburg. 
They were the progenitors of the Lom- 
bards, who overran Italy in a later age. 

Lanuvium, a town of Latium, about 
sixteen miles from Rome on the Appian 
road. On the subjugation of the whole of 
Latium by the Romans, Lanuvium was 
treated with more moderation than the 
other Latin towns ; the inhabitants were 
made Roman citizens, and their privileges 
and sacred rights were preserved, on con- 
dition that the temple and worship of Juno 
Sospita, which were held in great venera- 
tion in their city, should be common to 
the Romans also. It remained ever after 
faithful to the Romans. Lanuvium was 
the birth-place of Milo, Roscius, the three 
Antonines, and several other distinguished 
persons. 

Laocoon, a son of Priam and Hecuba, or 
according to others of Antenor or of Ca- 
pys. He was priest of Apollo or Neptune 
during the Trojan war. While he was 
engaged in sacrificing a bull to Neptune, 
two enormous serpents sent by Minerva, 
in revenge for his having endeavoured to 
dissuade the Trojans from admitting the 
famous wooden horse within their walls, 
issued from the sea ; and having fastened 
on his two sons, whom he vainly endea- 
voured to save, at last attacked the father 
himself, and crushed him to death in their 
complicated folds. This story has gained 
immortal celebrity from its forming the 
subject of one of the most beautiful groups 
of sculpture in the whole history of ancient 
art. The composition is pyramidal, and 
represents Laocoon and his two sons writh- 



ing and expiring in the convolutions of the 
serpents. Agony in an intense degree is 
exhibited in the countenance and convuls- 
ed body of Laocoon, who is attempting to 
disengage himself from the serpents ; and 
the sons are represented as imploring as- 
sistance from their helpless parent. Of 
this famous group of sculpture Pliny says, 
that it is " opus omnibus pictures et statu- 
arece artis preferendum." It was discovered 
at Rome among the ruins of the palace of 
Titus at the beginning of the sixteenth 
century, and afterwards placed in the Far- 
nese palace, whence it found its way to 
the Vatican. It was executed by Poly- 
dorus, Agesander, Athenodorus, the three 
celebrated artists of Rhodes. 

Laodamia, L, called also Phylacea, a 
daughter of Acastus and Astydamia, and 
wife of Protesilaus, son of Iphiclus, king 
of part of Thessaly. (See Protesilaus.) 
On receiving intelligence of the death of 
her husband in the Trojan war, she caused 
an image of him to be formed, which she 
kept constantly before her. Her father 
ordered the image to be burned, that her 
thoughts might be diverted from her loss ; 
but Laodamia threw herself into the flames, 
and perished along with it. Hence arose 
probably the traditions of the later poets, 
that Protesilaus was restored to life for 
three hours, and when obliged to return 
to the infernal regions persuaded his wife 
to accompany him. — II. A daughter of 
Bellerophon, by Achemone, daughter of 
king Iobates, and mother of Sarpedon. 
She dedicated herself to the service of 
Diana, and hunted with her ; but her 
haughtiness proved fatal to her, and she 
perished by the arrows of the goddess. — 
III. A daughter of Alexander, king of 
Epirus, by Olympia, daughter of Pyrrhus. 
She was assassinated by Milo in the temple 
of Diana, to which she had fled for safety, 
during a sedition. 

Laodice, the name common to several 
ladies of antiquity, of whom the most 
celebrated are — I., a daughter of Priam 
and Hecuba. She became enamoured of 
Acamas, son of Theseus, when he came 
with Diomedes from the Greeks to Troy 
with an embassy to demand the restoration 
of Helen, and had by him a son called 
Munitus. She afterwards married Tele- 
phus, king of Mysia ; and on being deserted 
by him, she became the wife of Helicaon, 
son of Antenor. -The rest of her history has 
been variously related. — II. A daughter of 
Agamemnon, called also Electra. (See 
Electba.) — III. The wife of Antiochus, 
one of Philip's officers, and mother of 
Seleucus Nicator. ( Consult Justin, 1 5. 4. )— 



LAO 



LAP 



321 



IV. The sister and wife of Antioehus 
Theos. (See AntiochusII. j — V. Adaugh- 
ter of Mithridates, king of Pontus, and 
wife of Antioehus the Great, king of Syria. 
— VI. The sister and wife of Mithridates 
Eupator. (Consult Justin, 37. 8. ) — VII. 
Wife of Ariarathes V., king of Cappa- 
docia. See Ariarathes V. 

Laodicea, a name common to several 
cities of antiquity, of which the most cele- 
brated were — I. a city of Phrygia, situated 
on the Lycus, and thence called Laodicea 
ad Lycum. Its situation coincides exactly 
with that of Cydrara mentioned by Hero- 
dotus. Being on the borders of the three 
provinces, Phrygia, Caria, and Lydia, it 
contained three boundary stones ; hence it 
was called by ecclesiastical writers Trime- 
taria. Laodicea, so called from the wife of its 
founder, Antioehus II., was long an incon- 
siderable place, notwithstanding the benefi- 
cence of Hiero, Zeno the philosopher, and 
his son Polemo. After its sufferings, how- 
ever, in a siege of Mithridates, the Romans 
strengthened and enlarged it ; so that at 
length, about the Christian sera, it became, 
next to Apamea Cibotos, the largest city 
of Phrygia, and vied in importance with 
the cities on the coast. There can be little 
doubt that it was visited by St. Paul in the 
course of his missionary tour through Asia 
Minor ; and perhaps the Christian converts 
of Laodicea, as well as those of Colossa 
and Hierapolis (Pambouk), both neigh- 
bouring towns, were the results of the 
apostle's preaching. . ]n the Epistle to the 
Colossians (iv. 16.) mention is made of an 
Epistle to the Laodiceans ; and though 
some critics have maintained that it is 
identical with that to the Ephesians, the 
more probable conjecture is that it has not 
come down to us. The persecution which 
raged in Asia Minor during the latter part 
of the first century tended somewhat to 
abate the zeal of the Laodicean Christians, 
and hence the rebuke in the Revelations. 
Of the subsequent history of this city for 
several centuries we know little: it was 
generally in a prosperous condition under 
the Roman emperors, and was flourishing 
even in 1 1 90, when Frederic Barbarossa 
visited it on his way to the third crusade. 
The ruins of Laodicea are now called by 
the Turks Eski-Hissar. — II. Scabiosa, a 
city of Syria, south-west of Emesa and the 
Orontes ; sometimes, though erroneously, 
styled Laodicea Cabiosa. The epithet 
Scabiosa must have reference to the leprosy, 
or some cutaneous complaint very preva- 
lent here in the time of the Roman power. 
Its previous name under the Greeks was 
Laodicea ad Libanum. Hasseiah occupies 



the site of the ancient city. — III. Ad 
Mare, a maritime city of Syria, built on an 
eminence by Seleucus Nicator in honour of 
his mother. It was a town of considerable 
importance before the conquest of Syria by 
the Romans. It was visited by Julius Cae- 
sar when on his way from Egypt to Pon- 
tus, and is styled Juliopolis on some of its 
medals. During the civil wars, Dolabella, 
with his fleet and army, was shut up in it 
by Cassius, and obliged to surrender. It 
became a bishop's see early in the Christian 
aera, and was held by the Christians when 
the Crusaders invaded Syria. It was af- 
terwards included in the empire of Saladin, 
and was finally added to the Turkish do- 
minions by Selim L, in 1517. The site 
of the ancient city is occupied by the mo- 
dern Latakia, and the size and grandeur of 
the former are fully attested by the extent 
of its ruins. — IV. Combusta, a city of 
Lycaonia, north-west of Iconium. The 
name is supposed to be owing to the fre- 
quent breaking forth of subterranean fires 
in its vicinity. The site is occupied by the 
modern Ladik. — V. A town of Media, on 
the confines of Persia. — VI. A town of 
Mesopotamia, near Seleucia. 

Laodicene, a province of Syria, which 
receives its name from Laodicea, its 
capital. 

Laodochus, a son of Antenor, whose 
form Minerva borrowed to advise Pandarus 
to break the treaty which subsisted between 
the Greeks and Trojans. 

Laomedon, son of Ilus, king of Troy, 
married Strymon, daughter of the Scaman- 
der, or Plakia, daughter of Atreus, by 
whom he had Tithonus, Lampus, Clitius, 
Hiketaeon, Podarces (afterwards called 
Priam), Hesione, and two other daughters. 
When Apollo and Neptune had been ba- 
nished from heaven by Jupiter, and con- 
demned to obey Laomedon for one year, they 
agreed to build a wall round Troy for a sti- 
pulated sum. But when on the completion 
of the walls Laomedon refused to reward the 
labours of the gods, and dismissed them 
with contumely, his territories were soon 
afterwards laid waste by the god of the 
sea, and his subjects visited by a pestilence 
sent by Apollo. Sacrifices were offered to 
the offended divinities, but the oracle de- 
clared that nothing could appease them but 
the annual exposure of a Trojan virgin to 
a sea monster. For the remainder of his 
story see Hesione. 

Laomedonteus, and Laomedontiad;e, 
an epithet and patronymic applied to the 
Trojans from their king Laomedon. 

Laphystium, a mountain in Boeotia, 
where Jupiter. had a temple, thence called 
r 5 



322 



LAP 



LAR 



Laphystius. Here Athamas prepared to 
immolate Phryxus and Helle, whom Ju- 
piter saved by sending them a golden 
ram. 

Lapith^e, a people of Thessaly, whose 
contest with the Centaurs forms a con- 
spicuous legend in classical mythology. 
See Centauiu. 

Lara or Larunda, one of the Naiads, 
daughter of the river Almon in Latium, 
famous for her beauty and loquacity. She 
revealed to Juno the amours of her hus- 
band Jupiter with Juturna, for which the 
god cut off her tongue ; and she is fabled 
to have become the mother of the Lares 
by Mercury. See Juturna. 

Lares, a term of Tuscan origin, equi- 
valent to princes or kings, generally ap- 
plied to a class of deities among the Ro- 
mans, regarded as certain spirits of dead 
men who were supposed to watch over 
and protect the living. They were very 
numerous, and were ranked in classes ac- 
cording to the departments over which 
they presided; but the great division was 
into Lares Privati and Lares Publici. 
The Lares Privati, or, as they were some- 
times called, Domestici, or Familiares, 
were tutelary spirits who received the 
homage of all the persons who lived under 
the same roof. The spot peculiarly sacred 
to them was the focus or hearth, situated 
in the Atrium, or principal apartment, 
and considered the central point of the 
mansion. Here stood the altar for do- 
mestic sacrifice, and near it was usually 
a niche, containing little images of these 
gods, to whom offerings of flowers, frank- 
incense, and wine were presented from 
time to time, and regularly on the kalends 
of each month. To these Lares marked 
attention was paid at all the most im- 
portant periods of life. Of the Lares Pub- 
lici, the chief were, 1. the Lares Ru rales, 
who presided over flocks, herds, and the 
fruits of the earth. 2. Lares Compitales, 
worshipped at the spot where two or 
more roads crossed each other. (See 
Compitalia. ) 3. Lares Viales, probably 
the same as the preceding. 4. Lares Vi- 
corum, guardians of the streets. 5. Lares 
Preestites, protectors of the city. ( Consult 
Ovid. Fast. v. 129.), and 6. Lares Perma- 
rini, the guardians of mariners. See 
Penates. 

Larides, son of Oaucus or Daunus, who 
assisted Turnus against JEneas, and had 
his hand cut off with one blow by Pallas, 
the son of Evander. 

Larinum or Larina, a town of Apulia, 
which once belonged to the Frentani, the 
name Larinates Frentani having been at- 



tached by Pliny to the inhabitants. Its 
ruins occupy the site called Larina Veechio. 

Larissa, a name common to several 
ancient cities, of which the most celebrated 
were : — I. A town of Syria, on the west- 
ern side of the Orontes, south-east of Apa- 
mea. It was either founded or re-esta- 
blished by Seleucus Nicator. — II. A city 
of Assyria, on the banks of the Tigris. 
The 10,000 found it deserted, and in ruins. 
— III. A town of iEolis, in Asia Minor, 
lying east of Phocaea on the Hermus. 
Xenophon calls it the Egyptian Larissa, 
because it was one of the towns which 
Cyrus the elder gave to the Egyptians, 
who had come over to him from the army 
of Crcesus. — IV. An ancient and flourish- 
ing city of Thessaly, on the right bank of 
the Peneus. It is of very high antiquity, 
claiming, in competition with Phthia, the 
honour of being the birth-place of Achilles, 
hence called Larissean, and being probably 
identical with the UeXdcryiKov "Apyos men- 
tioned by Homer in his catalogue of the 
Greek forces. At a subsequent period it 
acquired some celebrity from its adoption 
of the democratical form of government, 
and from its zealous support of the Athe- 
nian cause during the Peloponnesian war. 
It afterwards fell into the hands of Philip 
of Macedon and his successors, under whom 
it remained till the subversion of their em- 
pire by the Romans. Under the early Ro- 
man emperors it appears to have declined 
from its ancient importance. The modern 
city retains the ancient name. 

Larissus, a river of Elis, forming the 
boundary between it and Achaia. It is- 
sued from Mt. Scollis, called by Homer 
the " Olenian Rock." The modern name 
is Bisso or Mana. 

Larius, Lake of Como, or Lago di Como, 
a celebrated lake of Cisalpine Gaul, north 
of the Padus, and east of the Lacus Ver- 
banus. Its greatest length, following its 
windings, is about forty-five miles, but it 
is nowhere above four in breadth. It re- 
ceives several rivers, and, among others, 
the Addua, Adda, which again emerges 
from it, and pursues its course to the 
Padus, Po. The younger Pliny had se- 
veral villas on the borders of this lake, the 
site of one of which is said to be occupied 
by the modern Villa Pliniana. 

Lars Tolumnius, a king of the Veientes 
conquered by the Romans, and put to 
death, a. u. c. 318. See Opima Spolia. 

Lartius Florus, T., I , a consul, who 
appeased a sedition raised by the poorer 
citizens, and was the first dictator chosea 
at Rome, b. c- 498. — IT. Spurius, one 
of the three Romans who alone withstood 



LAR 



LAT 



323 



Porsenna's army at the head of a bridge, 
while the communication was cutting 
down behind them. His companions were 
Codes and Herminius. See Cocles. 

Larvae. See Manes. 

Lassus, or Lasus, a dithyrambic poet, 
born at Hermione in Peloponnesus about 
B. c. 500 ; and according to some authori- 
ties, the instructor of Pindar. He is said 
to have been the first to introduce the Di- 
thyrambic measure into the celebration of 
the Olympic games. 

Later an us Plautius, a Roman consul 
elect, a. d. 65, who conspired against Nero. 
The conspiracy, however, was detected, and 
proved fatal to himself. Being led to ex- 
ecution, he refused to confess the associates 
of the conspiracy, and did not even frown at 
the executioner, who was as guilty as him- 
self, but when a first blow could not sever his 
head from his body, he looked at the exe- 
cutioner, and, shaking his head, returned 
it to the hatchet with the greatest compo- 
sure. 

Latins Ferine, or Latin Holidays, 
religious festivals celebrated on the Alban 
mount by all the states of Latium in 
common. The deputies of the various 
cities, with those from Rome, met on the 
Alban mount, where, under the presidency 
of the latter, they sacrificed a bull to Ju- 
piter Latialis, and under sanction of this 
ceremony took oaths to preserve their 
mutual friendship and alliance. This 
festival was originally instituted by the 
second Tarquin, in whose time, and long 
subsequently, it lasted for one day only ; 
but in process of time it was extended to 
four. It was observed by the consuls regu- 
larly before they set out for their provinces. 

Latini, the inhabitants of Latium. See 
Latium. 

Latinus, L, a son of Faunus by Marica, 
king of the Aborigines in Italy, from him 
called Latini. He married Amata, by 
whom he had a son and daughter. The 
son died in infancy ; and the daughter, 
Lavinia, subsequently became the wife of 
iEneas, to Whom Latinus left his throne. 
(See .3£neas, Lavinia.) — II. A son of 
Silvius JEneas, surnamed also Silvius. He 
was fifth king of the Latins, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Alba. 

Latium, a country of Italy which ori- 
ginally extended only from the Tiber to 
Circeii, but afterwards comprised the terri- 
tories of the Volsci, JEqui, Hernici, Au- 
sones, Umbri, and Rutuli ; whence arose 
the distinction between Latium antiquum 
and Latium novum. Latium was originally 
possessed by the Siculi, who were driven out 
by the Pelasgi and Aborigines j and the 



latter gave the country the name of Latium, 
calling themselves Latini, probably from 
their king, Latinus. Soon after the found- 
ation of Rome a war broke out between 
the Romans and the Latins, which ended 
in the subjugation of the latter and the de- 
struction of their capital. Under Serviua 
Tullius the two nations became united, and 
from this period may be dated the rise of 
the grandeur and power of Rome. Tar- 
quinius Superbus sought to draw more 
close the bonds that united them ; but after 
his expulsion from Rome he induced the 
Latins to embrace his cause, and their de- 
feat at the Lake Regillus rendered them 
more than ever dependent upon Rome. 
A perpetual league was some years after- 
wards formed between them ; but b. c. 339, 
the Latins having demanded that one of the 
consuls and half of the senate should be 
chosen from their body, the Romans re- 
fused, and a war little else than civil broke 
out, which ended in the submission of the 
Latins. After the termination of the So- 
cial war all the Latin cities which had not 
taken part with the allies obtained the rights 
of Roman citizens. Many of them were, 
however, afterwards deprived of their pri- 
vileges by Sylla ; and it was not till the 
close of the republic that the Latins were 
admitted generally to participate in all the 
rights and immunities enjoyed by the Qui- 
rites. Laurentum was the capital of La- 
tium in the reign of Latinus ; Lavinium 
under JEneas ; Alba Longa under Ascanius. 

Latmus, a mountain of Caria near 
Miletus, famous for having been the scene 
of the fable of Endymion. (See En- 
nyMioN.) The mountain gave to the ad- 
jacent bay the name of Latmicus Sinus. 
In the vicinity of this mountain stood the 
city Heraclea, thence called virb AarfjLov, 

Latobrigi, a people of Belgic Gaul, in 
the vicinity of the Tulingi, Rauraci, and 
Helvetii, on the banks of the Pdiine. 

Latois, a name of Diana as the daugh- 
ter of Latona. 

Latomije. See Latumi^e. 

Latona, a daughter of Cceus the Titan, 
or, according to Homer, of Saturn and 
Phoebe. In the Iliad, she appears as one 
of the wives of Jupiter, and no traces of 
enmity between her and Juno are visible. 
Later poets, however, speak much of the 
persecutions she underwent from that god- 
dess. Thus it is said that when she Avas 
pregnant by Jupiter, Juno sent the serpent 
Pytho to persecute her. She accordingly 
wandered from place to place, was driven 
from heaven, and even the earth refused 
to give her a place of rest. Neptune, at 
last, moved with compassion, struck with 
r 6 



324 



LAT 



LEB 



his trident, and made immovable the island 
of Delos, which before floated about in the 
iEgean sea ; and Latona, changed into a 
quail by Jupiter, repaired thither, where 
she resumed her original shape, and gave 
birth to Apollo and Diana. Juno having 
discovered the place of her retreat, she was 
obliged to fly from Delos, and wandered 
over the greatest part of the world. Being 
insulted and ridiculed by some peasants in 
Caria, whom she asked for water, she in- 
treated Jupiter to punish their barbarity, 
and they were all changed into frogs. She 
was exposed to repeated insults by Niobe 
(see Niobe) ; and her beauty proved fatal 
to the giant Tityus, whom Apollo and 
Diana put to death. At last, however, 
Latona became a powerful deity, and saw 
her children receive divine honours. Her 
worship was generally established where 
her children received adoration, particu- 
larly at Argos, Delos, &c, where she had 
temples. She had an oracle in Egypt, 
celebrated for its true and decisive answers. 
Latona is usually represented under the 
form of a large and comely woman, with 
a black veil on her head. 

Latopolis, a city of Egypt in the The- 
baid, between Thebes and Apollinopolis 
Magna. It derived its name from the fish 
Latos, there worshipped. Its site is now 
occupied by Esneh ; and various ruins of 
magnificent temples, and numerous hiero- 
glyphics found there, attest the importance 
of the ancient city. 

Latous, a name given to Apollo as son 
of Latona. 

LatumLe or LatomLe, a name properly 
denoting " quarry," being derived from 
Aaos, a stone, and refivw, to cut ; anciently 
used as gaols for criminals. Dionysius 
had a place of this kind dug in a rock 
near Syracuse, where a great number of 
people were shut up ; hence Latomia be- 
came in time a general name for a prison. 

Laureacum, a fortified town of Nori- 
cum Ripense, the station of a Roman fleet 
on the Danube, and the head-quarters of the 
second legion. The modern village Lohr 
stands near the site of the ancient town. 

Laurentalia, a Roman festival in 
honour of Acca Laurentia, wife of Faus- 
tulus, and nurse of Romulus and Remus. 
It was celebrated in December, and ap- 
pears to have extended to all the Lares. 

Laurektes Agri, the name given to the 
low sandy tract stretching along the coast 
south of the mouth of the Tiber, from the 
number of laurels which grew there. The 
chief town was Laurentum (now Torre di 
Paterno), the residence of Latinus ; and 
the inhabitants were called Laurentini. 



Laurentius, belonging to Laurentum. 

Laurion, a range of hills extending 
from that part of the Attic coast which 
lay near Azenia to the promontory of 
Sunium, and thence to the vicinity of 
Prasiae on the eastern coast. It was 
famous for its silver mines, whence the 
Athenians drew considerable revenues. 

Lauron, Liria, a town of Spain, towards 
the eastern limits of Baetica. Sertorius 
made himself master of this city in the 
face of Pompey's army ; and in its vicinity, 
at a subsequent period, Cneius Pompeius, 
son of Pompey the Great, was slain after 
the battle of Munda. 

Laus, I., Scalea, a town on a river of 
the same name, which forms the southern 
boundary of Lucania. It was founded by 
a colony from Sybaris. — II. Pompeia, a 
town of Italy, founded by a colony sent 
thither by Pompey. Its site is occupied 
by Lodi Vecchio. 

Laus us, son of Mezentius, king of the 
Tyrrhenians, killed by yEneas in the war 
which his father and Turnus made against 
the Trojans. 

Laverna, a Roman divinity, the patron- 
goddess of thieves, anciently called La- 
verniones, and of all who practised artifice 
and fraud. She had an altar near one of 
the gates of Rome, thence called the " Gate 
of Laverna." She had also a temple near 
Formia?, called Lavernium. Her name 
was probably derived from lateo, indicating 
darkness or obscurity. 

Lavinia, a daughter of king Latinus 
and Amata, promised in marriage to 
Turnus, but eventually given to iEneas, 
the oracle having ordered her father to 
marry her to a foreign prince. (See 
,ZEneas.) At her husband's death she 
was left pregnant, and fearful of the ty- 
ranny of Ascanius, her son-in-law, she fled 
into the woods, where she brought forth a 
son called iEneas Silvius. 

LavInium, or LavInum, a city of La- 
tium, situated on the river Numicius, near 
the coast, and to the west of Ardea. It 
was founded by iEneas on his marriage 
with Lavinia, daughter of Latinus ; and 
had subsequently a famous temple of 
Venus, common to all the Latins. The 
site is occupied by the modern Practica. 

Leander. See Hero. 

Learchus. See Athamas. 

Lebadea, a town of Bceotia, west of 
Coronea. The inhabitants formerly occu- 
pied a town on an adjoining eminence, 
Midaea, but an Athenian, Lebadus, per- 
suaded them to build another on the plain, 
called after his name. The oracle and 
cave of Trophonius were near this town. 



LEB 



LEL 



325 



(See Trophonius.) It is now called Li- 
vadia, a name extended to great part of 
the country, which answers to Graecia 
Propria, or Greece north of the Isthmus. 

Lebedus, or Lebedos, one of the twelve 
cities of Ionia, north-west of Colophon on 
the coast. It was at first a flourishing 
city ; but on the removal of a large portion 
of its inhabitants to Ephesus by Lysima- 
chus, it sank greatly in importance, and in 
the time of Augustus it was in ruins. 

LECH-asuM, that part of Corinth which 
was situated on the Sinus Corinthiacus, 
Gulf of Lepanto, being distant from the 
city about twelve stadia, and connected 
with it by means of two long walls. It 
was the great emporium of Corinthian 
traffic with the western part of Greece, as 
well as with Italy and Sicily. 

Lectonia would seem to have occu- 
pied a part of the space now filled by the 
Grecian sea. An earthquake probably 
broke down its foundations, and the whole 
was finally submerged under the waves. 
The numerous islands of the Archipelago 
appear to be the remains of Lectonia. 
It was the opinion of Pallas, that the 
Euxine and Caspian seas, as well as Lake 
Aral, and several others, are the remains 
of an extensive sea, which covered a great 
part of the north of Asia. 

Lectum, now Cape Baba, a promontory 
below the island of Tenedos, which in 
the time of the Eastern empire formed 
the northern limit of the province termed 
Asia. 

Led a, a daughter of Thestius, king of 
iEtolia, and Eurythemis, and wife of Tyn- 
darus, king of Sparta. According to the 
common account, she admitted the caresses 
of Jupiter in the form of a swan, and 
brought forth two eggs, from one of which 
sprang Pollux and Helen, children of Ju- 
piter, and from the other Castor and Clytem- 
nestra, children of Tyndarus. See Castor 
and Pollux. 

Ledjea, an epithet of Hermione, as re- 
lated to Leda. 

Ledus, Lez, a river of Gaul near Mont- 
pellier. 

Legio, Septima Gemina, a Roman mili- 
tary colony in Spain among the Astures, 
north-east of Asturica ; now Leon. 

Legio, a body of forces, of a number of 
which the Roman armies were chiefly 
composed, from the Latin legere, to 
choose, because, when Romulus instituted 
this body of troops, he chose a certain 
number from each tribe. The number of 
soldiers of which the legion consisted 
was different at different times. In the 
time of Romulus, each legion consisted of 



3000 foot and 300 horse ; was afterwards 
increased to 6000 foot and 600 horse. 
The different kinds of infantry which 
composed it were the hastati, young men 
who formed the first line, from hasta, 
spear, with which they were at first 
armed; principes, men in the vigour of 
life, formed the second line, so called be- 
cause they were originally the first line ; 
triarii, old soldiers of approved valour, 
stationed in the third line. These last 
were also called pilani, from the pilum, 
javelin, which they used ; the hastati and 
principes, who stood before them, ante- 
pilani. The velites, light armed soldiers, 
who fought in front, formed a fourth kind 
of troops. Augustus maintained a stand- 
ing army of twenty-three or twenty-five le- 
gions ; and the number was seldom dimi- 
nished. The legions were distinguished by 
different appellations, and generally bor- 
rowed their name from the order in which 
they were first raised, as prima, secunda, ter- 
tia, quarta, &c. Besides this distinction, 
another more expressive was generally 
added, as from the name of the emperor who 
embodied them, Augusta, Claudiana, Gal- 
biana, Flavia, Ulpia, Trajana, Antoniana, 
&c. ; the provinces or quarters where 
they were stationed, Britannica, Cyrenaica, 
Gallica, &c. ; the provinces subdued by 
their valour, Parthica, Scythica, Arabica, 
African a, &c. ; the names of the deities 
whom their generals particularly worship- 
ped, Minervia, Apollinaris, &c. ; or more 
trifling accidents, Martia, Fulminatrix, Ra- 
pax, Adjutrix, &c. Each legion was di- 
vided into ten cohorts, each cohort into 
three manipuli, every manipulus into three 
centuries or ordines. The chief com- 
mander of the legion was called legatus, 
"lieutenant." The standards borne by 
the legions were various. In the first 
ages of Rome a wolf was the standard, in 
honour of Romulus ; after that a hog, be- 
cause that animal was generally sacrificed 
at the conclusion of a treaty, and therefore 
indicated that war is undertaken to obtain 
peace. A Minotaur was sometimes the 
standard, to intimate the secrecy with 
which the general was to act, in com- 
memoration of the labyrinth. Sometimes 
a horse or boar was used, till the age of 
Marius, who changed all these for the 
eagle, being a representation of that bird 
in silver, holding sometimes a thunderbolt 
in its claws. The Roman eagle ever after 
remained in use, though Trajan substituted 
the dragon. 

Lelaps, a dog which never failed to 
seize and conquer whatever animal he was 
ordered to pursue. It was given by Diana 



826 



LEL 



LEN 



to Procris, who reconciled herself to her 
husband by presenting him with that va- 
luable animal. According to some, Pro- 
cris had received it from Minos, as a re- 
ward for the dangerous wounds of which 
she had cured him. 

Lelegeis, a name applied to Miletus, 
because once possessed by the Leleges. 

Leleges, an ancient race whose history 
is involved in great obscurity. Accord- 
ing to Herodotus, the Carians, who ori- 
ginally inhabited the islands of the iEgean 
sea, were known by the name of Leleges 
before they emigrated to Asia Minor ; but 
this statement is now proved to be erro- 
neous, the Leleges having, in all proba- 
bility, been a Pelasgic race, who made a 
descent upon the country occupied by the 
Carians, and afterwards became so inter- 
mingled with them as to make it difficult 
to distinguish between them. They took 
possession of the coast in the vicinity of 
Halicarnassus, where they built six cities, 
and afterwards spread themselves north- 
wards to the banks of the Meander ; but 
they ceased to be known as a distinct race 
after Mausolus, king of Caria, transferred 
the inhabitants of six of their cities to Hali- 
carnassus to increase the size of the capital. 

Lelex, an Egyptian, who is said to have 
come with a colony to Megara, where he 
reigned about 200 years before the Trojan 
war. 

Lemanis Portus, Lymne, a harbour of 
Britain, a little below Dover, where Caesar 
is thought to have landed on his first expe- 
dition to this island. 

Lemannus, a lake of Gaul in the south- 
west angle of the territory of the Helvetii, 
whom it there separated from the Allo- 
broges. It is now called the Lake of 
Geneva. Besides the Rhone, which traverses 
its whole length, it receives the waters of 
forty other streams. 

Lemnos, an island in the iEgean sea, 
between Tenedos, Imbros, and Samothrace. 
It is famous in ancient mythology for be- 
ing the spot on which Vulcan fell after he 
was hurled from heaven by Jupiter, and 
where he established his forges. A volcano 
which once was burning on the island may 
have afforded ground for the fable. The 
first inhabitants of the island are said to 
have been Thracians. In the reign of 
Thoas, the only Lemnian king mentioned 
in history, the Lemnian women are said, in 
imitation of the Amazons, to have treacher- 
ously killed all the males ; and hence any 
horrid crime was afterwards called a 
" Lemnian deed." It subsequently fell 
under the power of the Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, 
who retained possession of it, with a short 



interruption of a Persian invasion under 
Otanes, till it was finally reduced by Mil- 
tiades, under the sway of Athens. Lem-~ 
nos, according to Pliny, had a labyrinth 
more remarkable than that of Crete or of 
Egypt. It was supported by 140 columns, 
and its gates were so admirably adjusted 
as to be turned by a child. It was the 
work of three architects, one of whom, 
Theodorus, was a native of the island. Its 
remains are said to have been extant in 
Pliny's time. No certain traces of this fa- 
mous edifice have been discovered in modern 
times ; but this is probably a consequence 
of the island having been seldom visited 
by scientific travellers, or of the changes 
occasioned by the action of volcanoes, or 
other natural convulsions. It is now called 
Stalimene. 

Lemovices, L, a people of Celtic Gaul, 
subsequently incorporated into Aquitania. 
Their capital was Augustoritum, after- 
wards called Lemovices, now Limoges, in 
the department de la Haute Vienne. — II. 
A people of Gaul forming part of the 
Armoric nations, and lying to the east and 
north-east of the Osismii. Some propose 
to substitute Leonices for Lemovices in 
the text. 

Lemures. See Manes. 

Len^us, a surname of Bacchus, from 
Krjubs, " wine-press ; " hence, too, a festival 
in his honour was called Lenaea. See Dio- 

NYSIA. 

Lentulus, a family name of one of the 
most ancient and distinguished branches of 
the Gens Cornelia. The appellation is said 
to have been derived from the circumstance 
of one of the family having been born with 
a lentil-shaped wart (Jens) on his face. 
Of the Lentuli, the most distinguished 
were : — L, L. Corn., who was consul b. c. 
327, and cleared Umbria of the brigands 
that infested it. He was present, b. c. 321, 
at the disastrous affair of the Furca? Candi- 
nae, and was one of those who exhorted the 
Roman consuls to submit to the humiliating 
conditions imposedby the Samnites. — 1 1. P. 
Corn, surnamed Sura, grandson of P. Corn. 
Lentulus, who had been princeps senatus. 
He married Julia, sister of L.Julius Caesar, 
after the death of her first husband, M. 
Antonius Creticus ; and after passing 
through the usual gradations of public ho- 
nours was associated with Cn. Aufidius 
Orestes in the consulship b. c. 73. He sub- 
sequently joined in Catiline's conspiracy, 
was convicted in full senate by Cicero, and 
strangled in prison. — III. P. Corn., sur- 
named Spinther from his resemblance to a 
comedian so called, was curule sedile b. c. 
65, when Cicero and Antony were con- 



LEO 



LEO 



327 



suls. He was propraetor of Hispania Ci- 
terior b. c. 59, and was associated with 
Q. Cae. Mel. Nepos in the consulship. 
Having subsequently attached himself to 
the side of Pompey, he fought in the 
battle of Pharsalia, after which he fled to 
Rhodes, where it is supposed he died. 
The consulship was in the family of the 
Lentuli in the years of Rome 428, 477, 
515, 516, 551, 553, 594, 596, &c — IV. 
Cn. Lentulus, surnamed Gcetulicus, was 
made consul a.d. 26, and some time after 
put to death by Caligula on a charge of 
conspiracy. He wrote a history, and also 
attempted poetry. 

Leo, the name of five emperors of the 
East, of whom only two come within the 
scope of this work. Leo L, surnamed the 
Great, was born in Thrace of an obscure 
family, and after passing through the usual 
gradations of military office, was elevated 
to the throne b. c. 457, on the death of 
Marcianus. By dint of great exertions, 
backed by consummate skill, he restored 
peace to the distracted empire, and died 
A. d. 474, leaving the throne to his grand- 
son Leo II., then a child of four years, 
who was poisoned within ten months of 
his accession to the throne. — Leo is also 
the name of twelve popes of Rome, the 
first of whom, surnamed the Great, and 
canonized as a saint, was a native of Tus- 
cany, and succeeded Sextus III. as bishop 
of Rome in 440. He took a very decided 
part against the Manichaean heresy and 
other schismatics ; persuaded Attila to 
withdraw his forces from the very gates of 
Rome, and afterwards saved the city from 
being burned by Genseric. He died 461. 

Leochares, an Athenian statuary and 
sculptor, who flourished in the 102dOlym. 
He was one of the architects of the Mau- 
soleum. 

Leocorio, a monument erected by the 
Athenians to Pasithea, Theope, and Eu- 
bule, daughters of Leos, who immolated 
themselves, when an oracle had ordered 
that, to stop the raging pestilence, some 
of the blood of the citizens must be shed. 

Leodamas, son of Eteocles, one of the 
seven Theban chiefs who defended the city 
against the Argives. He killed iEgialeus, 
and was himself killed by Alcmaaon. 

Leonatus, one of Alexander's generals, 
who distinguished himself in Alexander's 
conquest of Asia, and once saved the king's 
life in a dangerous battle. After the death 
of Alexander, at the general division of 
the provinces, he received for his portion 
that part of Phrygia which borders on the 
Hellespont. Like the rest of the generals 
of Alexander, ambitious of power and 



dominion, he aspired to the sovereignty of 
Macedonia ; passed from Asia into Europe, 
to assist Antipater against the Athenians, 
and was killed in a battle fought soon after 
his arrival. 

Leonidas, I., a celebrated king of La- 
cedasmon, of the family of the Eurysthenidas, 
sent by his countrymen to maintain the pass 
of Thermopylae against the invading army 
of Xerxes, b. c. 420. The 300 Spartans, 
who alone had refused to abandon the ac- 
tion, withstood the enemy with vigour, 
till Ephialtes, a Trachinian, had the per- 
fidy to conduct a detachment of Persians 
by a secret path up the mountains, whence 
they suddenly fell on the rear of the 
Spartans, and crushed them to pieces. 
This celebrated battle taught the Greeks 
to despise the numbers of the Persians, 
and rely on their own strength and intre- 
pidity. Temples were raised to the fallen 
hero, and festivals, Leonidea, yearly cele- 
brated at Sparta, in which free-born youths 
contended. — II. Son of Cleonymus, of 
the line of the Agidas, succeeded Areus 
II. on the throne of Sparta, b. c. 257. 
Agis, his colleague in the sovereignty, 
having resolved to restore the institutions 
of Lycurgus to their former vigour, Leo- 
nidas opposed his views, and became the 
main support of those who were inclined 
to a relaxation of ancient strictness. He 
was convicted, however, of having trans- 
gressed the laws, and was obliged to yield 
the supreme power to Cleombrotus, his 
son-in-law. Not long after he was re-esta- 
blished on the Spartan throne, and avenged 
the affront which he had received at the 
hands of Agis, by impeaching him and 
effecting his condemnation. — III. A na- 
tive of Tarentum, who flourished about 
275 b. c. He left a hundred epigrams in 
the Doric dialect, which belong to the 
best of those that have been preserved 
for us. 

Leontini, sometimes called by modern 
writers Leontium, a town of Sicily, si- 
tuate about five miles from the sea- 
shore, south of Catana, between two small 
streams, the Lissus and Terias. It was 
founded by a colony of Chalcidians from 
Euboea, who had come to the island but 
six years before, and had then built Naxos, 
near Mount Taurus, where Tauromenium 
was afterwards founded. Leontini for a 
time continued flourishing and powerful, 
but eventually sank under the superior 
power and prosperity of Syracuse. Its 
quarrel with this last-mentioned city led 
to the unfortunate expedition of the Athe- 
nians, whose aid Leontini had solicited. 
The city ultimately fell under the Syra- 



328 



LEO 



LEP 



cusan power. The celebrated Gorgias was 
a native of this place. 

Leontium, an Athenian female, origin- 
ally a courtezan, although afterwards the 
wife of Metrodorus, the most eminent 
friend and disciple of Epicurus. Many 
slanders were circulated respecting her in- 
tercourse with the philosopher and his 
followers. She herself composed works 
on philosophy. A detailed biography of 
Leontium may be seen in the Biographie 
Universette, vol. xxiv. p. 270. 

Leosthenes, an Athenian general, who, 
after Alexander's death, drove Antipater 
to Thessaly, where he besieged him in the 
town of Lamia. He was killed by a stone 
thrown by the besieged, b. c. 323. His 
death was followed by a total defeat of the 
Athenian army. 

Leotychides, L, a king of Sparta, son 
of Menares, of the family of the Proclidae. 
He succeeded Demaratus on the throne, 
b. c. 491, a few years before the invasion 
of Greece by the Persians ; and being set 
over the Grecian fleet, by his courage and 
valour he put an end to the Persian war 
at the famous battle of Mycale. Being 
accused of a capital crime by the Ephori, he 
fled to the temple of Minerva at Tegea 
to avoid punishment, and died two years 
afterwards, b. c. 469, after a reign of 
twenty-two years. He was succeeded by 
his grandson, Archidamus. — II. Son of 
Agis, king of Sparta, by Timsea. The legi- 
timacy of his birth was disputed by some ; 
and he was generally believed to be the 
son of Alcibiades. Hence he was pre- 
vented from ascending the throne of Sparta 
by Lysander, and Agesilaus was appointed 
in his place. 

Lepida, I., JEmilia. (See JEmilia.) 
— II. A Roman female, who reckoned 
among her ancestors Pompey and Sylla. 
She was accused by her husband Sulpicius 
of adultery, poisoning, and treasonable 
conduct, and was condemned to exile, 
notwithstanding the interest which the 
people testified in her behalf. — III. Do- 
mitia. (See Domitia.) — IV. Domitia, 
daughter of Antonia the younger, by 
Lucius Domitius iEnobarbus. She was 
the wife of Valerius Messala, and mother 
of Messalina, and is described as having 
been a woman of profligate manners, and 
of a violent and impetuous spirit. In point 
of beauty and vice, she was the rival of 
Agrippina, Nero's mother, through whose 
influence she was condemned to death. 

Lepidi, the name of one of the most 
distinguished families of the Patrician fa- 
mily of the iEmilii. The individuals 
most worthy of notice are : — I., iEmi- 



lius. (See iEiniLius.) — II. M. iEmi- 
lius was praetor b. C. 81; after which he 
obtained the province of Sicily. In his 
consulship, b. c. 78, he endeavoured to 
rescind the measures of Sylla, but was 
driven out of Italy by his colleague Quin- 
tus Catulus and by Pompey, and retired 
to Sardinia, where he died the following 
year, while making preparations for a re- 
newal of the war. — III. M. iEmilius, son 
of the preceding, is celebrated as one of 
the triumvirs with Augustus and Antony. 
After passing through the usual prelimi- 
nary offices of aedile, b. c. 52, and praetor, 
b. c. 49, he joined Caesar in his hostile 
movements against the senate ; and though 
deficient both in skill and courage, his ex- 
tensive connexions and great wealth ren- 
dered him a valuable accession to the 
popular cause. During Caesar's absence 
in Spain, he proposed the law which raised 
Caesar to the dictatorship ; b. c. 48, he ob- 
tained the province of Hispania Citerior, 
and ten years afterwards was associated 
with Caesar in the consulship. On the 
death of the latter, he was eagerly courted 
by both parties ; but while he apparently 
sided with the senate, he was secretly 
seeking an alliance with Antony ; and when 
at length he was ordered to join Decimus 
Brutus, he threw off the mask, and united 
his forces with those of Antony, b. C. 43, 
a proceeding which resulted in the esta- 
blishment of the second triumvirate. To 
his share fell the whole of Spain and Gal- 
lia Narbonensis ; but after the defeat of 
Brutus and Cassius, his colleagues in the 
triumvirate deprived him of this govern- 
ment, for which they substituted that of 
Africa. Being summoned b. c. 36 to Sicily, 
to aid Augustus in the war with Sextus 
Pompey, he shared in the victory obtained 
against that commander. The confidence 
he felt in being at the head of a large army 
inducing him to treat his colleague with 
haughtiness and neglect, he had the mor- 
tification to see himself deserted by all his 
troops, who joined Augustus, and he was 
obliged to supplicate his life of his rival, 
which was granted, whereupon he retired 
into a kind of exile at Circeii, and passed 
the rest of his days in obscurity. 

Lepontii, a people who inhabited that 
part of the Alps which lies between the 
Great St. Bernard and St. Gothard. The 
Lepontine Alps separated Italy from the 
Helvetii. 

Leptines, I., a son of Hermocrates, and 
brother of Dionysius the Elder. Being 
sent against Mago, general of the Cartha- 
ginians, b. c. 396, he at first gained some 
advantages, but having separated himself 



LEP 



LET 



829 



too much from the main body of the fleet, 
he was surrounded by the enemy, and lost 
a large number of his vessels. After hav- 
ing remained for some time in a state of 
disgrace, he recovered the favour of the 
tyrant, and married his daughter. He 
commanded the left wing at the battle of 
Cronium, b. c. 383, where he fell fight- 
ing valiantly. — II. A Syracusan, who, in 
conjunction with Callipus, took the city of 
Rhegium, occupied by the troops of Dio- 
nysius the Younger, 351 b. c. He was 
subsequently in the number of those 
who massacred Callipus, to avenge the 
death of Dion. — III. A tyrant of Apol- 
lonia and other cities of Sicily, taken 
by Timoleon, b. c. 342, and exiled to 
Corinth. — IV. An Athenian orator, who 
obtained an enactment that certain im- 
munities from the burthensome offices of 
choragus, gymnasiarch, &c, which used 
to be allowed to meritorious citizens, 
should be taken away. Demosthenes pro- 
cured its abrogation. — V. A Syrian, ge- 
neral of Demetrius, who put to death at 
Laodicea, Octavius, a commissioner whom 
the Romans had sent into the East to ar- 
range the affairs of Syria. He was sent 
to Rome, to be delivered up along with 
Isocrates, who was also a party to the 
murder, but the senate refused to receive 
him. 

Leptis, the name of two cities in Africa, 
distinguished by the epithets of Meyd\r], 
or Magna, and Mt/cpa, or Parva. — I. The 
first, situated towards the great Syrtis, at 
the south east extremity of the district of 
Tripolis, was founded by the Phoenicians, 
and ranked next to Carthage and Uti- 
ca among their maritime cities. Under 
the Romans it was signalized by its fide- 
lity and obedience. On the occupation 
of Africa by the Vandals, its fortifica- 
tions appear to have been destroyed ; 
but they were probably restored under 
Justinian, when the city became the resi- 
dence of the prefect Sergius. It was finally 
demolished by the Saracens ; after which 
it appears to have been wholly abandoned ; 
and its remains, according to Leo Afri- 
canus, were employed in the construction 
of the modern Tripoli. The modern name 
is Lebida. — II. The latter, said to have 
been also founded by the Phoenicians, was in 
the district of Byzacium or Emporiae, about 
eighteen miles below Hadrumetum, on the 
coast. It is now Lempta. It paid a talent 
a day to the Carthaginians as tribute. 

Lerina, or Planasia, St. Marguerite, 
a small island in the Mediterranean, on 
the coast of Gallia Narbonensis. 

Le&xa, a small lake of Argolis, near 



the western coast of the Sinus Argolicus, 
celebrated for the fable of the many-headed 
Hydra slain by Hercules, and connected 
also with the legends of the Danaides, who 
are said to have thrown the heads of their 
murdered husbands into its waters. 

Lernjea, mysteries celebrated at Ler- 
na in Argolis in honour of Ceres or 
Demeter. They were said to have been 
instituted by, and were probably a rem- 
nant of the ancient religion of, the Pelas- 
gians. 

Leros, a small island off the coast of 
Caria, forming one of the cluster called 
Sporades. It was peopled from Miletus, 
and its inhabitants were infamous for dis- 
honesty. 

Lesbos, Mytilene, a celebrated island of 
the JEgean, at the entrance of the Gulf of 
Adramyttium. It was first occupied by a 
body of Pelasgi, who, driven from Argos, 
under Xanthus their king, passed from 
Lycia into this island, called Issa, which 
they named Pelasgia. Seven generations 
after this, Macareus passed from Attica, 
then denominated Ionia, with a colony to 
this island, which, from him, was named 
Macarea. Lesbus, an JEolian, joined him- 
self to this colony, married the daughter 
of Macareus, Methymne, and gave his own 
name to the island. The elder daughter 
of Macareus was called Mitylene, and her 
name was given to the capital of the whole 
island. Lesbos anciently contained nine 
cities, for the most part in a flourishing 
condition. It was originally governed by 
kings, but was afterwards subjected first 
to the Athenians, and then successively to 
the Macedonians, Romans, and Byzantines. 
The wine it produced was greatly esteem- 
ed. Lesbos has given birth to many illus. 
trious persons, among whom are Arion, 
Terpander, Alcams, and Sappho. But the 
morals of the great bulk of the people 
were so corrupt, that it was usual in an- 
tiquity to say of a debauchee, that he lived 
like a Lesbian. 

Lesbus, or Lesbos, a son of Lapithas, 
grandson of JEolus, who married Me- 
thymne, daughter of Macareus. He suc- 
ceeded his father-in-law, and gave his name 
to the island over which he reigned. 

Lesches, a cyclic poet of Mytilene or 
Pyrrha in the island Lesbos, who is sup- 
posed to have flourished about b. c. 708. 
His poem, called the " Little Iliad," com- 
prises the events that happened between 
the contest of Ulysses and Ajax, and the 
building of the wooden horse. 

Leth^a. See Olenus. 

Lethe, I., one of the streams of the 
infernal regions, whose waters possessed 



330 



LEU 



LEU 



the quality of causing those who drank 
them to forget the whole of their former 
existence. Hence the name, from Arjdr), 
forgetfulness or oblivion. Geographers have 
placed the river Lethe (that is, its sup- 
posed issue on the surface of the earth) in 
Boeotia, near Lebadea in Crete, and on 
the coast of Africa. — II. A river of 
Spain, in the territory of the Calliaci, a 
little below the Minius. Its true name 
was Limius, according to Ptolemy ; or, 
according to Pliny, Limia. Strabo styles 
it the Belion. 

Leuca, Leuca, a town of Italy, in Mes- 
sapia, near the Iapygian promontory. 

Leucs:, a town of Ionia, situated at the 
entrance of the Smyrnaeus Sinus, on a pro- 
montory which, according to Pliny, was 
anciently an island. 

Leucas, or Leucadia, Santa Maura, an 
island in the Ionian sea, off the coast of 
Acarnania, which once formed part of the 
continent, but was afterwards separated 
from the mainland by a narrow cut. In 
Homer's time it was still joined to the 
mainland, since he calls it 'A/ctV 'U-nslpoio, 
in opposition to Ithaca and Cephallenia. 
The island was famous for a promontory 
at its south-western extremity, called Leu- 
cate, celebrated in antiquity for being the 
lover's leap, and said to have derived its 
name from the white colour of the rock. 
Sappho is said to have been the first to try 
the remedy of the leap, when enamoured 
of Phaon. Artemisia, queen of Caria, so 
celebrated by Herodotus, perished also, 
according to some accounts, in this fatal 
trial. It was surmounted by a temple of 
Apollo ; and Virgil represents it as an 
object of dread to mariners. 

Leuce, Tentra, an island in the Euxine 
sea, near the mouth of the Borysthenes. 
It derived its name from its white sandy 
shores. According to the poets, the souls 
of the ancient heroes were placed there as 
in the Elysian fields, where they enjoyed 
perpetual felicity ; hence it was called 
" Island of the Blessed," &c. 

Leuci, I., a people in the south-eastern 
quarter of Gallia Belgica, and south 
of the Mediomatrici. Their territory ex- 
tended from the Matrona to the Mosella, 
and corresponds to the north-eastern part 
of the department of the Upper Marne, 
and to the southern part of the depart- 
ment of the Meuse and Meurthe. — II. 
Montes (Asu/ca oprf), mountains in the 
western part of the island of Crete, to the 
south of Cydonia ; now Alprovoana. 

Leucippides, the daughters of Leu- 
cippus. 

Leucippus, I., a celebrated Greek phi- 



losopher, regarded as the original pro- 
pounder of the Atomic philosophy after- 
wards more fully explained by Democritus 
and Epicurus. He was born either at 
Elis, Abdera, or in the island Melos ; was 
a disciple of Zeno, and the supposed teacher 
of Democritus. A few fragments of his 
treatise " On Mind" have been preserved 
by Stobaeus. — II. A brother of Tyndarus, 
king of Sparta, who married Philodice, 
daughter of Inachus, by whom he had 
Hilaira and Phoebe, known by the patro- 
nymic of Leucippides. They were car- 
ried away by their cousins, Castor and 
Pollux, when on the eve of celebrating 
their nuptials with Lynceus and Idas. — 
III. A son of QZnomaus, who became 
enamoured of Daphne, and to obtain her 
confidence, disguised himself in a female 
dress, and attended her as a companion. 
But his artifice proved fatal ; for when 
Daphne and her attendants were bathing 
in the Ladon, the sex of Leucippus was 
discovered, and he perished by the darts 
of the nymphs. 

Leucopetra, a cape of Italy, in the 
territory of the Brutii, twelve miles 
distant from Rhegium, and regarded by 
all ancient writers as the termination of 
the Apennines. Topographers are not 
agreed as to the modern point of land 
which answers to Leucopetra; some fix- 
ing it at Capo Pittaro, others at the Punta 
delta Saetta, and others at the Capo deW 
Armi. 

Leucophrys, an ancient name of Te- 
nedos, given to it probably from the ap- 
pearance made by the summits of its 
chalk-hills. 

Leucosia, or Leuca sia, a small island in 
the Sinus Paestanus, said to have derived 
its name from one of the Sirens. It is 
now known by the name of Licosa, and 
sometimes by that of Isolapiana. Several 
vestiges of buildings were discovered there 
in 1696. 

Leuco-syrii, the Gr. form of a name 
applied by the Persians to the Cappado- 
cians, " White Syrians," because they pos- 
sessed a fairer complexion than their 
swarthy brethren of the south. The Leu- 
co-Syrii became in time blended into one 
people with the Paphlagonians. 

Leucothea, I., the name given to Ino 
after she had been transformed into a sea- 
goddess. Both she and her son Palagmon 
were held powerful to save from shipwreck, 
and were invoked by mariners. The name 
Leucothea is supposed to be derived from 
\evtc6s, white, and &eco, to run, — II. A 
daughter of Orchamus, dishonoured by 
Apollo, and buried alive by her incensed 



LEU 



LIB 



331 



father. The god caused the frankincense 
shrub to spring up from her grave. 

Leuctra, a small town of Bceotia, fa- 
mous for the victory which Epaminondas, 
the Theban general, obtained over the 
superior force of Cleombrotus, king of 
Sparta, b. c. 371. The latter were su- 
perior in number and, perhaps, also in dis- 
cipline and military skill, to their adver- 
saries ; but the ability of their generals 
enabled the Thebans to achieve, despite 
every disadvantage, the greatest triumph 
ever won by one Greek army over another. 
Cleombrotus, the Spartan king, was left 
dead on the field, with many of his princi- 
pal officers, and the flower of his troops. 
Sparta lost with this battle the ascendancy 
she had long enjoyed among the Grecian 
states- The spot retains its ancient name 
in some degree, being now called Leuca. 

Leuctrum, I., called Leuctra by Thu- 
cydides and Xenophon, a maritime town 
of Messenia, which from its frontier situa- 
tion became a source of dispute between 
the Messenians and Laconians. Philip, 
the son of Amyntas, who acted as umpire, 
awarded it to the Messenians. It was 
said to have been founded by Pelops. 
The ancient site is still distinguished by 
the name of Leutro. — II. A small town 
of Achaia, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, 
above JEgium, and in the vicinity of 
Rhypse, on which it was dependent. — III. 
Leontari, a town of Arcadia, below Mega- 
lopolis. 

Lexovii, a people of Gaul, at the mouth 
of the Seine, conquered with great slaugh- 
ter by a lieutenant of J. Caesar. Their 
capital was Noviomagus near Lisieux. 

Libanius, a celebrated sophist of An- 
tioch, in the age of the emperor Julian, 
was born a. d. 314, of a good family. Af- 
ter pursuing his studies with great dili- 
gence in his native city, he repaired to 
Athens, where he remained four years ; but 
having failed in his expectation of obtain- 
ing a chair in that city he began to profess 
eloquence, or the sophistic art, at Constan- 
tinople. But his brilliant success having 
excited the envy of his contemporaries, he 
was charged with sorcery, and in conse- 
quence compelled to leave Constantinople 
a. d. 346. He retired to Nicaea, and from 
this place he went to Nicomedia, where he 
obtained great celebrity as an instructor. 
The emperor Julian became his friend 
and patron ; and though he continued to 
the close of his long life a decided oppo- 
nent of Christianity, he numbered among I 
his attached friends some of the most dis- j 
tinguished -fathers of the early Christian ! 
church. Nearly all his numerous wri- ! 



tings, consisting chiefly of letters, decla- 
mations, and moral treatises have come 
down to us. 

Libanus, a famous chain of mountains 
in Syria, from the Heb. lebanon, " white," 
from their snowy summits. There are se- 
veral parallel chains, four of which towards 
the west have the name of Libanus, while 
another parallel chain to the east was called 
by the Greeks Antilibanus. Between Li- 
banus and Antilibanus is a long valley 
called Coele- Syria, " Hollow Syria." Li- 
banus was famed for its cedars. 

Liber, the name of an ancient Italian 
deity, identified with the Grecian Diony- 
sus or Bacchus. t When the worship of 
Ceres and Proserpina was introduced at 
Rome, Proserpina was named Libera, 
and the conjoined deities were honoured 
as Ceres, Liber, and Libera. The name 
Liber is commonly derived from liber, 
" free," and is referred to the influence of 
wine in freeing from care. Others, how- 
ever, prefer deducing it from libo, " to 
pour forth," and make Liber to be the god 
of productiveness effected by moisture. 

Liberalia, a festival instituted at Rome 
in honour of Liber, the Roman Bacchus, 
after the suppression of the Bacchanalia. 
It was of a very simple and innocent cha- 
racter compared with the Bacchanalia or 
Dionysia, and was held annually on the 
16th March, the day on which the Roman 
youth assumed the Toga virilis. 

Libertas, the goddess of freedom, iden- 
tical with the Eleutheria of the Greeks. 
Tiberius Gracchus is said to have erected 
the first temple to her at Rome, on the 
x^ventine Hill ; and it was here that the 
archives of the state were deposited. The. 
goddess was represented as a Roman ma- 
tron, arrayed in white, holding in one hand 
a broken sceptre, and in the other a pike 
surmounted by a pileus or cap, in allusion 
to the Roman custom of putting one on the 
heads of slaves when manumitted. At her 
feet lay a cat, an animal that is an enemy 
to all restraint. 

Libethra, I., a city of Macedonia, situ- 
ated on the declivity of Olympus, and not 
far from the tomb of Orpheus. An oracle 
declared, that when the sun beheld the bones 
of the poet, the city should be destroyed by 
a boar (virb <rv6s). The inhabitants of Li- 
bethra ridiculed the prophecy as a thing 
impossible ; but the column of Orpheus's 
monument having been accidentally broken, 
a gap was made by which light broke in 
upon the tomb, when the same night the 
torrent named Sus, being prodigiously 
swollen, rushed down with violence from 
Mount Olympus upon Libethra, over- 



332 



LIB 



LIC 



throwing the walls, and all the public and 
private edifices, and every living creature, 
in its furious course. Strabo alludes to 
Libethra when speaking of MountHelicon ; 
and hence the Muses were surnamed Libe- 
thrides. — II. A fountain of Thessaly, on 
Mount Homole, in the northern extremity 
of the district of Magnesia. 

Libethrides, a name given to the 
Muses. See Libethra I. 

Libttina, a goddess at Rome presiding 
over funerals. In her temple were sold all 
things requisite for them. By an institu- 
tion ascribed to Servius Tullius, a piece of 
money was paid her for every one who 
died, and the name of the deceased entered 
in a book called Libitina ratio. The ob- 
ject of this custom was to ascertain the 
number of deaths annually. 

Libon, an architect of Elis, who built 
the temple of Olympian Jove b. c. 444, 
in the sacred grove Altis, out of the pro- 
ceeds of the spoil taken from the Pisaeans 
and some other people. 

Libophcenices, the inhabitants of the 
district Byzacium, in Africa Propria. 
Their name indicates that they were a 
mixture of Libyans and Phoenicians. The 
Libophcenices are a proof of the policy 
pursued by the Phoenician and Cartha- 
ginian settlers, in admitting the natives 
to a participation in some of the rights 
of citizenship. Carthage itself was in 
this sense a Libophoenician city. Pliny 
limits the appellation to the cities on 
the coast of Byzacium ; but it ought to be 
extended to other parts also of the African 
coast. 

Liburnia, a province of Illyricum, be- 
tween Dalmatia and Istria. The Libur- 
nians were an Illyrian tribe, and are sup- 
posed to have sent forth a part of their 
number to Italy, dividing into three tribes, 
the Iapyges, Peucetii, and Calabri. At 
Rome a number of men, employed as 
public criers, were called Liburni, pro- 
bably because they were of Liburnian ex- 
traction. Some ships of a light construc- 
tion, with strong beaks, were also called 
Liburnian. The country is now Croatia. 

Liburnides, islands on the coast of Li- 
burnia, in the Hadriatic. 

Liburnus, a chain of mountains near 
Apulia, which Hannibal crossed in his 
march from Samnium and the territory of 
the Peligni into Apulia. It probably cor- 
responds to the modern Monte della Serra. 

Libya, L, a daughter of Epaphus and 
Cassiopea, and mother of Agenor and Be- 
lus by Neptune. — II. The name given to 
what was otherwise called Africa. In a 
more restricted sense, Libya was applied 



to that part of Africa which contained 
Cyrenaica and Marmarica, together with a 
very extensive region in the interior, and 
was generally styled Libya Interior. 

Libycum mare, that part of the Medi- 
terranean lying along the coast of Libya, 
and extending eastward as far as the island 
of Crete. 

Libyssa, a small village of Bithynia, 
west of Nicomedia, rendered memorable 
for containing the tomb of HannibaL It 
corresponds to the modern Gebisse. 

Lichades, three small islands near Cae- 
neum, a promontory of Eubcea, deriving 
their name from, 

Lichas, a servant of Hercules, who 
brought to him the poisoned tunic from 
Dejanira. He was thrown by his master 
into the sea, and changed into a rock in the 
Euboean sea by the gods. 

Licates, a people of Vindelicia on the 
eastern bank of the Licus, in the modern 
Oberdonau. Kreis, north-east of Fiissen. 

LicinLe Leges. See Rogationes. 

Licinia, I., daughter of P. Licinius 
Crassus, and wife of C. Gracchus, whom 
she attempted to dissuade from his sedi- 
tious measures. She was deprived of her 
dowry after the death of her husband. — 
II. Called also Terentia, the wife of Me- 
caenas, distinguished for conjugal tender- 
ness. She was the sister of Proculeius. 

Licinius, a name common to several 
Romans, of whom the most distinguished 
were, I., Caius, surnamed Stolo, of a dis- 
tinguished plebeian family at Rome, was 
associated as tribune of the people with 
L. Sextius Lateranus b. c. 375. He is 
celebrated for having introduced certain 
laws, enhancing the power of the people, 
called Licinia? Leges, an account of which 
will be found under Rogationes Licinia?. 
He also introduced the law which per- 
mitted the plebeians to share the consular 
dignity with the patricians, b. c. 365, and 
himself reaped the benefits of this law, 
having been one of the first plebeian con- 
suls. — II. Murama. (See Murjena.) — III. 
Varro Mureena, brother of Proculeius. He 
conspired against Augustus with Fannius 
Caspio, and suffered for his crime. — IV. 
C. Flavius Valerianus, a celebrated Roman 
emperor. His father was a poor peasant 
of Dalmatia, and he himself had been a 
common soldier in the Roman armies ; but 
his valour recommended him to Galerius 
Maximianus, who had once shared with 
him the subordinate offices of the army, 
and had lately been invested with the im- 
perial purple by Diocletian. Galerius took 
him as a colleague in the empire, and ap- 
pointed him over the province of Pannonia 



LIC 



LIN 



333 



and Rhcetia. Constantine. also one of the 
emperors., courted the favour of Licinius, 
and made his intimacy more durable by 
giving him his sister Constantia in mar- 
riage, a. d. 313. Licinius did not use his 
successes with moderation. Resolving to 
remove all possibility of rival claims to 
the empire of the East, he put to death 
the son and daughter of Maximin, and 
committed many other barbarities -which 
have branded his name with infamy. The 
continual successes of Constantine, too, ren- 
dered Licinius jealous of his greatness. The 
persecutions of the Christians soon caused 
a rupture, and Licinius had the mortifi- 
cation to lose two battles, one in Pannonia, 
the other near Adrianopolis. Treaties 
of peace were made, but Licinius soon 
broke them; and after many engagements 
a decisive battle was fought near Chalce- 
donia, in which Licinius was conquered. 
Thereupon he tied to Xicomedia. where 
the conqueror soon obliged him to sur- 
render, and resign the imperial purple : 
and two years afterwards he was strangled 
by order of Constantine at Thessalonica, 
a. r>. 324. His son, by Constantia, bore 
also the same name. He was honoured 
with the title of Caesar, when scarce twenty 
months old : but was involved in his father's 
ruin, and put to death by Constantine. 

LxciNvs, a barber and freedrnan of Au- 
gustus, raised to the rank and dignity of 
a senator on account of his hatred to 
Pompeys family. 

Ligarius, Q., a Roman, proconsul of 
Africa, after Confidius. In the civil wars 
he followed the interest of Pompey, but 
was pardoned by Caesar after the battle of 
Pharsalia. The adherents of the dictator 
were determined on the ruin of Ligarius ; 
but Cicero, in an eloquent oration, de- 
feated his accusers, and procured his ac- 
quittal. He afterwards joined in the 
conspiracy against Caesar. 

Liger or Ligeris, now the Loire, the 
largest river of Gaul. It rises in Mods 
Cebenna or Cevennes, and for the first half 
of its course runs directly north, then turns 
to the west, and falls into the Atlantic 
between the territories of the Pictones and 
Namnetes. 

Ligures, the inhabitants of Liguria. 
See Liguria. 

Ligcria, a country of Cisalpine Gaul, 
lying along the shores of the Sinus 
Ligusticus or Gulf of Genoa, bounded by 
the Varus on the west, by the Macra on 
the south-east, and on the north by the 
Alps. The origin of the Ligurians is in- 
volved in deep obscurity. They were not 
conquered by the Romans till after the 



second Punic war. The commercial town 
of Genoa was anciently, and still is, the 
capital of the country. 

Ligusticum make, Gidf of Genoa, the 
j north part of the Tyrrhene Sea. It was 
! also called Ligusticus Sinus. 

Li gte s, a people of Asia, who inhabited 
; the country between Caucasus and the 
Phasis. Some suppose them to be a co- 
lony of the Ligyes of Europe; more com- 
monly called Ligures. 

Liltb^um, a celebrated city at the 
western extremity of Sicily, near the famous 
cognominal promontory, now Cape Boeo. 
Lilybaeum, from its proximity to Carthage, 
I and the excellence of its port, was, for a 
: lengthened period, the capital of the Car- 
■ thaginian possessions in Sicily. It was a 
place of great strength, being fortified by 
I strong walls and a deep ditch, into which 
the sea appears to have flowed ; indeed, a 
' portion of the ancient ditches still exist in 
I tolerable preservation. The size of the 
city may be inferred from the fact of its 
requiring a garrison of 10,000 men, ex- 
clusive of the citizens, for its defence. 
The successful resistance it opposed to 
Pyrrhus, by whom it was attacked with 
great fury, and its defence against the 
Romans, sufficiently evince its strength 
and importance. After having ineffec- 
tually attempted to carry it by assault, the 
Romans converted the siege into a block- 
ade : and the city only surrendered at 
the end of five years, when the defeat of 
Hanno made farther resistance unavailing. 
L'nder the Romans it was the residence of 
a quaestor ; and is called by Cicero, civitas 
splendidissima. 

Limonum, a town of Gallia Aquitanica, 
in the territory of the Pictones. It was 
subsequently called Pictavi, and is now 
Poitiers. 

LixnuM, a town of Britain, the capital 
of the Coritani, and on the main road from 
Londinium to Eboracum. It is now Lin- 
coln. Mannert supposes it to have been a 
Roman colony, and deduces the modern 
name from Lindi Colonia. 

Li>"dcs, Lindo, a city in the island of 
Rhodes, near the middle of the eastern coast. 
It was the old capital of the island before 
Rhodes was built, and is said to have been 
founded by the Heliades. Others made 
Tlepolemus its first settler ; and others, 
again, assigned its foundation to Danaus. 
: Lindus is one of the three cities of Rhodes 
' alluded to by Homer. Notice of it also oc- 
curs in the Parian Chronicle. It contained 
a very ancient and famous temple of Mi- 
nerva, hence called the Lindian, built, ac- 
cording to a tradition, by the Dana'ides. 



334 



LIN 



LIV 



The statue of the goddess was a shapeless 
stone. 

Lingones, a people of Gaul, whose ter- 
ritories included Vogesus, Vosges. Their 
chief city was Andomadunum, afterwards 
Lingones, now Langres. They passed into 
Italy, where they made some settlement 
near the Alps, at the head of the Hadri- 
atic. 

Linus, a name common to different 
persons, Avhose history is often confounded 
together. The most distinguished was 
the brother of Orpheus. See Orpheus. 

Lipara, Lipari, originally called Meli- 
gunis, the largest of the iEolian islands 
on the coast of Sicily, so called from 
Liparus, son of Auson, king of these 
islands, whose daughter Cyane married 
his successor iEolus. The capital was 
also called Lipara. The island was cele- 
brated for its fruits, and had some con- 
venient harbours, and a fountain much 
frequented for its medicinal powers. It 
was said to have been colonised by Greeks 
from Cnidus ; at a later period it was oc- 
cupied by the Carthaginians, and became 
an important station for their fleets during 
their occupation of Sicily. It fell into 
the power of the Romans during the first 
Punic war. See -ZEoli^. 

LiquentIa, Livenza, a river of Cisal- 
pine Gaul, falling into the Hadriatic Sea. 

Liris, now Garigliano, more anciently 
Klonis, or Glanis, a river of Campania, 
which it separated from Latium, after the 
southern boundary of the latter had been 
removed from the Circasan promontory. 
Its source is in the country of the Marsi, 
west of the Lacus Fucinus, and falls into 
the sea near Minturnae. This river is 
particularly noticed by the poets for the 
sluggishness of its stream. 

Lissus, a city of Illyria, near the mouth 
of the Drilo, colonised by some Syracu- 
sans in the time of Dionysius the Elder. 
It subsequently fell into the hands of the 
Illyrians, who retained it with the consent 
of the Romans, after they had concluded 
a peace with Teuta. Not many years in- 
tervened before Philip of Macedon com- 
pelled this town to surrender, but the Il- 
lyrians subsequently recovered the posses- 
sion of it. Under Cagsar it became a 
Roman colony. 

Lista, the old capital of the Aborigines, 
in the country afterwards occupied by the 
Sabines. It was surprised by the Sabines 
in an expedition by night, and the inha- 
bitants were driven out. 

Liternum, Torre di Patria, a town of 
Italy, in Campania, west of Atella, and 
north of Cumas. It became a Roman colony 



] in the same year with Vulturnum, and was 
I recolonised by Augustus, and ranked among 
| the praefectura?. Scipio Africanus retired 
thither in disgust at the injustice of his 
countrymen ; but whether he really closed 
his existence here may be deemed un- 
certain. 

Livia Drusilla, I., a celebrated Roman 
lady, empress of Rome, was born b. c. 59. 
She was daughter of L. Drusus Calidianus, 
and married Tib. CI. Nero, by whom she 
had Tiberius, afterwards emperor, and 
Drusus Germanicus. Her personal charms, 
agreeable manners, and brilliant intellect, 
made so deep an impression on Augustus 
that he resolved to marry her, though then 
pregnant, and having divorced his wife 
Scribonia, he celebrated his nuptials with 
Livia. Soon afterwards her children by 
Drusus were adopted by the emperor ; and, 
that she might make the succession of her 
son Tiberius more easy and undisputed, she 
is accused of secretly involving in one com- 
mon ruin the heirs and nearest relations 
of Augustus. She is also charged with 
having murdered her own husband to 
hasten the elevation of Tiberius. She 
died in her 86th year. Tiberius showed 
himself as undutiful after her death as be- 
fore; and expressly commanded that no 
honours, private or public, should be paid 
to her memory. — II. or Livilla, daughter 
of Nero Claudius Drusus, by Antonia the 
younger, sister of Germanicus, and grand- 
daughter of the Empress Livia. Her first 
husband was Caius, the son of Agrippa, 
and after his death, when still quite young, 
she married Drusus the son of Tiberius. 
Having engaged in a career of adultery 
with Sejanus, she hoped to rise with her 
paramour to the imperial dignity, and with 
this view conspired against her husband ; 
but her guilt being afterwards fully de- 
tected, she was put to death by order of 
Tiberius. — III. Orestilla. See Ores- 

TILLA. 

LivLe leges, laws proposed by M. Livius 
Drusus, tribune a. u. c. 662, about trans- 
planting colonies to Italy and Sicily, and 
granting corn to poor citizens at a low 
price ; also, that the judices should be 
chosen from the senators and equites, and 
the allied states of Italy admitted to the 
freedom of the city. Drusus was mur- 
dered, on his return from the forum, before 
they passed. 

Livius Andronicus, I., a dramatic poet 
who flourished at Rome about b. c. 240 ; 
native of Magna Grascia. When his coun- 
try was finally subdued by the Romans, 
Livius was made captive, and brought 
to Rome. It is generally believed that he 



LOG 



LOL 



335 



there became the slave, and afterwards 
freedman, of Livius Salinator, from whom 
he derived one of his names. He was the 
first who turned the personal satires and 
Fescennine verses, so long the admiration 
of the Romans, into the form of a proper 
dialogue, and regular play. — II. M. Salina- 
tor, was consul b. c. 219, and again in 207. 
During his first term .of office he carried 
on a successful war in Illyricum ; during 
the second he had for his colleague Clau- 
dius Nero, who, though his personal enemy, 
was yet united to him in friendship during 
their official career. They marched toge- 
ther against Hasdrubal, and gained the 
victory at the Metaurus in Umbria, for 
which Livius received the honours of a 
triumph, and his colleague only an ovation. 
Three years after he was censor with the 
same Nero, and caused an unpopular tax to 
be levied on salt, whence he obtained the 
sobriquet of Salinator (from salines, " salt- 
works"). — III. M. Drusus. (SeeDRUsus 
and Livi^e Leges.) — I V.Titus, a celebrated 
Roman historian, was born at Patavium, 
Padua, b. c. 59. Few particulars of his 
history are known. He appears to have 
come to Rome at a very early age, and to 
have been highly honoured by Augustus, 
who made him preceptor to his grandson 
Claudius, afterwards emperor ; and there 
to have occupied himself in the composition 
of his history, parts of which, as they were 
finished, he read to Augustus and Mecae- 
nas. Distracted with the tumult, and pro- 
bably disgusted with the intrigues and 
cabals of Rome, he sought retirement at 
Naples, where he finished his history, but 
returned to spend the remainder of his days 
in his native country, where he died a. d. 
17, aged 75. His Roman History was 
comprehended in 1 40 books, of which only 
35, and a fragment of another, are extant. 
The merit of this history is well known, 
and the high rank which Livy holds among 
historians will never be disputed. 

Local, I. (See Locris.) — II. Epize- 
phyrii, a people of Magna Grascia, ori- 
ginally a colony of the Locri Opuntii, or, 
according to some, of the Locri Ozolaa, 
from Greece. The foundation of this 
colony is usually fixed at about b. c. 710 — 
683. The Epizephyrian Locri were a 
brave people, and in a battle with the 
Crotonians, 10,000 Locri, with a few allies, 
defeated 130,000 of the enemy, near the 
Sagra ; an event so marvellous, that it be- 
came proverbial, " It is more true than the 
battle of Sagra." They are also said to 
have been the first Greek people who had 
a written code of laws. See Zaleucus. 

Locris, the name used to designate the 



country of three distinct Grecian tribes, 
the Locri Epicnemidii, Opuntii, and O- 
zoloe, of whom the two former were the 
more ancient. The Epicnemidii inhabited 
the eastern coast of Phocis, and derived 
their name from part of a mountain range 
called Cnemis, stretching from Mt. G3ta to 
the borders of Bceotia, north-east of the 
former, along the Sinus Maliacus op- 
posite the promontory Ceneum in Eu- 
bcea. South-east of the Epicnemidii 
were the Locri Opuntii, so called from 
Opus, their chief city. The Ozolae occu- 
pied a narrow tract of country, situated 
on the northern shore of the Corinthian 
Gulf, commencing at the iEtolian Rhium, 
and terminating near Crissa. To the west 
and north they adjoined the iEtolians, and 
partly also, in the latter direction, the 
Dorians, while to the east they bordered 
on the district of Delphi, belonging to 
Phocis. They are said to have been a 
colony from the more celebrated Locrians 
of the east ; but no satisfactory explanation 
of their origin has been given. Thucydides 
represents them as a wild, uncivilised race, 
and addicted from the earliest period to 
theft and rapine. In the Peloponnesian 
war they appear to have sided with the 
Athenians, as the latter held possession of 
Naupactus, their principal town and har- 
bour, probably from enmity to the iEto- 
lians, who had espoused the cause of the 
Peloponnesians. 

Locusta, a notorious female poisoner at 
Rome during the first century of our era. 
She poisoned Claudius by order of Agrip- 
pina, and Britannicus by order of Nero, 
who loaded her with presents after the 
perpetration of the deed, and actually 
placed learners under her, in order that 
her art might be perpetuated. She was 
put to death by Galba. 

Locutius. See Aius. 

Lollia Paullina, grand-daughter of 
Lollius, who made himself so infamous 
by his rapacity in the provinces. She mar- 
ried C. Memmius, a man of consular rank, 
but was taken from him by Caligula, who 
made her his own wife, but soon after re- 
pudiated her. She afterwards, on the 
death of Messalina, aspired to a union with 
Claudius, but was put to death through 
the influence of Agrippina. 

Lollius, I., M. Palicanus, a Roman no- 
bleman in the time of Augustus, who gave 
him b.c. 26 the government of Galatia, 
with the title of propraetor. He acquitted 
himself so well in this office, that the 
emperor, in order to recompense his ser- 
vices, named him consul, b. c. 22, with L. 
Aurelius Lepidus. Being sent, b. c. 17, 



336 



LON 



LUC 



to engage the Germans, who had made an 
irruption into Gaul, he had the misfor- 
tune, after some successes, to experience 
a defeat, known in history by the appel- 
lation of clades Lolliana, and in which he 
lost the eagle of the fifth legion. It ap- 
pears, however, that he was able to repair 
the disaster, and regained the confidence 
of Augustus, for this monarch chose him, 
about b. c. 8, to accompany Caius Caesar 
(afterwards the Emperor Caligula) into the 
East, as a kind of director of his youth. 
In the course of this mission, he became 
guilty of the greatest depredations, and 
formed secret plots, which were disclosed 
to Caius Caesar by the king of the Par- 
thians ; and a few days afterwards Lollius 
died suddenly, leaving behind him im- 
mense riches, but a most odious memory. 
Horace addressed to him one of his odes 
(the ninth of the fourth book) in the year of 
his consulship with Lepidus, but died seven 
or eight years before Lollius had disgraced 
himself by his conduct in the East. — II. 
A son of the preceding, to whom Horace 
addressed two of his epistles (the second 
and eighteenth of the first book). He 
was the eldest son of M. Lollius Palica- 
nus, and is therefore styled by Horace 
Maxima (sc*7. natu). 

LondInium, a city of the Trinobantes, in 
Britain, now London. It is not mentioned 
by J. Caesar ; but Ammianus calls it ve- 
tuntum oppidum, and it is represented as 
a considerable, opulent, and commercial 
town, in the age of Nero. 

Longimanus, a surname of Artaxer- 
xes I., Gr. Ma.Kp6x*ip- See Artaxekxes. 

Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, a cele- 
brated Greek philosopher and critic, is 
saia to have been born either in Syria or 
at Athens, but at what period is uncertain. 
His early education was conducted by his 
uncle Fronto, a celebrated rhetorician ; 
and after studying under Ammonius and 
Origen, he retired to Athens, where he 
opened a school of philosophy and rheto- 
ric. He afterwards accepted the invitation 
of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, to undertake 
the education of her sons, and is said to 
have been her principal adviser in the war 
against Aurelian which resulted fatally, 
both to Zenobia and himself ; for after the 
capture of Palmyra by that emperor, a. d. 
273, Longinus was put to death by his 
instructions, while Zenobia was carried 
captive to Rome. (See Zenobia.) His 
treatise on the Sublime is the only work 
of Longinus which has descended to us 
in a perfect state. 

Longobardi. See Langobardi. 

Long us, a Greek writer, author of a 



prose romance entitled Pastorals, and re- 
lating to the loves of Daphnis and Chloe. 
He is supposed to have lived in the time 
of Theodosius the Great; but no authen- 
tic particulars are known respecting him. 

Lotis, or Lotos, a beautiful nymph, 
daughter of Neptune, who, to save herself 
from the importunities of Priapus, im- 
plored the protection of the gods, and was 
changed into the aquatic lotus. 

Lotophagi, a people on the coast of 
Africa near the Syrtes, so named from 
their living on the lotus. Ulysses visited 
their country at his return from the Trojan 
war. 

Luca, Lucca, a city of Etruria, north-east 
of Pisae, on the river Auser or Serchio, 
said to have been colonised a. u. c. 575. 
Caesar frequently made Luca his head- 
quarters during his command in the two 
Gauls. 

Lucani, the inhabitants of Lucania. 
See Lucania. 

Lucania, a country of Magna Graecia, 
below Apulia, occupied, in common with 
the other provinces of southern Italy, by 
numerous Greek colonies. But the native 
race of the Lucani, who were said to be 
of Samnitic origin, were numerous and 
warlike, succeeded in making themselves 
masters of several of the Greek cities, and 
were themselves only finally subjected by 
the Romans after the war with Hannibal. 

Lucanus, M. Ann\sus, I., a celebrated 
Latin poet, was born at Corduba in Spain, 
a. d. 38. His father, Annaeus Mela, a 
Roman knight, was the youngest brother 
of Seneca, the philosopher. He was early 
removed to Rome, where bis rising talents 
recommended him to the notice of Nero, 
who raised him to the dignity of an augur 
and quaestor, before he had attained the 
proper age ; but he did not long enjoy 
the imperial favour ; for having had the 
imprudence to enter the lists against his 
imperial patron, who was ambitious of 
being thought the first poet of the age, and 
having obtained an easy victory, he was 
prohibited by the emperor from declaiming 
in public. His resentment being pro- 
voked by this and other insults, he joined 
Piso in a conspiracy against the emperor ; 
but the plot was discovered ; and the poet 
having nothing left but to choose the man- 
ner of his execution, opened his veins in a 
warm bath, and died in his twenty-seventh 
year, a. b. 65. Of all his compositions 
none but his " Pharsalia," which gives 
an account of the civil wars of Caesar and 
Pompey, remains, and even this poem is 
unfinished. — II. Ocellus. See Ocellus. 

LucIres, a body of horse composed of 



LUC 



LUC 



337 



Roman knights, first established by Ro- 
mulus and Titus. It is said to have re- 
ceived its name from Lucumo, an Etrurian 
who assisted the Romans against the 
Sabines, or lucus, " grove," where Romulus 
had erected an asylum, or a place of refuge 
for all fugitives, &c, that he might people 
his city ; but it is difficult to account for 
the origin of the word. 

Luceria, Lucera, a city of Apulia, 
about twelve miles west of ArpL It 
was said to have been founded by Dio- 
mede, whose offerings to Minerva were 
still to be seen in the temple of that 
goddess in the time of Strabo. Luceria 
was the first Apulian city which the 
Romans appear to have been solicitous to 
possess, and though it was long an object 
of contention with the Samnites, they 
finally secured their conquest and sent a 
colony thither, a. u. c. 440. It remained 
firm in its allegiance to Rome during the 
invasion of Hannibal. It was noted for 
the excellence of its wool, a property, 
indeed, which was common to the whole 
of Apulia. 

Lucianus, a celebrated Greek author, 
born at Samosata, the capital of Comma- 
gene, in the reign of Trajan. He was 
early bound to one of his uncles, a sculp- 
tor ; but as he made no proficiency in the 
art, he resolved to turn his attention to 
literature and the law. He then began to 
study philosophy and eloquence, and visited 
different places, more particularly Athens, 
where he attracted the notice of M. Aure- 
lius, who appointed him register to the Ro- 
man governor of Egypt He died a, r>. 1 80, 
in his 90th year ; some of the moderns 
have asserted that he was torn to pieces by 
dogs for impiety, particularly for ridiculing 
the Christian religion. The works of 
Lucian are written in the Attic dialect, 
and consist chiefly of Dialogues, in which 
he introduces different characters with 
much dramatic propriety. 

Lucifer, the name of the planet Venus 
or morning-star. It is called Lucifer, 
when appearing in the morning before 
the sun ; but when it follows it, and ap- 
pears some time after its setting, it is 
called Hesperus. See Hesperus. 

Lucilius, I., C, a Roman knight born 
at Suessa, a town of the Aurunci, &. c. 149. 
By the mother's side he was grand-uncle 
of Pompey the Great. In early youth he 
served at the siege of Numantia, in the 
same camp with Marius and Jugurtha, 
under the younger Africanus ; and on his 
return to Rome he continued to live on 
terms of the closest intimacy with Scipio 
and his friend Laelius. He is looked on as 



the founder of satire, and as the first great 
satirical writer among the Romans. Of his 
thirty satires, only a few verses remain. 
He died at Naples in his 46th year, 
b. c. 103. — II. Lucinus, a famous Roman, 
who fled with Brutus after the battle of 
Philippi. Being soon overtaken by a party 
of horse, Lucilius suffered himself to be 
severely wounded by the darts of the enemy, 
exclaiming that he was Brutus, and was 
taken and carried to the conquerors, whose 
clemency spared his life. 

Lucilla, daughter of the emperor 
Marcus Aurelius and of Faustina, was 
born a. d. 146. At the age of seventeen 
she was given in marriage to Lucius Verus, 
at that time commanding the Roman 
armies in Syria. • Verus came as far as 
Ephesus to meet her, and the union was 
celebrated in this city ; but, habituated to 
debauchery, Verus soon relapsed into his 
former mode of life, and Lucilla, finding 
herself neglected, entered on a career of 
similar profligacy. Returning subsequently 
with her husband to Rome, she caused 
him to be poisoned there, and afterwards, 
in accordance with her father's directions, 
contracted a second union with Claudius 
Pompeianus, an aged senator, of great 
merit and probity. Her licentious con- 
duct, however, underwent no change, and 
she was banished to the island of Caprea? 
by her brother Commodus, against whom 
she had formed a conspiracy, and was soon 
afterwards put to death, a. d. 184. 

LucIna, a surname of Juno, or accord- 
ing to some of Diana, as the goddess who 
presided over child-birth, the name being 
probably derived from lux, light. She had 
a famous temple at Rome. She ij called 
Ilithyia by the Greeks. 

Lucius, a pramomen common to many 
Romans, of whom an account is given 
under their family names. 

Lucretia, a celebrated Roman lady, 
daughter of Lucretius, and wife of Tar- 
quinius Collatinus. Her name is con- 
nected in the old legend with the over- 
throw of kingly power at Rome, and the 
story is related as follows : When Tarqui- 
nius Superbus was waging war against Ar- 
dea, the capital of the Rutuli, a people on 
the coast of Latium, the city, being very 
strong both by nature and art, made a pro- 
tracted resistance. The Roman army there- 
fore lay encamped around the walls, in order 
to reduce it by famine, since they could not 
do so by force. While lying half idle here, 
the princes of the Tarquin family, and their 
kinsmen Brutus and Collatinus, happening 
to feast together, began to boast each of 
the beauty and virtue of his wife. Col- 
Q 



338 



LUC 



LUD 



latinus extolled his spouse Lucretia as 
beyond all rivalry. While every one 
was warm with the idea, it was agreed 
to leave the camp and go to Rome, to 
ascertain the veracity of their respective 
assertions. The wives of the other Ro- 
mans were involved in the dissipation of 
a feast, but Lucretia was employed in the 
midst of her female servants, easing their 
labour by sharing it herself. The beauty 
and innocence of Lucretia inflamed the 
passion of Sextus, son of Tarquin. He 
cherished his flame, secretly retired from 
the camp, and came to the house of Lu- 
cretia, where he met with a kind reception 
as the kinsman of her husband. At mid- 
night, however, he secretly entered her 
chamber, and when persuasion was inef- 
fectual, he threatened to kill her and one 
of her male slaves, and, laying the body by 
her side, to maintain that the apparent 
adultery had met with merited punish- 
ment. Lucretia, in the morning, sent for 
her husband and father, revealed to them 
the indignities she had suffered from the 
son of Tarquin, entreated them to avenge 
her wrongs, and stabbed herself. This 
fatal blow was the signal of rebellion. The 
body of the virtuous Lucretia was exposed 
to the eyes of the senate, and the barba- 
rity of Sextus, joined to the oppression of 
his father, so irritated the Roman people 
that they expelled the Tarquins from 
Rome, and established the republican or 
consular government a. u. c. 244. See 
Brutus. 

Lucretilis, Libretti, a mountain in the 
country of the Sabines, hanging over a 
pleasant valley, near which the house and 
farm of Horace were situated. 

Lucretius Carus, T., I., a celebrated 
Roman poet and philosopher, early sent to 
Athens, where he studied under Zeno and 
Phasdrus. The tenets of Epicurus and 
Empedocles, then prevalent at Athens, 
were warmly embraced by Lucretius, who 
explained and elucidated them in a poem, 
in six books, de Rerum Natura, which has 
passed through numerous editions, and 
has been often translated. He is said to 
have destroyed himself in his forty-fourth 
year, about b. c. 54. Cicero is said to 
have revised and corrected his poems. — II. 
Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus, the father 
of Lucretia, was chosen as colleague in 
the consulship to Poplicola, to supply the 
place of Brutus, who had fallen in battle. 
He died, however, soon after his election, 
and M. Horatius was appointed to finish 
the year. 

Lucrinus Lacus, a celebrated lake of 
Italy, near Cumae, on the coast of Cam- 



pania. According to Dion Cassius there 
were three lakes in this quarter, lying one 
behind the other. The outermost was 
called Tyrrhenus, middle Lucrinus, inner- 
most Avernus. Agrippa cut a communi- 
cation between these lakes and the sea, 
and built at the opening the famous Ju- 
lian harbour. The shores of the Lucrine 
lake were famous for oysters. The Lu- 
crine lake was almost entirely filled up 
by the subterraneous eruption of Monte 
Nuovo in 1538. 

Luctatius Catulus. See Catulus. 

Lucullia, a festival established by the 
Greeks in honour of Lucullus, who had be- 
haved with great prudence and propriety 
in his province. 

Luculli Horti, I., gardens of Lucullus, 
near Neapolis. — II. Villa, a country seat 
near Mt. Misenus, where Tiberius died. 

Lucullus, Lucius Licinius, a Roman 
general, celebrated for his luxury, born 
about b.c. 115. His first campaign was 
in the Marsian war, where his valour 
and constancy gained him the confidence 
of Sylla. During his quaestorship in 
Asia, and praetorship in Africa, he ren- 
dered himself conspicuous by his justice 
and humanity. Being raised to the con- 
sulship, b. c. 74, he was intrusted with the 
care of the Mithridatic war, which he con- 
ducted with great success, repeatedly de- 
feating Mithridates and his son-in-law, 
Tigranes, in a series of brilliant engage- 
ments. At length, however, his troops 
becoming mutinous in consequence of his 
severity, he was recalled, and Pompey was 
soon afterwards sent to succeed him, 
b. c. 66. On his return to Rome he was 
received with coldness, and obtained with 
difficulty the triumph due to his victories 
and fame. He then retired to the enjoy- 
ment of ease and peaceful society, and 
dedicated his time to studious pursuits, 
and the society of the learned ; but he fell 
into a delirium in the last part of his life, 
and died in his sixty-seventh or sixty-eighth 
year. Lucullus has been admired for many 
accomplishments, but censured for severity 
and extravagance. The immense riches 
which he obtained in the East enabled 
him to gratify his taste to the utmost, and 
he lived in a style which astonished even 
the most wealthy of his contemporaries. 

L&cumo, the title of the hereditary chiefs 
who ruled over the twelve independent 
tribes of Etruria, and also of the eldest 
sons of the most distinguished families. 

Ludi, the general name applied to all 
the games and contests of the Romans, but 
chiefly to those celebrated at the festivals 
of their deities. They were divided into 



LUG 



LUP 



339 



two classes, ludi circenses, and ludi seenici, 
the former consisting of all athletic and 
other exercises, the latter being chiefly 
theatrical representations. Of these nu- 
merous ludi, the following are the most 
noted : — I, Apollinares, games in honour 
of Apollo, celebrated annually at Rome 
on the fifth of July, and for several days 
thereafter. They were instituted during 
the second Punic war, for the purpose of i 
propitiating success, and at first had no 
fixed time of celebration, until this was | 
determined by a law which P. Licinius 
Varus, the city praetor, had passed. 
2. Magni or Romani, celebrated every 
year, from the fourth to the twelfth of i 
September, in honour of Jupiter. Juno, 
and Minerva. They were the most fa- 
mous of the Roman games. 3. Mega- 
lenses, called also simply Megalesia, cele- 
brated in honour of Cybele, or the great 
mother of the gods, from ue^/dXrj. great, \ 
an epithet applied to that goddess. They 
were instituted towards the end of the se- { 
cond Punic war, when the statue of the 
goddess was brought from Pessinus to 
Rome. Ovid makes the time of celebra- 
tion the fourth of April, but Livy men- 
tions the twelfth of the same month. — The 
other more important of the Roman Ludi 
will be found under their various heads. 

Lugduxeksis Gallia, a part of Gaul, 
which received its name from Lugdunum, 
capital of the province, anciently called 
Celtica. See Gallia. 

Lcgdcxcm, L s Lyons, a city of Gaul, 
near the confluence of the Rhodanus, Rhorie, 
and Arar, Saone. The ancient city lay on 
the west side of the Rhone and Saone, 
while the chief part of the modern city 
is on the east side, at the very confluence ; 
of the two stre'ams. At the extremity of 
the point of land formed by the two streams ! 
stood the famous altar erected by sixty 
Gallic nations in honour of Augustus. 
The early history of Lyons is involved in 
much obscurity. But it appears certain, 
from the statement of Dion Cassius, that I 
Munatius Plancus, about e. c. 40. settled I 
in it fugitives from some adjoining towns. 
Augustus made Lugdunum the capi- 
tal of a province, and being embellished 
and enlarged by succeeding Roman em- 
perors, it became one of the principal ci- 
ties of the Roman world. The old citv 
was principally built on the hill of Four- 
vitres, which, in fact, is merely a corrup- 
tion of its ancient name of Forum Vetus. 
Among the Roman antiquities which still 
exist at Lyons are the remains of four 
aqueducts, several cisterns, a theatre, traces 
of a palace, and a naumachia, recently dis- 



covered within the limits of the botanic 
garden. — II. Ley den, a city of the Ba- 
tavi, in Germania Inferior. The modern 
name is derived from that of Leithis, by 
which it was known in the middle ages. 

Luna, L, the sister or daughter of He- 
lios, mother of the four seasons, and iden- 
tical with Selene or the Moon. In one of 
the Homeric hymns Selene is called the 
daughter of Pallas, son of Megamedes. 
She was sometimes confounded with Diana. 
She bore to Jupiter, Pandia and Hersa 
(Dew) ; but in explanation of this last 
legend it may be remarked, that the moon 
was naturally, though incorrectly, regarded 
as the cause of dew ; and nothing, there- 
fore, was more natural than to say that the 
dew was the progeny of the moon and sky 
(Jupiter) personified after the usual man- 
ner of the Greeks. — -II. Called also Lu- 
nensis Portus, a maritime town of Etruria, 
famous for white marble. It contained a 
fine capacious harbour, and abounded in 
wine, cheese, &c. The inhabitants were 
given to augury, &c. The little bay near 
Luna, called Portus Lunensis, is now Gulf 
of Spetia. 

Lota, (" a she- wolf,") held in great ve- 
neration at Rome, because Romulus and 
Remus were said to have been suckled 
and preserved by one of these animals. 
This fabulous- story arises .from the sur- 
name of Lupa, given to the wife of the 
shepherd Faustulus, to whom these chil- 
dren owed their preservation. 

Lupercal, a sacred inclosure on the 
Palatine, where the festivals called Lu- 
percalia were celebrated. 

Lupercalia, a Roman festival in honour 
of Pan, celebrated in Februarys when the 
Luperci ran up and down the city naked, 
having only a girdle of goat's skin round 
their waist, and thongs of the same in 
their hands, with which they struck those 
they met, particularly married women, 
who were thence supposed to be rendered 
prolific. The name is derived from lupus, 
a wolf, because Pan protected cattle from 
that animal. The indecencies and excesses 
attending the processions of the Lupercals, 
which had degenerated from high religious 
rites to vulgar superstitions, provoked the 
indignation of the Christians in the fourth 
and fifth centuries. It is commonly but 
erroneously supposed that Pope Gelasius 
caused them to be abolished. 

Luperci, the Roman priests of Pan, 
and most ancient religious order in the 
state, having been instituted, according to 
tradition, by Evander, king of Pallantium, 
i a town that occupied the Palatine Hill 
i before Rome was built. There were 



340 



LUP 



LYC 



throe companies of them : viz. the Fabiani, 
Quiutiliani, and Julii, the last of whom 
were founded in honour of Julius Caesar. 
For the derivation of the word see Luper- 
calia. 

Lupercus or Sulpicius Lupercus Ser- 
vastus Junior, a poet, who appears to 
have lived during the latter periods of the 
Western empire. He has left an elegy 
" On Cupidity," a Sapphic ode " On Old 
Age," and is supposed to have been also the 
author of a small poem " On the Advan- 
tages of a Private Life," found in the An- 
thology of Burmann. 

Lupia or Lippia, I., Lippe, a small river 
of Westphalia, falling into the Rhine. — 
II. A town of Italy, south-west of Brun- 
disium, now Lecce, the modern capital of 
the territory of Otranto. 

Lupus, L, a native of Messana in Sicily, 
who wrote a poem on the return of Me- 
nelaus and Helen to Sparta. — II. P. Ru- 
tilius, a powerful but unprincipled Roman 
nobleman, lashed by Lucilius in his satires. 

Lusitania, now Portugal, that part of 
ancient Hispania, on the Atlantic coast, 
which formerly comprised the territories 
of the Lusitani, Calliaci, Vettones, and 
some lands south of the Tagus. The 
Romans, after the conquest of the country, 
made a new arrangement of the several 
tribes, by Avhich Lusitania was bounded 
on the south by a part of the Atlantic, 
from the mouth of the Anas to the Sacrum 
Promontorium, Cape St. Vincent ; west by 
the Atlantic ; north by the Durius ; east 
by a line drawn from the latter river, a 
little west of the modern city of Toro, in 
a south-eastern direction to the Anas, 
touching it about 8 miles west of Merida, 
the ancient Emerita Augusta. Previously 
to the occupation of Lusitania by the 
Romans, b. c. 200, it was in the possession 
of some Phoenician and Carthaginian co- 
lonies. Lusitania remained a Roman 
province till the fifth century of our era, 
when it was invaded by the Suevi, Visi- 
goths, &c, 

Lustratio. a sacrifice by which the 
Romans purified their cities, fields, armies, 
or people, defiled by any crime or im- 
purity. There were various manners of 
performing this ceremony, according to 
the nature of the lustration. When Servius 
Tullius had numbered the Roman people, 
he purified them, as they were assembled 
in the Campus Martius, by causing a 
young pig, a sheep, and a bull just sacri- 
ficed, to be paraded round them. Before 
the celebration of the Ludi Seculares, which 
took place only once in a century, the po- 
pulace was purified by a little sulphur, 



bitumen, and perfume, fixed to a piece of 
fir called tceda, which was lighted, and 
which thus circulated the smoke around 
them. The army was purified by causing 
the soldiers to defile between the two 
quivering halves of a victim, while the 
priest offered up certain prayers. The 
lustration of a funeral pile was effected 
by making the spectators march round it 
before the fire was kindled. 

Lustrum signified originally the puri- 
ficatory sacrifice offered up for the whole 
body of the Roman people at the end of 
every five years, when the census was 
taken ; hence it came to denote a period 
of five years. 

Lutatius C a tux us. See Catulus. 

Lutetia, Paris, a town of Belgic Gaul, 
on an island in the Sequana, Seine, and 
the capital of the Parisii. It was included 
by Augustus in the province of Lugdu- 
nensis Quarta or Senonia, but obtained no 
importance till the middle of the fourth 
century, when it took the name of Parisii, 
and became the see of an archbishop. It 
was the favourite residence of the emperor 
Julian, who terms it $'ihr) Aevrerta ; and, 
being taken by the Franks under Clovis, 
a. d. 494, it became the capital of his new 
kingdom. 

Lyjeus, a surname of Bacchus, from 
\veiv, to loose, because wine, over which 
he presides, gives freedom to the mind, 
and delivers it from cares and melancholy. 

Lycabettus, a mountain near Athens, 
famous for its olive plantations. Plato 
says that it was opposite the Pnyx ; and 
Antigonus Carystius relates a fabulous 
story, which would lead us to imagine that 
it was close to the Acropolis. 

Lyc^ea, a festival with games celebrated 
by the Arcadians in honour of Jupiter, 
surnamed Lycaeus. It was instituted by 
Lycaon, son of Pelasgus, and is said to 
have borne considerable resemblance to the 
Roman Lupercalia. 

Lycjeum, a celebrated academy at 
Athens, frequented by Aristotle, and so 
called from 'its situation near the temple 
of Apollo Lycaeus. 

Lycaeus, a mountain of Arcadia, sacred 
to Jupiter, where a temple was built in 
honour of the god Lycaeus, by Lycaon 
son of Pelasgus. It was also sacred to 
Pan. 

Lycambes. See Neobule. 

Lycaon, son of Pelasgus, an early king 
of Arcadia, who built Lycosura on Mount 
Lycaeus, and established the Lycaean fes- 
tival in honour of Jupiter. Lycaon be- 
came, by different wives, the father of 
fifty sons, and of one daughter, Callisto. 



LYC 



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341 



Both Lycaon and his sons were notorious I 
for their cruel and impious conduct, and [ 
Jupiter, in order to satisfy himself of the [ 
truth of the reports that reached him, dis- 
guised himself as a poor man and sought ! 
their hospitality. To entertain the stranger ■ 
they slaughtered a boy, and, mingling his j 
flesh with that of the victims, set it before } 
their guest. The god, in indignation and J 
horror at the barbarous act, overturned j 
the table (whence the place derived its i 
future name of Trapezus), and struck with 
lightning the godless father and sons, with | 
the exception of Nyetimus, whom Earth, 
raising her hands and grasping the right 
hand of Jupiter, saved from the wrath of 
the avenging deity. According to another 
account, Jupiter destroyed the dwelling 
of Lycaon with lightning, and turned its 
master into a wolf. The deluge of Deu- 
calion, which shortly afterwards occurred, | 
is ascribed to the impiety of the sons of 
Lycaon. 

Lycaonia, a district of Asia Minor, 
in the south-eastern quarter of Phrygia. 
The inhabitants were called Lycaones. It 
was made a Roman province under Au- 
gustus. Its limits varied at different 
times. We learn from the New Tes- 
tament (Acts xiv. 11.), that the Lycao- 
nians had a distinct and peculiar language. 
Iconium was the chief city. 

Lycastus, an ancient town of Crete, 
whose inhabitants accompanied Idomeneus 
to the Trojan war. It was destroyed by 
the inhabitants of Gnossus. 

Lychnidus, Achridna, a city of Illyricum, 
on a lake from which the Drino rises. It 
was occupied by the Romans during their 
war with Perseus, king of Macedon ; under 
the Greek emperors it retained consider- 
able influence in consequence of its po- 
sition, and was finally destroyed in the 
reign of Justinian by the same earthquake 
which overthrew Corinth and several other 
cities. 

Lycia, a country of Asia Minor, bounded 
on the north-east by Pamphylia, west and 
north-west by the Carians, north by Phrygia 
and Pisidia. It was first named Milyas, 
and its earliest inhabitants seem to have 
been the Solymi. Sarpedon, however, 
driven from Crete by his brother Minos, 
came hither with a colony, and drove the 
Solymi into the interior. The new comers 
took the name of Termila?. Afterwards, 
Lycus, driven from Athens by his brother 
^Egeus, retired to the Termila?, where he 
was well received by Sarpedon, and gave 
the name Lycia to the country, and Lycii 
to the people. Lycia was known under 
this name to Homer, who speaks also of 



the Solymi. The Solymi disappeared 
from history after Homer's time, and 
the name Milyas remained for ever 
afterwards applied to the region com- 
mencing in the north of Lycia, and ex- 
tending into Phrygia and Pisidia. From 
its general fertility, the natural strength 
of the country, and the goodness of its 
harbours, Lycia Avas one of the richest 
and most populous countries of Asia in 
proportion to its extent. The Lycians 
appear to have possessed considerable 
power in early times, and it is recorded, to 
the honour of the inhabitants, that they 
never committed acts of piracy like those 
of Cilicia and other quarters. They were 
almost the only people west of the Haiys 
who were not subdued by Crcesus ; and 
they made also an obstinate resistance to 
Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, but were 
eventually conquered. After the downfall 
of the Persian empire, they continued 
subject to the Seleucida? till the overthrow 
of Antiochus by the Romans, who as- 
signed their country to the Rhodians ; but 
they were allowed to retain their own laws 
and their political constitution. The six 
principal cities were Xanthus, Patara, Pi- 
nara, Olympus, Myra, and Tlos. At Pa- 
tara was a celebrated oracle of Apollo : 
and the epithet hybema is applied to the 
country, because the god was said to pass 
the winter in his temple. 

Lycimnia, a lady alluded to by Horace, 
and supposed to be the same with Te- 
rentia, wife of Maecenas. 

Lvcius, a surname of Apollo, derived 
from the old form ATKH, " light" to which 
we may also trace the Latin lux. Accord- 
ing to the common but erroneous opinion, 
Apollo was called " Lycius" because wor- 
shipped with peculiar honours at Patara 
in Lycia. 

Lycomedes, son of Apollo and Parthe- 
nope, and king of Scyros, an island in the 
iEgean sea. Ke was secretly intrusted 
with the care of young Achilles, whom his 
mother Thetis had disguised in woman's 
clothes, to remove him from the Trojan 
war, where she knew he must perish. He 
also rendered himself infamous for his 
treachery to Theseus. See Theseus. 

Lycon, an Athenian, who flourished 
about 405 b. c, and who, together with 
Anytus and Melitus, was concerned in the 
prosecution instituted against Socrates. 
(See Socrates.) — A Peripatetic philoso- 
pher, a native of Troas, and the pupil and 
successor of Strato of Lampsacus. He 
flourished about 270 b. c, and was for 
forty years the head of the Peripatetic 
school at Athens. 

Q 3 



342 



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LYC 



Lycophron, I., a son of Periander, king 
of Corinth. The murder of his mother 
Melissa had such an effect on him, that he 
resolved never to hold any intercourse 
with his father who had committed such a 
barbarity, and he was at last banished 
to Corcyra. When the infirmities of 
Periander obliged him to look for a suc- 
cessor, Lycophron refused to come to Co- 
rinth while his father was there, and was 
induced to leave Corcyra, only on promise 
that Periander would come and dwell there 
while he remained the master of Corinth. 
But the Corcyreans, apprehensive of the 
tyranny of Periander, murdered Lycophron 
before he left that island. — II. A brother 
of Thebe, wife of Alexander, tyrant of 
Pherae. He assisted his sister in mur- 
dering her husband, and afterwards seized 
the sovereignty, but was dispossessed by 
Philip of Macedon. — III. A famous 
Greek poet and grammarian, born at Chal- 
cis in Euboea. He was one of the poets 
who flourished under Ptol. Philadelphus, 
and, from their number, obtained the name 
of the Tragic Pleiades. He is said by Ovid 
to have died by an arrow. Of his nu- 
merous tragedies, only one, called " Cas- 
sandra" has reached our times. It has 
been translated into English by Lord 
Royston. 

Lycopolis, " the city of wolves," a city 
of Upper Egypt, on the western side of 
the Nile ; named from the extraordinary 
worship paid to wolves. It is supposed 
to answer to Syut or rather Marfaluth. 

Lycorea, the southern summit of Par- 
nassus, so called because the neighbouring 
people fled to it during the deluge of 
Deucalion, who was led thither by the howl- 
ing of wolves (aukoj) : the modern name 
is Liakura. On this summit stood a small 
town of the same name, the primitive 
abode of Deucalion. 

Lycorias, one of the attendant nymphs 
of Cyrene. 

Lycoris, called also Cytheris, a cele- 
brated Roman courtezan, to whom Gallus, 
the friend of Virgil, was attached. She 
had been originally an actress of mimes, 
and, after having lived for some time under 
the protection of Gallus, eloped with An- 
tony, who deserted her for Cleopatra. 

Lycormas, the more ancient name of 
the Evenus. See Evenus. 

Lycortas, father of Polybius, flourished 
B. c. 1 84. He was chosen general of the 
Achaean league, and revenged the death 
of Philopoemen. 

Lycosura, a city of Arcadia, near Mons 
Lycaeus, on a branch of the Neda, regarded 
by Pausanias as the most ancient city in 



the world. Its site is said to be occupied 
by Agios Giorgios, near the village Stala, 
whose antiquity is manifested by numerous 
ruins. 

Lyctus, an important city of Crete, si- 
tuated north-east of Praesus, not far from 
the sea. It was the birth-place of Idome- 
neus, who is hence called Lyctius. It was 
colonised by the Lacedaemonians, and was 
engaged in constant warfare with the in- 
habitants of Gnossus, by whom it was ul- 
timately taken and destroyed. Panagia 
Cardiotissa occupies the site of the ancient 
town. 

Lycurgus, I., a king of Thrace, who, 
when Bacchus was passing through his 
country, assailed him so furiously that the 
god was obliged to take refuge with The- 
tis. Bacchus avenged himself by driving 
Lycurgus mad, and the latter thereupon 
killed his own son Dryas with a blow of 
an axe, taking him for a vine-branch. The 
land became, in consequence, sterile ; and 
his subjects, having been informed by an 
oracle that it would not regain its fertility 
until the monarch was put to death, bound 
Lycurgus, and left him on Mount Pan- 
gasus, where he was destroyed by wild 
horses. — II. A celebrated lawgiver of 
Sparta, son of king Eunomus, was born in 
the ninth century before our era. Euno- 
mus having been killed in a fray, was suc- 
ceeded by his eldest son Polydectes, who, 
shortly after, dying childless, left his bro- 
ther Lycurgus apparently entitled to the 
crown. But, as his brother's widow was 
soon discovered to be pregnant, he declared 
his purpose of resigning his dignity if she 
should give birth to an heir. The ambi- 
tious queen, however, secretly sent pro- 
posals to him, of securing him on the 
throne, on condition of sharing it with him, 
by destroying the embryo hopes of Sparta. 
Stifling his indignation, he affected to em- 
brace her offer ; but, as the time drew 
near, he' placed trusty attendants around 
her person, with orders, if she should be 
delivered of a son, to bring the child im- 
mediately to him. He happened to be 
sitting at table with the magistrates when 
his servants came with the newborn prince. 
Taking the infant from their arms, he placed 
it on the royal seat, and, in the presence of 
the company, proclaimed it king of Sparta, 
and named it Charilaus, to express the joy 
which the event diffused among the people. 
Alarmed, however, lest the calumnies pro- 
pagated by the incensed queen-mother and 
her kinsmen; who charged him with a 
design against the life of his nephew, might 
chance to be seemingly confirmed by the 
untimely death of Charilaus, he determined, 



LYC 



LYD 



343 



instead of staying to exercise his authority 
for the benefit of the young king and of 
the state, to withdraw beyond the reach of 
slander. With this view he visited many 
foreign lands, observed their institutions 
and manners, and conversed with their 
sages. On his return he found the dis- 
orders of the state aggravated, and the want 
of a reform more generally felt. Having 
strengthened his authority with the sanc- 
tion of the Delphic oracle, which declared 
his wisdom to transcend the common level 
of humanity, and having secured the aid 
of a numerous party among the leading 
men, who took up arms to support him, 
he successively procured the enactment of 
a series of solemn ordinances or compacts 
by which the civil and military constitu- 
tion of the commonwealth, the distribution 
of property, the education of the citizens, 
the rules of their daily intercourse and 
of their domestic life, were to be fixed 
on an immutable basis. Many of these 
regulations roused a violent opposition, 
which even threatened the life of Ly- 
curgus ; but his fortitude and patience 
finally triumphed over all obstacles, and 
he lived to see his great idea, unfolded in 
all its beauty, begin its steady course, 
bearing on its front the marks of immortal 
vigour. His last action was to sacrifice 
himself to the perpetuity of his work. He 
set out on a journey to Delphi, after having 
bound his countrymen by an oath to make 
no change in the laws before his return. 
He soon after put himself to death, and 
ordered his ashes to be thrown into the 
sea, fearful lest, if his remains were car- 
ried to Sparta, the citizens should con- 
sider themselves freed from the oath which 
they had taken. The laws of Lycurgus 
remained in full force for 700 years. He 
has been compared to Solon, the cele- 
brated legislator of Athens, for as the 
former gave to his citizens morals con- 
formable to the established laws, the latter 
had given to the Athenians laws which 
coincided with their customs and manners. 
Lycurgus had a son called Antiorus, who 
left no issue. The Lacedaemonians marked 
their respect for their great legislator by 
yearly celebrating a festival called Lycur- 
gidce or Lycurgides. The laws of Lycur- 
gus were abrogated by Philopcemen, b. c. 
1 88, but were soon after re-established by 
the Romans. — III. An Athenian orator, 
born about b. c. 404, one of the warmest 
supporters of the democratical party in the 
contest with Philip of Macedon. He is said 
to have derived instruction from Plato and 
Isocrates. He took an active part in the 
management of public affairs, and was one 



of the Athenian ambassadors who suc- 
ceeded, b. c. 343, in counteracting the de- 
signs of Philip against Ambracia and the 
Peloponnesus. He filled the office of 
treasurer of the public revenue for twelve 
years, and was noted for the integrity and 
ability with which he discharged its du- 
ties. After the battle of Chasronea, b. c. 
388, Lycurgus conducted the accusation 
against the Athenian general Lysicles. 
He was one of the orators demanded by 
Alexander after the destruction of Thebes, 
b. c. 335. He died about b. c. 323, and 
was buried in the Academia ; and fifteen 
years after his death, upon the ascendancy 
of the democratical party, a statue was 
erected to his memory by the Athenians. 

Lycus, a king of Bceotia, successor to 
his brother Nycteus, who left no male 
issue. He was intrusted with the govern- 
ment during the minority of Labdacus, 
son of Nycteis, a daughter of Nycteus. 
See Antiope. 

Lydia, a country of Asia Minor, south 
of Mysia. At the period of its becoming 
a Roman province, it was bounded on the 
west by the Grecian colonies of Ionia, 
north by the Hermus, south by the Maean- 
der, east by Phrygia. Under the Persian 
dominions it was more extensive, since it 
then comprehended the Greek cities on the 
coast. According to some Greek writers 
the country was divided between two 
nations, Lydians and Masones ; the former 
dwelling in the plains adjacent to the 
Cayster and in the neighbouring moun- 
tains, while the latter occupied the nor- 
thernmost part of the country around the 
Mt. Tmolus, and near the Hermus and 
Hyllus. Homer calls the nation by the 
general name of Maaones. Herodotus 
states that the people of the country were 
first called Maeones, but afterwards Lydii, 
from Lydus, one of their kings. Three 
dynasties are mentioned by Herodotus as 
having held sway in Lydia in ancient 
times, the Atyadce, who ruled from the 
remotest period down to b. c. 1221 ; the 
Heraclidas from b. c. 1221 to b. c. 716, and 
the Mermnadao from b. c. 716 to b. c. 556 ; 
but it is only with the last of the dynas- 
ties that the kingdom of Lydia emerges 
into authentic history. Under Croesus, 
the last of the Mermnadae, it became the 
most powerful kingdom in Western Asia ; 
but it was overthrown by Cyrus, b. c. 556, 
and became a province of the Persian em- 
pire, to which it remained subject till the 
latter was conquered by Alexander b. c. 
330. It next formed part of the empire 
of the Seleucidas ; on the overthrow of An- 
tiochus by the Romans, b. c. 189, it was 
Q 4 



344 



LYS 



given to Eumenes, king of Pergamus, and 
was finally bequeathed with the other do- 
minions of the kings of Pergamus to the 
Romans by Attalus III. b. c. 133. The 
chief cities were Sardis, Philadelphia, and 
Thyatira. 

Lydius, an epithet applied to the Tiber, 
because it passed near Etruria, whose in- 
habitants were said to have been originally 
a Lydian colony. 

Lydus, a son of Atys and Callithea, 
king of Mseonia, from him named Lydia. 
See Lydia. 

Lydda. See Diospolis. 

Lygdamis or Lygdamus, I., a native of 
Naxos who aided Pisistratus in recovering 
his authority at Athens, and received as a 
recompence the government of his native 
island. —II. The father of Artemisia, the 
celebrated queen of Halicarnassus. — III. 
A tyrant of Caria, son of Pisindelis, who 
reigned in the time of Herodotus at Hali- 
carnassus. He put to death the poet 
Panyasis. Herodotus fled from his native 
city in order to avoid his tyranny, and 
afterwards aided in deposing him. 

Lynceus, I., son of Aphareus, was 
among the hunters of the Calydonian 
boar, and one of the Argonauts. He was 
so sharp-sighted that he could see through 
the earth, and distinguish objects at the 
distance of several miles. He was slain 
by Pollux. (See Castor.) Palasphatus 
has explained the fable of Lynceus seeing 
objects beneath the earth, by supposing 
him to have first carried on the operation 
of mining. — II. A son of JEgyptus. He 
obtained Hypermnestra, daughter of Da- 
naus, for his bride, and was the only one 
of the fifty sons of iEgyptus whose life 
was spared by his spouse. See Danaus. 

Lyncus, Lync^eus, or Lynx, a cruel 
king of Scythia, or, according to others, 
of Sicily. He received as his guest Tri- 
ptolemus, whom Ceres had sent to teach 
mankind agriculture, and, jealous of his 
commission, he resolved to murder him 
in his sleep ; but on going to give the 
deadly blow, he was suddenly changed 
into a lynx, the emblem of perfidy and in- 
gratitude. 

Lyrnessus, I., a city of Troas, south of 
Adramyttium. It disappeared along with 
Thebe, and left no trace of its existence 
beyond the celebrity which the Iliad has 
conferred upon it. Pliny asserts that it 
stood on the banks of the little river 
Evenus, whence the Adramytteni derived 
their supply of water. — II. A maritime 
town of Pamphylia, between Phaselis and 
Attalea, founded by the Cilicians of Troas, 
who quitted their country and settled on 



the Pamphylian coast. It is said to retain 
the name of Ernatia. 

Lysander, I., a celebrated commander 
of Sparta, at the termination of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. After filling various emi- 
nent situations, he was appointed to the 
command of the Spartan fleet, gave battle 
to the Athenian fleet, consisting of 120 
ships, at yEgospotamos, and destroyed it 
all except three ships. By this battle, 
b. c. 405, the Athenians lost their empire 
and influence among the neighbouring 
states. Their government was totally 
changed ; and thirty tyrants were set over 
Athens by Lysander. He had already 
begun to pave his way to universal power, 
by establishing aristocracy in the Gre- 
cian cities of Asia, and now attempted to 
make the crown of Sparta elective. To 
effect this he had recourse to the assistance 
of the gods ; but his attempt to corrupt 
the oracles of Delphi, Dodona, and Jupi- 
ter Ammon, proved ineffectual, and he 
was accused of using bribes by the priests 
of the Libyan temple. But the sudden de- 1 
claration of war against the Thebans saved 
him from this accusation ; and he was 
sent, together with Pausanias, against the 
enemy. The plan of his military opera- 
tions was discovered ; the Haliartians, 
whose ruin he secretly meditated, attacked 
him unexpectedly, and he was killed in a 
bloody battle, which ended in the defeat 
of his troops, b. c. 394. His body was 
recovered by his colleague Pausanias, and 
honoured with a magnificent funeral. He 
died so extremely poor that his daughters 
were rejected by two opulent citizens of 
Sparta, to whom they had been betrothed 
during the life of their father. The father 
of Lysander, whose name was Aristoclites, 
or x\ristocrates, was descended from Her- 
cules, though not reckoned of the race 
of the Heraclidse. - — II. One of the ephori 
in the reign of Agis. — III. A grandson 
of the great Lysander. 

Lysandra, a daughter of Ptolemy La- 
gus, who married Agathocles, son of Lysi- 
machus. She was persecuted by Arsinoe, 
wife of Lysimachus, and fled to Seleucus 
for protection. 

Lysias, a celebrated orator, son of Ce- 
phalus, a native of Syracuse, was born at 
Athens, b. c. 458. In his fifteenth year 
he accompanied the colony which the 
Athenians sent to Thurium, and returned 
in his forty-seventh. Being driven from 
Athens by the tyranny of the Thirty, he 
retired to Megara, subsequently joined 
Thrasybulus in his successful attempt for 
the deliverance of his country, and ended 
his days at Athens, b. c. 378. Thirty- 



LYS 



MAC 



345 



four of his orations have reached our 
times. 

Lysimachia, I., a city in the Thracian 
Chersonese, founded by Lysimachus, near 
the site of Cardia, It fell successively 
into the hands of Seleucus, Ptolemy, and 
Philip of Macedon. It afterwards suffered 
considerably from the attacks of tbe Thra- 
cians, and was nearly in ruins when it was 
restored by Antiochus, king of Syria, on 
whose defeat by the Romans, it was be- 
stowed on Eumenes, king of Pergamus. 
In the middle ages the name was lost in 
that of Hexamilion, a fortress constructed 
probably out of its ruins, and so called 
from the width of the isthmus on which 
Lysimachia had stood. — II. A town of 
iEtolia, near a lake named Hydra, and 
between Arsinoe and Pleuron. 

Lysimachus, one of the captains of Alex- 
ander the Great, by whose favour he rose 
from an humble condition, and at the par- 
tition of the empire of Alexander, received 
for his share Thrace, the Chersonese, and 
the countries adjacent to the Euxine. 
Lysimachus joined in the league against 
Antigonus, with Seleucus, Ptolemy, and 
Cassander, and fought with them at the 
great battle at Ipsus. He afterwards 
seized Macedonia, after expelling Pyrrhus 
from the throne, b.c. 286. ; but his cruelty, 
and the murder of his son Agathocles, so 
offended his subjects, that the most opulent 
and powerful revolted, and abandoned the 
kingdom. He pursued them to Asia, de- 
clared war against Seleucus, who had 
given them a kind reception, and was 
killed in a bloody battle, b. c. 281, in his 
eightieth year, his body being discovered 
in the heaps of slain only by the fidelity of 
a little dog, which had carefully watched 
near it. 

Lysippus, a celebrated sculptor and sta- 
tuary, born at Sicyon about b. c. S00, 
and contemporary with Sthenis, Euphro- 
nides, Sostratus, &c. His productions 
were held in the highest esteem both by 
his contemporaries and posterity. He was 
greatly patronised by Alexander the Great. 
Long lists of his works have been pre- 
served by Pliny, Pausanias, and Vitruvius. 

Lysis, a Pythagorean philosopher, pre- 
ceptor of Epaminondas, flourished about 
b. c. 388 ; he is supposed by some to be 
the author of the Golden Verses attributed 
to Pythagoras. 

Lvstra, a city of Asia Minor, placed 
by Ptolemy in Isauria ; but according to 
Pliny, Hierocles, and the Acts of the 
Apostles, it belonged to Lycaonia. Col. 
Leake's inquiries have tended to confirm 
the opinion of Ptolemy. 



M. 

Macs:, L, a people of Africa, who oc- 
cupied the coast near the Greater Syrtis, 
and are supposed to have been the same 
with those named Syrtites by Pliny. The 
river Cinyps traversed their territory. — 
II. A people of Arabia Deserta, on a 
projection of land where the Sinus Per- 
sicus is narrowest. Ptolemy calls the pro- 
montory Assabo. It is now Cape Mus- 
sendon. 

Macaria, I., a daughter of Hercules 
and Dejanira. The oracle having de- 
clared that the descendants of Hercules 
should obtain the victory over Eurystheus, 
if any one of them devoted himself to 
death, Macaria cheerfully consented and 
the prophecy was fulfilled. Great honours 
were paid to her by the Athenians, and a 
fountain at Marathon was called by her 
name. — II. An ancient name of Cyprus. 

Macaris, an ancient name of Crete. 

Macedonia, a country of Europe, to the 
west of Thrace, and north and north-east 
of Thessaly. Its most ancient name was 
iEmathia, from iEmathius, a prince of 
great antiquity ; but the Greeks after- 
wards called it Macedonia, from king Ma- 
cedon, a descendant, as some pretend, of 
Deucalion, or, as others say, by an easy 
change of Mygdonia, the name of one of 
its provinces, into Macedonia. The found- 
ations of the Macedonian monarchy were 
laid in the eighth century b. c, by Ca- 
ranus, a descendant of Hercules. His 
successors, and the people over whom they 
ruled, were long considered barbarians by 
the more polished inhabitants cf the south, 
and during 400 years they were under the 
protection of Sparta, Athens, or Thebes, 
until the reign of Philip, the father of 
Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom 
as a politician, and exploits as a general, 
rendered Macedonia a powerful kingdom, 
and paved the way to his son's greatness. 
After the death of Alexander, Macedonia 
underwent the fate of the rest of that mo- 
narch's vast empire ; and after numerous 
vicissitudes fell into the hands of the Ro- 
mans, b.c. 168. Perses was the last monarch. 
The boundaries of Macedonia had varied 
according as it had advanced in pros- 
perity ; and when it became a Roman 
province it was made to comprise Thes- 
saly and Epirus, and extended from sea 
to sea. Macedonia was inhabited from 
the earliest times by numerous tribes, 
whose names continued to be given down 
to a late period to various districts of the 
country. Of these divisions the most 
Q 5 



346 



Mac 



MAD 



important were JEmonia, Mygdonia, Pce~ 
onia, Edonia, /Emathia, Botticetis, Chalci- 
dice, &c. Macedonia now forms part of 
European Turkey under the name of 
Mahedonia. 

Macedonicum bellum, a war undertaken 
by the Romans against Philip III., king 
of Macedon, some few months after the se- 
cond Punic war, b. c. 200. The cause of 
this war originated in the hostilities which 
Philip had exercised against the Achceans, 
friends and allies of Rome. 

Macedonicus, a surname given to Me- 
tellus, from his conquests in Macedonia. 
It was also given to such generals as had 
obtained any victory in that province. 

Macer, the name of two poets who 
flourished in the Augustan age : I. iEmi- 
lius, a native of Verona, who joined a mi- 
litary expedition into Asia, and died b. c. 
1 7. He was the author of a poem upon 
birds, and another upon serpents and the 
virtues of medicinal herbs. — II. iEmilius 
or Licinius, who belonged to the Latin 
Homeristae, and celebrated portions of the 
tale of Troy, omitted by Homer. — Both 
of these poets were friends of Ovid, and 
are frequently supposed to have been 
identical. 

Machanidas, a powerful tyrant of 
Sparta, whose views at one time extended 
to the subjugation of the whole Pelopon- 
nesus. He was defeated and slain by Phi- 
lopoemen at Mantinea, b. c. 208, and suc- 
ceeded by Nabis. 

Machaon, a celebrated physician, son of 
iEsculapius. He went to the Trojan war, 
where he acted as physician to the Greeks, 
and was one of those concealed in the 
wooden horse. Some suppose that he was 
killed before Troy by Eurypylus, son of 
Telephus. He received divine honours 
after death, and had a temple in Messenia. 

Macra, Magra, a river flowing from the 
Apennines, and dividing Liguria from 
Etruria. • Till the reign of Augustus, the 
Arnus formed the southern boundary of 
Liguria. 

Macrianus, Titus FulvJus Julius, a 
Roman who, from a private soldier, rose 
to the highest command in the army, and 
proclaimed himself emperor, when Vale- 
rian had been made prisoner by the Per- 
sians, a. d. 260. When he had supported 
his dignity for a year in the east, he 
marched towards Rome, to crush Gallie- 
nus, who had been proclaimed emperor, 
but was defeated in Illyricum by the lieu- 
tenant of Gallienus, and put to death with 
his son, at his own express request, a. i>. 
262. 

MacrInus, M. Opilius Severus, L, a 



native of Africa who, from the most igno- 
minious condition, rose to the rank of 
praefect of the praetorian guards under 
Caracalla, whom he sacrificed to his am- 
bition, a. d. 217, and succeeded on the 
throne. The beginning of his reign 
was popular. The abolition of taxes, and 
an affable behaviour, endeared him to his 
subjects; but his severities towards the 
soldiers alienated their affections, and an 
insurrection excited by Moesa, aunt of Ca- 
racalla, having broken out against him, he 
attempted to save his life by flight, but was 
arrested in Cappadocia, and put to death, 
a. d. 2] 8, after a reign of about 14 months. 
His son Diadumenianus shared his fate. — • 
II. A friend of the poet Persius, who 
inscribed to him his seeond satire. 

Macro, a favourite of Tiberius, cele- 
brated for intrigues, perfidy, and cruelty. 
He destroyed Sejanus, was accessary to 
the murder of Tiberius, but was ultimately 
obliged by Caligula to kill himself, toge- 
ther with his wife Ennia, with whom the 
latter had entered into illicit intercourse, 
a. d. 38. 

Macrobii, a people of .Ethiopia, cele- 
brated for their justice and the innocence 
of their manners. They were supposed to 
live to their 1 20th year ; and from their 
longevity they obtained their name (fiaupbs 
filos, " long life,") to distinguish them from 
the other inhabitants of ^Ethiopia. He- 
rodotus has copiously described the Ma- 
crobii. 

Macrobius, a Latin writer and eminent 
critic who flourished towards the close of 
the fourth century of our era. He is sup- 
posed to have been a Greek, but the place 
of his birth is not known. That he lived 
at Rome, is certain, but whether he was 
the same Macrobius who was grand cham- 
berlain under Honorius and Theodosius II. 
is not well ascertained. It has likewise 
been disputed whether he was a Christian 
or pagan; but if we may judge of his re- 
ligious creed from those fragments of his 
writings which have reached our time, 
there can be but one opinion, that he had 
not embraced Christianity. 

Macrocheir, the Greek equivalent of 
Longimanus, a name of Artaxerxes. 

MacroKes, a nation of Asia, occupying 
the northern parts of Armenia, probably be- 
tween the town of Arze and the coast of the 
Euxine. They were by some supposed to 
be identical with the Macrocephali ; and 
in the time of Strabo were called Sanni or 
Tanni. 

Madaura or Medaura, a considerable 
city of Numidia, near Tagaste, and north- 
west of Sicca. It is commonly regarded 



MAD 



MAG 



347 



as the birth-place of Apuleius, though 
Mannert is in favour of the Roman co- 
lony Ad Medera. No traces of Madaura 
remain. 

Madyes, a Scythian prince, who pur- 
sued the Cimmerians in Asia, conquered 
Cyaxares, b. c. 623, and held for some 
time the supreme power of Asia Minor. 

Meander, I., a son of Oceanus and 
Tethys. — II. A celebrated river of Asia 
Minor, which rises near Cehenas in Phry- 
gia, and after forming the common boun- 
dary between Lydia and Caria, and in- 
creasing its waters by numerous affluents, 
especially the Marsyas, Pycus, Eudon, 
Lethaeus, &c, falls into the iEgean sea 
between Miletus and Priene. The Mas- 
ander was celebrated for the windings of 
its course, hence all obliquities have re- 
ceived the name of Mceanders. It is still 
a deep stream, fordable only in a few 
places, and is now called the Minder. 

MiEATjE, a people in the south of Scot- 
land, comprising the Otadeni, Gadeni, 
Selgovaa, Novantaa, and Damnii. 

Maecenas. See Mec^enas. 

M^edi, a people of Masdica, a district of 
Thrace, near Rhodope, 

Melius, a Roman slain by Ahala, 
master of the horse to the dictator Cin- 
cinnatus, for aspiring to supreme power. 

M^emacteria, sacrifices offered to Ju- 
piter at Athens in the winter month Maa- 
macterion. The god surnamed Mcemactes 
was entreated to send temperate weather, 
as he presided over the seasons, and was 
the god of the air. 

M^enades, a name of the Bacchantes, 
priestesses of Bacchus, derived from y.ai- 
vojxai, " to be furious," in allusion to their 
frenzied gestures. 

MvEnalus, I. (pi. Maanala), a mountain 
of Arcadia, sacred to Pan, by whom it was 
much frequented, and covered with pine- 
trees, whose echo and shade have been 
greatly celebrated. — II. A town of Ar- 
cadia, in the vicinity of Mount Maenalus, 
which took its name from one of the sons 
of Lycaon, its founder. It was in ruins 
in the time of Pausanias, and its situation 
has not been clearly investigated by mo- 
dern travellers. 

Magnus, Maine, a river of Germany, 
falling into the Rhine at Mayence. 

MiEowiA. (See Lydia.) The Etrurians, 
as descended from a Lydian colony, are 
often called- M 'ceon idee, and even the lake 
Thrasymenus in their country is called 
Maeonius Lacus. 

M^sonides, a surname of Homer in al- 
lusion to his supposed Lydian or Meeonian 
origin. 



M^onis, an epithet applied to Omphale 
as queen of Lydia or Maaonia, and also to 
Arachne as a native of Lydia. 

M^eotje, M^eotici, and M-eotid-3?, a 
general appellation for the tribes dwelling 
along the Palus Masotis. 

M-eotis Palus, a large lake, or part of 
the sea between Europe and Asia, at the 
north of the Euxine, with which it com- 
municates by the Cimmerian Bosphorus, 
Sea of Azoph, or Zaback. The name of 
Marsh was given to it from its waters 
being polluted with mud. It was wor- 
shipped as a deity by the Massagetae. The 
Amazons are called Masotides, as living in 
the neighbourhood. 

M-assiA Silva, a wood in Etruria, near 
the mouth of the Tiber. 

M-evius. See Bavids. 

Magas, a king of Cyrene, in the age of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus. He reigned fifty 
years, and died b. c. 257. 

Magetobria, a city of Gaul, the situ- 
ation of which has given rise to much dis- 
cussion. Some place it near Binga, below 
Moguntia ; D'Anville, however, and sub- 
sequent writers discover traces of the an- 
cient name in the spot called at the present 
day la Moigte de Broie, at the confluence 
of the Arar and Ogno, near a village named 
Pontailler, which belonged formerly to 
Burgundy. This opinion is confirmed by 
an inscription, Magetob, found in this 
quarter on the fragment of an urn, dug 
up, along with other articles, in 1802. 

Magi the caste of priests (hereditary) 
among the Persians and Medians are 
so termed by ancient Greek historians. 
The name has been derived by modern 
Orientalists from mog or mag, signifying 
priest in the Pehlevi language. Zoroaster 
is designated as the great reformer of the 
order; but the history and the very ex- 
istence of that celebrated character are en- 
veloped in complete obscurity. He is ge- 
nerally supposed to have lived at no long 
period before the age of Cyrus. The most 
remarkable feature of his doctrine con- 
sisted in the two principles of Good and 
Evil (Oromasdes and Arimanius), who 
were held to divide the dominion of the 
world, in alternate periods, during its 
whole predestined duration of 12,000 years. 
The books termed the Zendavesta, brought 
to Europe in the last century by Anquetil 
du Perron, are supposed by some to con- 
tain the essential doctrines of this religion ; 
but their authenticity has been the subject 
of much discussion. The fire-worshippers 
of Persia and India still hold them in re- 
verence. Our amplest resources for the 
study of the religion and character of the 
Q 6 



348 



MAG 



MAG 



ancient Magi are to be found in the learned, 
researches of Anquetil. 

Magna GrjecIa, a part of Italy. See 
Grjecia Magna. 

Magna Mater, a name given to Cy- 
bele. 

Magnentius, a German, who from being 
a prisoner of war was raised to the command 
of the Jovian and Herculean bands sta- 
tioned to guard the banks of the Rhine, 
and on the murder of Constans, ascended 
the throne, a. d. 350. Constantius, em- 
peror of the East, and brother of Constans, 
having marched against him, defeated him 
on the banks of the Drave, a. d. 351, and 
two years afterwards in Gaul, whither 
Magnentius had fled, whereupon the latter, 
finding himself deserted by his troops, de- 
spatched himself with his own sword, and 
Constantius thus became sole master of 
the whole empire. 

Magnesia, I., ad Sipylum, so called to 
distinguish it from Magnesia ad Moean- 
drum, a celebrated city of Lydia in Asia 
Minor, not far from Mount Sipylus. Its 
early history is merged in obscurity. It 
was, in all probability, colonised by the 
Magnesians of Thessaly, not long after 
the foundation of Cyme and Smyrna, two 
other iEolian cities. It is celebrated as the 
scene of a signal victory obtained by the 
Romans, under the two Scipios, over the 
forces of Antiochus the Great, who was 
consequently obliged to retire beyond the 
chain of Taurus, and leave Asia Minor at 
the disposal of the conquerors. The in- 
habitants afterwards displayed great bravery 
in defending their town against Mithridates. 
In the reign of Tiberius, a.d. 17, Magnesia, 
in common with eleven other cities, was all 
but destroyed by an earthquake, and owed 
its restoration in a great measure to the 
emperor's generosity. It remained a flou- 
rishing city down to a late period of the Ro- 
man empire. — II. Ad Masandrum, a city 
of Asia Minor, close to the modern Inek- 
bazar, and about fifty miles S. S. E. of Smyr- 
na. Though a place of some consequence, 
it was greatly inferior to the Magnesia ad 
Sipylum. It is remarkable, however, for 
the ruins of a theatre, stadium, and mag- 
nificent octastyle Ionic temple, said to have 
surpassed in the harmony of its proportions 
even the temple of Diana at Ephesus. — II. 
A name given by the Greeks to that nar- 
row portion of Thessaly which is confined 
between the Peneus and Pagasaean bay to 
the north and south, and between the chain 
of Ossa and the sea on the west and east. 
The people of this district were called 
Magnetes, and appear to have been in pos- 
session of it from the remotest period. 



They are also universally allowed to have 
formed part of the Amphictyonic body. The 
Magnesians submitted to Xerxes, and ulti- 
mately passed with the rest of the Thessalian 
nation under the dominion of the kings of 
Macedon who succeeded Alexander, but 
they were declared free by the Romans after 
the battle of Cynoscephalae. Their govern- 
ment was then republican, affairs being di- 
rected by a general council, and a chief 
magistrate called Magnetarch. — III. A 
city of Magnesia, on the coast, opposite the 
island of Sciathus. It was conquered by 
Philip, son of Amyntas. 

Ma go, a name common to several Car- 
thaginian commanders, of whom the most 
celebrated were, I., an admiral, who gained 
a naval victory over Leptines, the com- 
mander of Dionysius the elder, off Catana, 
in which the latter lost 100 vessels and 
more than 20,000 men. Some years after 
this we find him at the head of a land 
force, endeavouring to make head against 
Dionysius in person; but, being defeated, 
he was compelled to take shelter in the 
neighbouring town of Abcaenum. He ul- 
timately fell in battle against Dionysius, 
b. c. 383. — II. Son of the preceding, whom 
he succeeded in the command of the Car- 
thaginian fleet, b. c. 383. He at first de- 
feated Dionysius in a great battle but 
disgraced himself by flying at the approach 
of Timoleon, who had come to assist the 
Syracusans. Being accused in the Car- 
thaginian senate, he prevented, by suicide, 
the execution of the sentence pronounced 
against him. His body was hung on a 
gibbet. — III. Grandfather of the great 
Hannibal. He succeeded Mago in the 
command of the Carthaginian fleet, and 
made himself conspicuous for the rigid 
discipline which he introduced. The 
Carthaginian senate, fearing lest Pyrrhus 
might quit Italy m order to seize upon 
Sicily, sent Mago, at the head of 120 ves- 
sels, to offer aid to the Romans, in order 
that the king of Epirus might find suf- 
ficient employment for his arms in Italy. 
The offer, however, was declined. — I V. 
A brother of Hannibal the Great. He 
was present at the battle of Cannas, and 
was deputed by his brother to carry to 
Carthage the news of the celebrated victory 
obtained over the Roman armies. Being 
afterwards sent to Spain, he defeated the 
two Scipios; but was, himself, in another 
engagement, totally ruined. Failing sub- 
sequently in an attack upon Carthage 
Nova, he retired to the Baleares, which he 
conquered, and one of the cities there still 
bears his name, Portus Magonis, Port 
Mahon. In the following summer he landed 



MAG 



MAM 



in Italy -with an army, and took possession 
of part of Insubria ; but was defeated in a 
battle by Quintus Varus, and died of a 
wound, b. c. 203. C. Nepos says that he 
perished in shipwreck, or was murdered by 
his servants. — V. A Carthaginian, who 
wrote a work in twenty-eight books on 
agriculture in the Punic tongue, which 
was translated into Latin by order of the 
Roman senate. It was also translated into 
Greek by Cassius Dionysius of Utica, and 
condensed by Diophanes of Bithynia into 
six books. 

Magon, a river of India falling into the 
Ganges. According to Mannert, the mo- 
dern name is the Ramgonga. 

MXgoxtiXcum, or Magontia, a large 
city of Germany, Mentz. 

Magus, an officer of Turnus killed by 
JEneas. 

Maherbal, a Carthaginian who carried 
on the siege of Saguntum, and afterwards 
commanded the cavalry of Hannibal at the 
battle of Cannae, after which he advised the 
conqueror immediately to march to Rome. 

Maia, a daughter of Atlas and Pleione, 
mother of Mercury by Jupiter ; one of the 
Pleiades, the most luminous of the seven 
sisters. 

Majorca. See Baleares. 

Majoriaxus, Julius Valerius, grand- 
son of Majorianus, master of the horse in 
Illyria during the reign of Theodosius. 
He distinguished himself early as a brave 
commander under Aetius, and on his death 
rose to such distinction that he was elected 
emperor of the West in the room of Avitus, 
whom he compelled to resign the imperial 
dignity a. d. 457. He was assassinated by 
Ricimer, one of his generals, after a reign 
of four years and a half, at Dertona in 
Liguria. 

Malea, I., a promontory in the south- 
eastern part of the island of Lesbos, now Cape 
St. Marie. — II. A celebrated promontory 
of the Peloponnesus, forming the extreme 
point to the south-east, and separating the 
Laconic from the Argolic Gulf. Cape 
Malea was considered by the ancients the 
most dangerous point in the circumnaviga- 
tion of the peninsula, even as early as the 
days of Homer. Hence arose the pro- 
verbial expression, " after doubling Cape 
Malea forget your country." It is now 
usually called Cape St. Angelo, but some- 
times Cape Ifalio. — III. A city of Phthi- 
otis. See Malia. 

Malevextusi, the ancient name of Be- 
neventum. 

Malia, the chief city of the Malienses, 
in the district of Phthiotis in Thessaly, 
from which they probably derived their 



name. It was near the head-waters of the 
Sinus Maliacus, now the Gulf of Ztitoun. 
Maliacus Sixus, a gulf of Thessaly, 

j running up in a north-west direction from 
the northern shore of Euboea, and on one 
side of which is the Pass of Thermopylae* 
It is noticed by several writers of antiquity, 
and now takes its name from the neigh- 
bouring city of Zeitoun. 

Malienses, or Malii, the most southern 
tribe of Thessaly, occupying principally 
the shores of the gulf to which they com- 
municated their name, extending as far as 
the narrowest part of the Straits of Ther- 
mopylae, and to the valley of the Sperchius, 

I a little above its entrance into the sea. 
They were one of the twelve people re- 
presented in the Amphictyonic states ; 
which was naturally to be expected, as this 

| celebrated assembly had always been held 
in their country. The Melians offered 

i earth and water to Xerxes in token of sub- 
mission. 

Malli, a people in the south-western part 
of India intra Gangem, along the banks of 
the Hydraotes. This territory corresponds 
to the modern province of Moultan. 

Mallos, a town of Cilicia Campestris, 
eastward from the river Pyramus ; now a 
small village called Malo. 

Malthixus, a name under which Ho- 
race has lashed some of his friends or 
enemies. 

Mamercinus, 2Emilius Tiberius, one of 
the five commissioners appointed at Rome, 
b.c. 349, to relieve the distress of the people. 
He was praetor b. c. 338, and two years 
afterwards consul. 

Mamercds, I., .JEmilius Mamercinus, 
a celebrated Roman, who, after serving re 
peatedly as consular tribune, was appointed 
dictator b. c. 437, and gained a victory over 
Tolumnius, king of the Etruscans. He 
was elected dictator a second time b. c. 433, 
and signalised his period of office by an 
abridgment of the duration of the censor- 
ship. (See JEmilia Lex.) — II. JEmilius 
Lucius, the first of the family of the JEmilii 
who obtained the consulship, was elected 
b. c. 484. In his first consulship he gained 
a victory over the Volscians ; and in his se- 
cond, b. c 478, another over the Veientes. 
He was elected a third time consul b.c. 473; 
and it would appear that previously to the 
close of his career he had greatly modified 
the high oligarchical opinions he had ori- 
ginally entertained. — III. A tyrant of 
Catana, who surrendered to Timoleon. 
His attempts to speak in a public assembly 
at Syracuse were received with groans and 
hisses, on which he dashed his head against 
a wall, and endeavoured to destroy himself; 



350 



MAM 



MAN 



but was soon after put to death as a robber, 
B. c. 340. 

Mamertini, a band of Campanian mer- 
cenaries, who passed into Sicily at the re- 
quest of Agathocles. After having been 
established for some time at Syracuse, a 
tumult arose between tbem and the citizens 
in consequence of their being deprived of 
the right of voting at the election of ma- 
gistrates, which they had previously en- 
joyed. The sedition was at last quelled by 
the interference of some of the most in- 
fluential citizens, and the Mamertines agreed 
to leave Syracuse and return to Italy. 
Having reached the Sicilian straits, they 
were hospitably received by the inhabitants 
of Messana; but, repaying this kindness 
by the basest ingratitude, they rose upon 
the Messanians by night, slew the males, 
took the females to wife, and called the 
city Mamertium. This conduct on the 
part of the Mamertines led eventually 
to the first Punic war. (See Puni- 
cum Bellum. ) The origin of the name 
Mamertini is said to have been as follows. 
It was customary with the Oscan nations 
of Italy, in time of famine or any other 
misfortune, to seek to propitiate the gods 
by consecrating to them all the productions 
of the earth during a certain year, and all 
the male children born during that time. 
Mamers, or Mars, being their tutelary 
deity, they called these children after him 
when they had attained maturity, and, 
under the general and customary name of 
Mamertini, sent them away to seek new 
abodes. See Mamertium. 

Mamertium, a town of the Brutii, 
north-east of Rhegium. It appears to 
have been originally founded by a band of 
Campanian mercenaries, who derived their 
name from Mamers, the Oscan Mars, 
and afterwards served under Agathocles 
and other princes of Sicily. (See Mamer- 
tini. ) The site of the ancient Mamertium 
is said to be occupied by Oppido. an epis- 
copal see, where old coins appertaining to 
the Mamertini have been discovered. 

Mamurius Veturius, an artificer in the 
reign of Numa, who, when the ancile or 
sacred shield fell from heaven, made eleven 
others, so exactly like it, that not even 
Numa himself could distinguish the copies 
from the original. ( See Ancile and Salii. ) 
Mamurius asked for no other reward but 
that his name might be mentioned in the 
hymn of the Salii, as they bore along these 
sacred shields in procession. 

Mamurra, a native of Formias, of ob- 
scure origin, who served under Julius 
Caesar in Gaul, and rose so high in favour 
that Cassar permitted him to enrich him- 



self at the expense of the Gauls in any 
way he was able. Mamurra, in conse- 
quence, became possessed of enormous 
wealth, and returned to Rome with his 
ill-gotten riches. Here he displayed so 
little modesty and reserve in the employ- 
ment of his fortune, as to have been the 
first Roman that incrusted his entire house 
with marble. This structure was situate 
on the Ccelian Hill. We have two epi- 
grams of Catullus against him, in which 
he is severely handled. Horace also 
alludes to him with sly ridicule in one of 
his satires, calling Formiae " Mamurrarum 
whs," the city of the Mamurrae, — a race 
of whom nothing was known. 

Mancinus, C. Hostilius, a Roman 
consul, who, though at the head of 30,000 
men, was defeated and stripped of his 
camp by only 4,000 Numantines, b.c. 138. 

Mandane, a daughter of king Astyages, 
and mother of Cyrus the elder. See 
Astyages. 

Mandela, Bardela, a village in the 
country of the Sabines, near Horace's 
country seat. 

Mandubii, a people of Celtic Gaul, 
clients of the JEdui, whose chief city was 
Alesia, now Alise. Their territory an- 
swered to what is now the department de 
la Cote d'or. 

Mandubratius, a young Briton who 
came over to Caesar in Gaul. His father 
Immanuentius, king of Britain, had been 
put to death by order of Cassivelaunus. 

Manduria, a city of Apulia, nearly 
half way between Brundisium and Ta- 
rentum. It still retains its ancient name. 
This otherwise obscure town has acquired 
some interest in history from having wit- 
nessed the death of Archidamus, king of 
Sparta, the son of Agesilaus. Manduria 
was taken by the Romans in the second 
Punic war. A curious well existed near 
this town, the water of which always 
maintained the same level, whatever quan- 
tity was added to or taken from it. This 
phenomenon may still be observed at the 
present day. 

Manetho, a celebrated Egyptian writer, 
a native of Diospolis, who is said to have 
lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
at Mende or Heliopolis, and to have been 
a man of great learning and wisdom. He 
belonged to the priest-caste, and was him- 
self a priest, and interpreter or recorder of 
religious usages, and of the sacred, and 
probably, also, historical writings, with the 
title of 'lepoypa/jLiJiaTevs. It appears pro- 
bable, however, that there were more than 
one individual of this name ; and it is 
therefore doubtful whether all the works 



MAN 



MAN 



351 



which were attributed by ancient writers 
to Manetho were in reality written by the 
Manetho who lived in the reign of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus. Besides numerous other 
works, Manetho wrote a history of Egypt 
in three books, in which he gave an 
account of this country from the earliest 
times to the death of Darius Codomanus, 
the last king of Persia ; but of this only 
some fragments remain ; and the only work 
of his which has reached our times com- 
plete is a poem " On the Influence of the 
Stars." 

Manes, a word of uncertain etymology, 
applied generally by the Romans to souls 
separated from the dead. There is some 
obscurity, however, about the precise 
meaning of the term. According to Apu- 
leius, the Manes were originally called 
Lemures, and consisted of two classes, — - 
the Lares and the Larvee ; the former of 
whom were the souls of those who had led 
virtuous lives, and the latter of those who 
had lived improperly ; and, at a later 
period, the term Manes came to be a 
general designation for both. On the 
other hand, St. Augustin maintains that 
Manes was, from the first, a term applied 
to the spirits of deceased men when no 
definite opinion could be formed of their 
merits: — "Animas hominum daemon es 
esse, et ex hominibus fieri Lares, si meriti 
boni sint ; Lemures sive Larvas, si mali ; 
manes autem cum incertum est bonorum 
eos, sive malorum esse meritorum." In 
the month of February, annually, the 
Manes were propitiated at their sepul- 
chres during twelve days. It was the 
duty of the pontifex maximus to see that 
proper ceremonies were observed. The 
stones in the Roman burial-places, and 
their funeral urns, were generally inscribed 
with the letters D. M. S. (Dis Manibus 
Sacrum). 

Mania, I., a goddess, supposed by some 
to be the mother of the Lares and Manes. 

— II. A female servant of Queen Bere- 
nice, daughter of Ptolemy. 

Manilius, I., a Roman who married 
the daughter of Tarquin. He lived at 
Tusculum, and received his father-in-law 
at his house when banished from Rome. 

— II. Caius, a Latin poet, known only by 
his work entitled Astronomica, written in 
the age of Augustus, after the defeat of 
Varus. He was, if not a native of Rome, 
at least a Roman citizen. 

Manlius, the name of one of the most 
illustrious patrician Roman families. Of 
its members the most worthy of notice 
were : — I. Marcus, consul, b. c. 390. 
When Rome was taken by the Gauls, 



Manlius with a body of his countrymen 
fled into the Capitol, which he defended, 
when it was suddenly surprised in the 
night by the enemy. This action gained 
for him the surname of Capitolinus. A 
law, which Manlius proposed, to abolish 
the taxes on the common people, raised the 
senators against him. Gratified by the 
popularity which such a display of good- 
will to the people could not but elicit, he 
is said to have aimed at absolute power; 
but on the tribunes of the people at last 
themselves becoming his accusers, he was 
tried in the Campus Martius, and con- 
demned to be thrown from the Tarpeian 
rock, b. c. 381, and none of his family were 
afterwards permitted to bear the surname 
of Marcus. — II. Torquatus was son 
of L. Manlius, surnamed Jmperiosus, who 
was dictator b. c. 362. Notwithstanding 
the harshness of his father, he exhibited so 
striking an instance of filial affection that 
he was at once appointed military tribune, 
b. c. 359. In a war against the Gauls, he 
accepted the challenge of one of the enemy, 
whose gigantic stature and ponderous arms 
had rendered him terrible, and almost in- 
vincible, in the eyes of the Romans. The 
Gaul was conquered, and Manlius stripped 
him of his arms, and from the collar, 
torquis, which he took from the enemy's 
neck, was surnamed Torquatus. Manlius 
was the first Roman raised to the dicta- 
torship without having been previously 
consul. The severity of Torquatus to his 
son, whom he put to death, because he had 
engaged the enemy and obtained a victory 
without his permission, has been de- 
servedly censured. This uncommon ri- 
gour displeased many of the Romans ; and 
from it all edicts and actions of severity 
have been called Manliana edicta. He was 
twice dictator, and at least three times 
con sul. — III. Titus Torquatus, was consul 
b. c. 235, and obtained a triumph on account 
of his conquests in Sardinia. In his second 
consulship, b. c. 224, he conquered the 
Gauls. In b. c. 215 he defeated the Car- 
thaginians in Sardinia, and b. c. 21 2 was an 
unsuccessful candidate for the office of 
pontifex maximus. b. c. 211 he was again 
elected consul, but declined the honour on 
account of the weakness of his eyes. b. c. 
208 he was appointed dictator in order to 
hold the comitia. The temple of Janus 
was closed during the first consulship of 
Manlius. — IV. Vulso, a Roman consul, 
b. c. 189,, was appointed to the com- 
mand of the army in Asia, and having con- 
quered the Gallo- Grecians, was honoured 
with a triumph at his return to Rome. 
Mannus, son of the German God Tu- 



352 



MAN 



MAR 



iston, of whom that nation believed them- 
selves to be the descendants. See Tu- 

ISTON. 

Mantinea, one of the most ancient and 
celebrated cities of Arcadia, said to have 
been founded by Mantineus, son of Ly- 
caon. It appears to have been a consi- 
derable place even in the age of Homer ; 
but it is chiefly famous for the battle fought 
between Epaminondas at the head of the 
Thebans, and the combined force of Lace- 
daemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 
about b. c. 363. During the wars under 
the Achaean league, Antigonus having 
dislodged Cleomenes from this city, the 
inhabitants in compliment to him called it 
Antigonia. Hadrian restored the ancient 
name, and erected a temple to Antinous. 
This city had several splendid temples. 
The ruins of Mantinea, now Palceopoli, 
are very considerable. 

Mantinorum orpiDUM, a town of Cor- 
sica, supposed to be Bastia. 

Manto, a daughter of the prophet Ti- 
resias, endowed with the gift of prophecy. 
She was made prisoner by the Argives 
when the city of Thebes fell into their 
hands, and as she was the worthiest part 
of the booty, the conquerors sent her to 
Delphi as a present to Apollo. Manto, 
often called Daphne, remained for some 
time at Delphi, where she officiated as 
priestess, and gave oracles. From Delphi 
she came to Claros in Ionia, established 
an oracle of Apollo, married Rhadius, so- 
vereign of the country, by whom she had 
Mopsus, and afterwards visited Italy, where 
she became the wife of Tiberinus, king of 
Alba, or, as the poets mention, the god of 
the Tiber. From this marriage sprang 
Ocnus, who built a town in honour of his 
mother, called Mantua. Manto was so 
struck at the misfortunes which afflicted 
Thebes, that she gave way to her sorrow, 
and was turned into a fountain. Some 
suppose her to be the same who conducted 
iEneas into Hell, and sold the Sibylline 
books to Tarquin the Proud. She received 
divine honours after death. 

Mantua, a town of Italy, on the Min- 
cius; supposed to have been founded by 
the Etrurians, b. c. 600. When Cremona, 
which had followed the interest of Brutus, 
was given to the soldiers of Octavius, 
Mantua also shared the common calamity, 
though it had favoured the party of Au- 
gustus, and many of the inhabitants were 
tyrannically deprived of their possessions. 
Hence Virgil says with truth — 

Mantua, vae ! miserae nimium vicina Cremona?. 

"Virgil, born at Andes, a small village be- 



low Mantua, was one of the sufferers on 
this occasion. See Cremona. 

Marathon, a village of Attica, near 
Athens, celebrated for the victory which 
10,000 Athenians and 1000 Plataeans, 
under Miltiades, gained over the Persian 
army, consisting of ] 00,000 foot and 10,000 
horse, or according to Val. Max., of 
300,000, or as Justin says, of 600,000, 
under Datis and Artaphernes, Sept. 28. b. c. 
490. According to Herodotus, the Athe- 
nians lost 192 men, the Persians 6,300. 
Justin has raised the loss of the Persians 
to 200,000 men. In the plains of Ma- 
rathon Theseus overcame a celebrated bull 
which plundered the neighbouring country. 
Erigone is called Marathonia virgo, from 
having been born at Marathon. 

Marcella, I., daughter of Claudius 
Marcellus by his wife Octavia, and sister 
of Marcus Marcellus. She was first mar- 
ried to Apuleius, and afterwards to Va- 
lerius Messala II. The younger daugh- 
ter of Claudius Marcellus by his wife 
Octavia, and sister of the preceding. She 
was first married to M. Vipsanius Agrippa, 
and afterwards to M. Julius Antonius. 

Marcellinus, Ammianus, the last Latin 
writer that merits the title of an historian. 
He was born at Antioch, and lived under 
Constantine and his successors down to the 
reign of Valentinian II. A large portion 
of his life was spent in the Roman armies ; 
and he made campaigns in Gaul, Ger- 
many, and Mesopotamia, and accompanied 
Julian on his expedition against the Per- 
sians. It appears that he was invested 
with the dignity of Comes rei privates. Fie 
died at Rome subsequent to a. d. 390. 
His " History of Rome" extends from the 
accession of Nerva to the death of Valens ; 
but of the thirty- one books of which it 
originally consisted, only the last eighteen 
have reached our times. 

Marcellus, a name common to many 
persons of antiquity, of whom the most 
celebrated were : — I. Marcus Claudius, a 
famous Roman general, who, after passing 
through the offices of aedile and quaestor, was 
made consul b. c. 224, and being intrusted 
with the management of an expedition 
against the Gauls, obtained the spolia opima 
by killing Viridomarus, king of the enemy. 
Soon after he was intrusted to oppose 
Hannibal in Italy, and was the first Ro- 
man who obtained some advantage over 
him. Marcellus, in his third consulship, 
was sent with a powerful force against 
Syracuse. He attacked it by sea and land, 
but his operations proved ineffectual, owing 
to the invention of Archimedes, who baffled 
all his efforts, destroyed all the stupendous 



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353 



military engines of the Romans during 
three successive years. The perseverance 
of Marcellus, however, at last obtained the 
victory. After the conquest of Syracuse, 
Marcellus was called to oppose a second 
time Hannibal. But he was not sufficiently 
vigilant against the snares of his adversary ; 
and having imprudently separated himself 
from his camp, he was killed in an ambus- 
cade in his sixtieth year, and fifth consul- 
ship, b. c. 208. His body was honoured 
with a magnificent funeral by the con- 
queror. His son was also caught in 
the ambuscade which proved fatal to his 
father, but he escaped, and received the 
ashes of his father from the conqueror. 
— 1 1. Marcus Claudius, a descendant 
of the preceding, was raised to the con- 
sulship b. c. 51. He signalised himself in 
the civil wars of Cassar and Pompey, by 
his firm attachment to the latter. After 
the battle of Pharsalia, he went into vo- 
luntary exile, but was ultimately pardoned 
by Cassar at the earnest intercession of the 
senate, and on his way to Rome was as- 
sassinated by P. Magius Cilo. — III. Mar- 
cus Claudius, commonly known as the 
Young Marcellus, was the son of Oc- 
tavia, the sister of Augustus, and conse- 
quently the nephew of the latter. Augustus 
gave him his daughter Julia in marriage, 
and intended him for his successor ; but 
he died at the early age of eighteen, uni- 
versally regretted on account of the excel- 
lence of his private character. Virgil has 
immortalised his memory by the beautiful 
lines at the close of the sixth book of the 
iEneid, and which are said to have drawn 
from Octavia so munificent a recompence. 
(See Virgilius.) Livia was suspected, 
though without reason, it would seem, of 
having made away with Marcellus, who 
was an obstacle to the advancement of her 
son Tiberius. The more ostensible cause 
of his death was the injudicious application 
of the cold bath by the physician Antonius 
Musa. 

Marcia lex, a law enacted by Mar- 
cius Censorinus, which forbade any man 
to be censor more than once. 

Marcia, I., wife of Regulus, who, when 
she heard that her husband had been put 
to death at Carthage in the most excru- 
ciating manner, is said to have shut up 
some Carthaginian prisoners in a barrel, 
filled with sharp nails. — II. A favourite of 
Commodus, by whom he was poisoned. — 
III. A daughter of Philip, and wife of 
Cato the censor, who gave her to his friend 
Hortensius, and on the death of the latter 
took her back to his own house. 

Marciana, a sister of Trajan, who, on 



account of her public and private virtues, 
and her amiable disposition, was declared 
Augusta and empress by her brother. She 
died a. d. 113. 

Marcianopolis, a city of Moesia In- 
ferior, west of Odessus, founded by Tra- 
jan, and named in honour of his sister 
Marciana. Its position on the main road 
from Constantinople to the Ister soon 
raised it into importance. When the Bul- 
garians formed a kingdom out of what was 
previously Mcesia, Marcianopolis became 
the capital, under the name of Pristhlaba 
or Preslaw, which it still retains. The mo- 
dern Greek inhabitants, however, call it 
Marcenopoli. 

Marcianus, a native of Thrace, who, 
from a common soldier, was raised by his 
address and talents to higher stations, and 
on the death of Theodosius the Second, 
a. i). 450, whose sister Pulcheria he mar- 
ried, he was invested with the imperial 
purple in the East. He died, after a reign 
of six years, in his sixty-ninth year, as he 
was making warlike preparations against 
the barbarians, who had invaded Africa. 

MarcIus Sabinus, M., the progenitor 
of the Marcian family at Rome. Having 
come to Rome with Numa, he advised the 
latter to accept of the crown which the 
Romans offered to him, but he subse- 
quently attempted to make himself king 
of Rome in opposition to Tullus Hostilius, 
and killed himself when his efforts proved 
unsuccessful. His son having married a 
daughter of Numa, was made high-priest, 
and became the father of Ancus Martius. 

Marcomanni, a nation in the south- 
eastern part of Germany. According to 
some authorities, their original seats were 
in Moravia, whence, on being hard pressed 
by the Romans, they retired into what is 
now Bohemia ; but some writers place 
them originally between the Maine and 
Neckar. They were subdued by the em- 
perors Trajan and Antoninus. Their name 
denotes " border men" i. e. men of the 
marches. 

Marcus, a prasnomen common to many 
of the Romans. See .ZEmilius, Lepidus, 
&c. 

Mardi, the name of three Asiatic na- 
tions, whose limits have never been satis- 
factorily ascertained. For the most au- 
thentic particulars respecting them, the 
reader may consult the remarks of Larcher. 

Mardonius, a general of Xerxes, who, 
after the defeat of his master at Thermo- 
pylae and Salamis, was left in Greece with 
an army of 300,000 chosen men, to subdue 
the country. His operations were rendered 
useless by the courage and vigilance of the 



354 



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Greeks ; and in a battle at Plataea, he was 
defeated and left among the slain, b. c. 479. 
He had been commander of the armies of 
Darius in Europe, and it was chiefly by 
his advice that Xerxes invaded Greece. 
He was son-in-law of Darius. 

Mare Mortuuji, a celebrated lake of 
Palestine, about seventy miles long and 
twenty broad. It was anciently called the 
Sea of the Plain, from its situation in the 
great hollow or plain of the Jordan ; the 
Salt Sea, from the extreme saltness of 
its waters ; and the East Sea, from 
its situation relative to Judaea, and in 
contra-distinction to the West Sea, or Me- 
diterranean. It is likewise called by Jo- 
sephus, and by the Greek and Latin writers 
generally, Lacus Asphaltites, from the bitu- 
men (&o-<pa\Tos) found in it ; and the 
Dead Sea, its more frequent modern ap- 
pellation, from the belief that no living 
creature can exist in its saline and sulphu- 
reous waters. Its Arabic name, Bahr- 
Lout (Sea of Lot), refers to the connection 
between the history of this lake and that 
of the nephew of Abraham, in whose days 
its bed, then the fertile vale of Siddim, 
was considered by the sacred historian as 
worthy to be compared with the " garden 
of the Lord." It certainly contained five 
cities ; and according to Stephen of By- 
zantium ten ; and Strabo, thirteen. In 
the visitation by which they were all de- 
stroyed, with the exception of Zoar, the 
neighbouring country underwent an ex- 
traordinary change ; so much so, that 
Moses in another place describes it as a 
" land of brimstone, and salt, and burning," 
characteristics by which it still continues 
to be marked. Ruins of the overthrown 
cities are said to have been seen on the 
west side of the lake, but the fact has not 
been authenticated. 

Mareotis, Mairout, a lake in Egypt, near 
Alexandria, about 150 stadia in breadth 
and 300 in length. From the earliest 
period of antiquity it was connected with 
the Nile by means of canals ; but it first 
rose into celebrity on the founding of Alex- 
andria. Its neighbourhood was famous 
for wine, though some make the Mareoti- 
cum vinum grow in Epirus, or in a certain 
part of Libya, called also Mareotis, near 
Egypt. 

Margiana, a country of Asia along 
the Margus, from which it derives its 
name. It was celebrated for its fertility, 
and more especially for its wines. It now 
forms part of Khorasan. 

Margites. The title of a satirical 
poem, ascribed to Homer. Only a few 
fragments of it exist. 



Margus, I., a river in Mcesia Superior, 
rising on Mount Orbelus, and falling into 
the Danube west of Viminacium. It is 
now the Morawa. — II. Mariab, a river 
of Margiana, falling into the Oxus north- 
west of Nisea. 

Maria lex, or Porcia, a law enacted 
by L. Marius and Porcius, tribunes, a. u. c. 
691, which fined such commanders as gave 
a false account to the Roman senate of the 
number of slain in a battle. 

Mariana Fossa, a canal cut by Marius 
from the river Rhone, through the Cam- 
pus Lapideus, into the Lake Mastramela. 
It was probably near the modern Mar- 
tiffues, 

Mariandyni, a people of Bithynia, 
east of the river Sangarius. They were 
of uncertain origin; but must probably 
be considered as part of the great Thra- 
cian stock. That they were barbarous is 
allowed by all ; and Theopompus reported, 
that when the Megarians founded Hera- 
clea in their territory, they easily subjected 
the Mariandyni, and reduced them to a 
state of abject slavery. 

Marica, a nymph of the river Liris, 
who had a grove near Minturnae, into 
which if any thing was brought, it was 
not lawful to take it out again. Accord- 
ing to some authorities, she was the same 
with Circe. Virgil, however, makes her 
the wife of Faunus, and mother of La- 
tinus. 

MarInus, a native of Tyre, who flou- 
rished in the second century of the Chris- 
tian era, a short time before Ptolemy. He 
wrote a work on Mathematical Geography. 

Marisus, Marosch, a river of Dacia, 
which falls into the Tibiscus, 

Marius, C, I., a celebrated Roman, 
who from a peasant became one of the 
most powerful and cruel tyrants, was born 
at Arpinum, b. c. 157. He signalised him- 
self under Scipio at the siege of Numan- 
tia, b.c. 134; and having subsequently 
attained some of the inferior offices of 
the state, he rendered himself conspicuous 
by his hostility to the patrician orden 
Having married Julia, of the family of the 
Caesars — a connection which contributed to 
raise him to consequence — he passed into 
Africa, as lieutenant to the consul Metellus. 
against Jugurtha. He soon afterwards 
returned to Rome, to canvass personally 
for the consulship, which he attained ; 
and being appointed to finish the war 
against Jugurtha, he once more set out 
for Africa, where his arms were crowned 
with success. About this period several 
Roman commanders having been de- 
feated by the Cimbri and Teutones, 



MAR 



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355 



northern nations from the coast of the 
Baltic, who had invaded the empire, and 
threatened to overrun all Italy, Marius, 
who had been elected consul for five suc- 
cessive years, was sent against them, and 
defeated them with immense slaughter 
near Aquae Sextiae, now Aix in Provence, 
b. c. 100, and in the following year in the 
plain of Vercellae, north of the Po. (See 
Cimbri.) Marius, with his colleague Ca- 
tulus, then entered Rome in triumph, and 
was elected consul a sixth time. His 
sixth consulship was distinguished by his 
efforts to augment the influence of the 
plebeians ; but the patrician party proved 
more than a match for him, and he is 
said to have retired from Rome in disgust. 
On the breaking out of the Social "War, 
he was made joint legatus with Sylla, 
who had served under him in Africa, but 
after gaining a few victories he resigned 
his command. Meanwhile . the Mithri- 
datic war, which was alleged to have been 
excited by Marius for his own ambitious 
ends, having broken out, Sylla, who had 
been appointed to the command of the 
forces, refused to resign it to Marius, who 
had procured a decree, rescinding the ap- 
pointment of Sylla, and nominating him- 
self ; and Sylla, having advanced to Rome, 
compelled Marius to save his life by 
flight. The unfavourable winds pre- 
venting him from seeking a safer retreat 
in Africa, he was left on the coasts of 
Campania, where he was soon discovered 
by the emissaries of his enemy, violently 
dragged to Minturnae, and sentenced to 
death, b. c. 90. A Gaul was commanded 
to cut off his head in the dungeon, but the 
stern countenance of Marius disarmed the 
courage of the executioner, and, when he 
heard the exclamation, " Tune, homo, etu- 
des occidere Caium Marium?" the sword 
dropped from his hand. Such an adven- 
ture awakened the compassion of the in- 
habitants. They released Marius, and 
favoured his escape to Africa, where he 
joined his son Marius, who had been arm- 
ing the princes of the country in his cause. 
Marius landed near the walls of Carthage ; 
but the governor of Africa, to conciliate 
the favour of Sylla, compelled him to fly 
to a neighbouring island. Having soon 
after learnt that Cinna had embraced his 
cause at Rome, he set sail to assist his 
friend, only at the head of 1000 men. 
His army, however, gradually increased, 
and he entered Rome like a conqueror. 
His enemies were inhumanly sacrificed to 
his fury : and Rome was filled with blood. 
When Marius and Cinna had sufficiently 
gratified their resentment, they made them- 



selves consuls; but Marius, worn out with 
old age and infirmities, died sixteen days 
after he had been honoured with the con- 
sular dignity for the seventh time, b. c. 
86. — II. Son of the preceding, whom 
he resembled in private character, being 
equally fierce and vindictive. He seized 
upon the consulship at the age of twenty- 
seven, and put to death numbers of his 
political opponents ; but being defeated 
subsequently by Sylla, he fled to Pras- 
neste, where he slew himself. — III. Mer- 
cator, an ecclesiastical writer, the an- 
tagonist of Celestius and Nestorius, who 
flourished between 425 and 450 a. d. His 
country is not exactly known. He has 
left behind him a number of works, or 
rather translations from the Greek. He 
was the disciple and friend of St. Au- 
gustine IV. Celsus, a Roman general, 

who greatly distinguished himself in the 
reigns of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. — V. 
Marcus Aurelius Marius Augustus was 
originally an armourer or blacksmith in 
Gaul. He afterwards turned his attention 
to a military life, and on the death of 
Victorinus, a. d. 267, was saluted em 
peror, but three days afterwards was 
publicly assassinated by a man who had 
shared his poverty. The stories that are 
told of his miraculous strength are evi- 
dently fabulous. — VI. Priscus, proconsul of 
Africa, was banished for extortion, in the 
third year of Trajan. Though condemned 
to disgorge to the treasury about 6000Z., 
he still retained sufficient to enable him to 
forget his exile in the luxuries which his 
ill-gotten wealth procured. 

Marmarica, a country of Libya, now 
forming part of the district of Barca, 
The inhabitants, called Marmaridas, were 
skilful in taming serpents. 

Marmarion, a town of Euboea, near Ca- 
rystus, whence the latter obtained the 
marble for which it was famous, and cele- 
brated for a temple of Apollo, who is 
thence called Marmarus. 

Maro. See Virgilius. 

Maron, a priest of Apollo in Thrace 
near Maronea. He accompanied Osiris 
in his conquests, and gave his name to 

Maronea, Marogna, a maritime city of 
the Cicones in Thrace, near the Hebrus, of 
which Bacchus was the chief deity. Its 
wine was reckoned excellent. It was taken 
by Philip in the first Macedonian war. 

Marpesia, a queen of the Amazons, 
who overcame the inhabitants of Mt. 
Caucasus : thence called Marpesius Mons. 

Marpessa, a daughter of the Evenus, 
and wife of Idas, by whom she had Cleo- 
patra, wife of Meleager. Apollo endea- 



S56 



MAR 



MAR 



voured to carry her away, but Idas re- 
solved on revenge, followed the ravisher 
with a bow and arrow. Jupiter, to whom 
the matter was referred, having permitted 
Marpessa to make her election between 
the two lovers, she returned to her husband. 

Marpesus, I., a town of Troas, north 
of the Scamander, and west of Troja Ve- 
tus. — II., or Marpessa, Capresso, a 
mountain in the island of Paros, west of the 
harbour of Marmora, containing the quar- 
ries whence the famous Parian marble 
was obtained; hence the expression of 
Virgil, Marpesia cautes. 

Marrucini, a people of Italy, occu- 
pying a narrow slip of territory on the 
right bank of the Aternus, between the 
Vestini and the Frentani. Like the Marsi, 
from whom they were said to derive their 
origin, they were a hardy and warlike race, 
and made common cause against the ty- 
ranny of Rome. The chief city of the 
Marrucini was Teate, now Chieti, 

Marruvxum, I., a town of the Sabines, 
answering to the modern Morro Vecchio. 
— II. The capital of the Marsi, situated 
on the eastern shore of the Lacus Fucinus, 
and corresponding to the modern San Be- 
nedetto. 

Mars, or Mavors, in the Sabine and 
Oscan dialect called Mamers, and usually 
considered identical with the Grecian Ares, 
was worshipped by the Romans as the 
God of war. He was said by some to be 
a son of Jupiter and Juno, by others of 
Enyo or Bellona, while, according to Ovid, 
he was the offspring of Juno alone, being 
conceived by means of the virtue of a 
certain plant. The education of Mars 
was intrusted to the God Priapus, who 
instructed him in every manly exercise. 
His trial before the court of Areopagus, 
for the murder of Halirrhothius, forms an 
interesting epoch in history. (See Areo- 
pagus. ) In the wars of Jupiter and the 
Titans, Mars was seized by Otus and Ephi- 
altes, and confined for fifteen months, till 
Mercury procured him his liberty. During 
the Trojan war Mars took the side of the 
Trojans, and defended the favourites of 
Venus with uncommon activity. His 
temples were not numerous in Greece, 
but in Italy he received the most un- 
bounded honours, being looked upon as 
the progenitor of Romulus, and the pro- 
tector of Rome. His priests among the 
Romans were called Salii. (See Salii.) 
The best known of the children of this 
God were Ascalaphus and Ialmenus, OEno- 
maus king of Pisa, Diomedes of Thrace, 
Cycnus, Phlegyas, Dryas, Parthenopasus, 
and Tereus. He was also said to be the 



sire of Mel eager and other hero -princes of 
iEtolia. He was represented as a warrior, 
of a severe and menacing air, dressed in the 
heroic style, with a cuirass on his breast, 
and a round Argive shield on his arm. His 
arms are sometimes borne by his at- 
tendants. Among the rustic population 
of Latium, Mars was regarded not merely 
as the God of war, but as the God who 
watched over the peculiar interests of the 
shepherd and the husbandman, and in this 
capacity they used to offer him, under the 
title of Mars Sylvanus, the sacrifice called 
Suovetaurilia, which, as the derivation of 
the word implies, consisted of a pig, a 
sheep, and a bull. Hence it is generally 
supposed that when the same peasants were 
obliged to lay aside their ploughs for the 
spear and to march forth to battle, they 
still clung to the worship of the original 
deity, but changed his designation into 
Gradivus, Quirinus Ultor, &c, according 
to the objects immediately in view. 

Marsaci, a people of Gallia Belgica, of 
German origin, and belonging to the great 
tribe of the Istajvones. They are sup- 
posed to have occupied the islands be- 
tween the mouth of the Maese and Scheldt, 
though it has been said that their territory 
corresponded to the modern province of 
Utrecht. 

Marsi, I., a people in the north-western 
part of Germany belonging to the great 
tribe of the Istagvones. They appear to 
have been originally settled on both banks 
of the Lippe, whence they spread south to 
the Tenchtheri. Weakened by the Roman 
arms, they retired into the interior of Ger- 
many, and from this period disappeared 
from history. — II. A small nation of 
Italy, whose territory lay to the north- 
east of Latium, and south-east of the 
country of the Sabines, celebrated for their 
hardihood and warlike spirit. Their 
origin, like that of many other Italian 
tribes, is enveloped in obscurity and fiction. 
They were at first inimical to the Romans, 
but in process of time became their firmest 
supporters. The civil war in which they 
engaged with the Romans for their liberty 
was named from them the Marsian war. 

Marsyas, I., a satyr of Phrygia, son of 
Olympus, who, having found the pipe 
which Minerva, for fear of injuring her 
beauty, had thrown away, contended with 
Apollo for the palm in musical skill. The 
Muses were the umpires, and it was agreed 
that the victor might do what he pleased 
with the vanquished. Marsyas lost, and 
Apollo flayed him alive for his temerity. 
The tears of the nymphs and rural deities 
for the fate of their companion gave origin, 



MAR 



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357 



it was fabled, to the stream which bore his 
name ; and his skin was said to have been 
hung up in the cave whence the waters of 
the river flowed. The fable admits of a 
very rational explanation. The pipe as 
cast away by Minerva, and Marsyas as 
punished by Apollo, are intended merely 
to denote the preference given, at some 
period, by some particular Grecian race 
with whom the myth originated, to the 
music of the lyre over that of the pipe, or, 
in other words, to the Citharoedic over the 
Auletic art. The double pipe was a Phry- 
gian or Asiatic invention, and ascribed to 
a certain Marsyas. The music of this 
instrument was generally used in cele- 
brating the wild and enthusiastic rites of 
Cybele, of whom Marsyas is generally re- 
presented as a follower or companion. — 
II. A river of Phrygia, rising in a cavern 
under the Acropolis of Celaenae, and falling 
into the Maeander. — III. A river of Ca- 
ria, mentioned by Herodotus as flowing 
from the country of Idrias into the Me- 
ander ; Idrias being one of the earlier 
names of the city which, under the Mace- 
donians, assumed the name of Stratonicea. 
The Marsyas of Herodotus is supposed to 
be the same with the modern Tshina. — 
IV. . A native of Pel) a, brother of Anti- 
gonus. He wrote, in ten books, a History 
of the Kings of Macedon, from the origin 
of the monarchy to the foundation of Alex- 
andria, and also a work on the Education 
of Alexander, with whom he had been 
brought up. 

Martha, a celebrated prophetess of 
Syria, whose artifice and fraud proved of 
the greatest service to C. Marius, in his 
numerous expeditions. 

Martia aqua, the name given to a par- 
ticular kind of water at Rome, celebrated 
for clearness and salubrity. It was con- 
veyed to Rome, by an aqueduct thirty 
miles in length, from the Lake Fucinus, 
by Ancus Martius, whence its name. 

Martialis, Marcus Valerius, a Latin 
epigrammatic poet, born at Bilbilis in 
Spain about a. d. 40. Very few parti- 
culars of his life are ascertained, and 
these are principally collected from his 
own writings. He was destined for the 
bar, and in order to complete his edu- 
cation, was sent to Rome ; but his fond- 
ness for poetical composition caused him 
to abandon his legal studies. Titus and 
Domitian both favoured him. The latter 
bestowed on him the rank of an egues 
and the office of a tribune, and granted 
him at the same time all the privileges 
connected with the Jus trium liberorum. 
After he had passed thirty-five years in 



! Rome in the greatest splendour, he retired 
; to his native country, where he became 
i the object of malevolence and ridicule, 
j and died a. d. 104, in his sixty-fifth 
j year. His fourteen books of Epigrams 
have gone through many editions, and 
have been translated into most modern lan- 
guages, 

Marullus, a tribune, who together with 
his colleague Flavius, tore from the statues 
of Caesar the royal diadems with which they 
were adorned. They also found out the 
persons who had saluted Caesar king, and 
committed them to prison : but Caesar de- 
posed them from office. 

MaSuEsylii, a maritime people in the 
west of Numidia, under the dominion of 
Syphax. See Massyli. 

Masca, also termed Saocoras, a river of 
Mesopotamia, falling into the Euphrates. 
Mannert thinks that the Masca was no- 
thing more than a canal from the Eu- 
phrates. At its mouth stood the city 
Corsote. 

Masinissa, son of Gula and king of the 
eastern part of Numidia, was born about 
b. c. 246. Educated at Carthage, he be- 
came enamoured of Sophonisba, daughter 
of Hasdrubal, who promised him her hand, 
and on his return to Numidia, at the com- 
mencement of the second Punic war, he 
instigated his father to declare against 
Rome in favour of Carthage. Having 
attacked Syphax, another monarch, reign- 
ing over the western part of Numidia, and 
then in alliance with the Romans, he 
gained over him two great victories, and 
afterward passing the Straits, united his 
forces with those of the Carthaginians in 
Spain. Hannibal was at that time carry- 
ing all before him in Italy, while Has- 
drubal his brother was defending Spain. 
Not long after his arrival, Masinissa con- 
tributed essentially to the entire defeat of 
Cneus and Publius Scipio, by charging 
the Roman army with his Numidian horse, 
b. c. 212 ; but, after some other less suc- 
cessful campaigns, both he and his allies 
were compelled to yield to the superior 
ability of the young Scipio, after wards sur- 
named AfVieanus, and to abandon to him 
almost the whole of the peninsula. After 
this defeat Scipio found, among the pri- 
soners, one of the nephews of ^Jasinissa, to 
whom he sent him loaded with presents ; 
whereupon Masinissa, struck with this 
generous action, forgot all former hosti- 
lities, and joined his troops to those of 
Scipio. Masinissa showed himself the 
firmest ally the Romans ever had. To 
his exertions they owed many of their vic- 
tories in Africa, particularly in that battle 



S58 



MAS 



MAU 



which proved fatal to Hasdrubal and Sy- 
phax. In the battle of Zama, Masinissa 
greatly contributed to the defeat of Han- 
nibal. The Romans rewarded his fidelity 
with the kingdom of Syphax and some of 
the Carthaginian territories. Masinissa 
showed his confidence in the Romans, and 
his esteem for the rising talents of Scipio 
iEmilianus, by intrusting him with the 
care of his kingdom, and empowering him 
to divide it among his sons at his death, 
which took place in his ninety-seventh 
year, after a reign of above sixty years, 
b. c. 149. He left a numerous family, of 
whom only three were legitimate, Mi- 
cipsa, Gulussa, and Manastabal. The 
kingdom was fairly divided among them 
by Scipio, and the illegitimate children 
received, as their portion, valuable pre- 
sents. The deaths of Gulussa and Manas- 
tabal soon after left Micipsa sole master of 
the large possessions of Masinissa. 

Massagetje, a nation of Scythia, east of 
the Iaxartes, whose country is supposed to 
answer to Turkestan. The term became 
general for the northern nations of Asia, 
like that of Scythia. The Massageta? had 
no temples, but worshipped the sun, to 
whom they offered horses on account of 
their swiftness. When their parents had 
come to a certain age, they generally put 
them to death. 

Massicus Mons, a range of hills in 
Campania, famous for its vineyards. 

Massilia, Marseilles, a maritime town 
of Gallia Narbonensis, founded b. c. 539, 
by the people of Phocaea in Asia, who 
quitted their country to avoid the tyranny 
of the Persians. The Massilians, as the 
inhabitants were then called, speedily dis- 
tinguished themselves by their skill as sea- 
men, and the extent of their commerce ; 
and were celebrated for the wisdom of 
their political institutions, and their civil- 
isation. They became, at an early period, 
allies of Rome ; but, having espoused the 
party of Pompey, their city was besieged, 
and, after an obstinate resistance, taken by 
Caesar. But though Marseilles lost its 
liberty, it preserved its commerce and 
superior civilisation under the Romans ; 
and was highly distinguished as a school 
of Belles Lettres and philosophy. It is 
spoken of by Cicero in the highest terms 
of eulogy. At a later period, Agricola 
was sent thither to be educated ; and Ta- 
citus calls it sedes ac magistra studiorum. 
After the fall of the Roman empire, it 
underwent many vicissitudes. 

Massyli, a people of Numidia, to the 
east of the Massaesyli and Cape Tretum. 
They were the subjects of Masinissa. 



Matinum, a city of Messapia or Tapygia, 
south-east of Callipolis. Near it was the 
MonsMatinus, famed for its bees and honey. 
The modern Matbiata seems to mark the 
site of the ancient city. 

Matrona, Marne, a river of Gaul, 
which formed part of the ancient boun- 
dary between Gailia Belgica and Gallia 
Celtica. It takes its rise at Langres, runs 
north-west to Chalons, then westward, 
passes by Meaux, becomes navigable at 
Vitry, and at Charenton, a little above Paris, 
falls into the Sequana or Seine, after a 
course of about ninety-two leagues. 

Matrona lia, a festival celebrated at 
Rome on the Calends of March, in -re- 
membrance chiefly of the reconciliation be- 
tween the Romans and the Sabines. On 
this same day, also, a temple had been de- 
dicated by the Roman ladies to JunoLucina, 
on the Esquiline Hill, and here they pre- 
sented their annual offerings. Ovid speaks 
of offerings of flowers made on this occa- 
sion to Juno. 

Mattiaci, a nation in the western quarter 
of Germany, sometimes said to be a branch 
of the Catti, between the Lahn and Maine, 
but, according to others, lying between the 
Maine, the Taunus Mountains, and the 
Rhine. The Aqua? Mattiacee correspond 
to the modern Wiesbaden. 

Matuta, a deity among the Romans, the 
same as the Leucothoe of the Greeks. See 
Ino and Leucothoe. 

Mavors, a name of Mars. See Mars. 

Mauri, the inhabitants of Mauritania. 
The name is supposed to be derived from 
Mahur, or, as an elision of gutturals is very 
common in the Oriental languages, from 
Maur, i. e. one from the west, Mauritania 
being west of Carthage and Phoenicia. 

Mauritania, now Fez and Morocco, a 
country of Africa, on the Mediterranean, 
bounded on the north by the Straits of 
Gibraltar and the Mediterranean, on the 
east by Numidia, on the south by Gaetulia, 
and on the west by the Atlantic. It was, 
properly speaking, in the time of Bocchus 
the betrayer of Jugurtha, bounded by the 
river Mulucha or Molochath, now Malva, 
and corresponded nearly to the present 
kingdom of Fez ; but in the time of Clau- 
dius, the western part of Numidia was added 
to this province under the name of Mauri- 
tania Csesariensis, the ancient kingdom of 
Mauritania being called Tingitana, from 
its principal city Tingis, Old Tangier, on 
the west of the straits. See Mauri and 
Maurusii. 

Maurus Terentianus, a Latin gram- 
marian, supposed to have been an African 
by birth. The period when he flourished 



MAU 



MAX 



359 



has been matter of dispute. When ad- 
vanced in life he wrote an ingenious poem 
on Syllables, Feet, and Metre, which was 
edited by Lachmann in 1836. 

Maurusii, a poetical name for the people 
of Mauritania. 

Mausoleum, a sepulchral building, so 
called from Mausolus, king of Caria, to 
whose memory it was raised by his wife 
Artemisia, about b. c. 353 ; hence all se- 
pulchral structures of importance have ob- 
tained the name of mausolea. From its 
extraordinary magnificence it was esteemed 
one of the wonders of the world. Accord- 
ing to Pliny, it was one hundred and eleven 
feet in circumference, and one hundred and 
forty feet high. It is said to have been 
encompassed by thirty-six columns, and 
exceedingly enriched with sculpture. 

Mausolus, a king of Caria and husband 
of Artemisia, who was so disconsolate at 
his death, b. c. 353, that she erected one of 
the noblest monuments of antiquity to his 
memory. See Mausoleum. 

Maxentius, Marcus Aurelius Vale- 
rius, a son of Maximianus Herculius, on 
whose abdication he declared himself inde- 
pendent emperor, or Augustus, a. d. 306. 
He rendered himself odious by his cruelty 
and oppression. In a battle fought with 
Constantine near Rome, he lost the victory, 
and fled back to the city ; but the bridge, 
over which he crossed the Tiber, being in 
a decayed situation, he fell into the river, 
and was drowned, a. d. 312. 

Maximianus, I., Herculius Marcus 
Aurelius Valerius, a native of Sirmium 
in Pannonia, who, from being a common 
soldier in the Roman army, was raised by 
Diocletian to be his colleague in the em- 
pire. The personal superiority of Dio- 
cletian was recognised in the assumed name 
of Jovius, while Maximianus took that of 
Herculius. Maximianus showed the just- 
ness of the choice of Diocletian by his 
victories over the barbarians. Soon after, 
Diocletian abdicated the imperial purple, 
a. d. 305, and obliged Maximianus to fol- 
low his example ; but, before the first year 
of his resignation had elapsed, Maximianus 
was roused from indolence and retreat by 
the ambition of his son Maxentius, in con- 
junction with whom he re-assumed the im- 
perial dignity a.d. 306. He soon afterwards 
quarrelled with his son, and the troops 
having mutinied against him, he fled for 
safety to Gaul, to the court of Constantine, 
to whom he gave his daughter Faustina in 
marriage. But he afterwards entered into a 
conspiracy against Constantine, who caused 
him to be strangled at Marseilles, a. n. 
310, in his 60th year. — II. Galerius 



Valerius, a native of Dacia, who was ori- 
ginally employed in keeping his father's 
flocks, but subsequently entered the army, 
where his valour and bodily strength re- 
commended him to Diocletian, who invested 
him with the imperial purple in the East, 
and gave him his daughter Valeria in mar- 
riage. Galerius conquered the Goths and 
Dalmatians, and at first checked the in- 
solence of the Persians ; but he subse- 
quently sustained a complete defeat, and 
on his return to Antioch Diocletian re- 
ceived him coldly, and even obliged him to 
walk behind his chariot. This humiliation 
stung Galerius to the quick ; he assembled 
another army, and gave battle to the Per- 
sians, gained a complete victory, and took 
the wives and children of his enemy. As 
soon as Diocletian had abdicated, Galerius 
was proclaimed Augustus, a. d. 304 ; but his 
cruelty soon rendered him odious, and the 
offended Roman people raised Maxentius 
to the imperial dignity two years after- 
wards. He died of a loathsome, disease 
in the greatest agony, a.d. 31 1. 

Maximinus, Caius Julius Verus, I., 
the son of a peasant in Thrace, remarkable 
for his gigantic personal strength and 
bravery. He entered the Roman armies, 
where he gradually rose to the first offices ; 
and on the death of Alex. Severus, caused 
himself to be proclaimed emperor, a. d. 
235. The popularity he had gained when 
general of the armies was at an end when 
he ascended the throne. He delighted 
in acts of the greatest barbarity ; 400 per- 
sons lost their lives on the false suspicion 
of having conspired against his life ; and 
that the tyrant might entertain himself 
with their sufferings, some were exposed 
to wild beasts, others expired by blows, 
some nailed on crosses, others were sewed 
up in the skins of animals. The noblest 
of the Roman citizens were the objects of 
his cruelty. In his military capacity, too, 
he acted with the same ferocity ; and in 
an expedition in Germany, meeting with 
no opposition, he cut down the corn, and 
set fire to the whole country for 450 miles. 
His soldiers assassinated him in his tent 
before the walls of Aquileia, a. d. 236, in 
his sixty-fifth year, and his son Maximinus 
shared his fate. The news of his death 
was received with the greatest rejoicings 
at Rome ; public thanksgivings were of- 
fered, and whole hecatombs flamed on the 
altars. Incredible tales are related of his 
strength and voracity. « — II. Daia or Daza, 
an lllyrian peasant who served in the Ro- 
man armies, and was raised by his uncle Ga- 
lerius Maximinus to the rank of military 
tribune, and lastly to the dignity of Caesar, 



360 



MAX 



MED 



a, d. 303. On the death of Golerius, a. d. 
311, Maximums obtained the Asiatic pro- 
vinces ; but he declared war against Li- 
cinius, his colleague in the empire, and 
being defeated by the latter at Hadriano- 
polis, he fled into Asia, and died by poison, 
at Tarsus, a. d. 313. 

Maximus, Magnus, I., a native of 
Spain, who, taking advantage of the unpo- 
pularity of Gratian, proclaimed himself 
emperor a. d. 383. Gratian marched 
against him, but was defeated, and soon 
after assassinated. When he had made 
himself master of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, 
he demanded of Theodosius to acknowledge 
him as his associate on the throne. Theo- 
dosius endeavoured to amuse him and 
put him off, but Maximus resolved to sup- 
port his claim by arms, and crossing the 
Alps, made himself master of Italy. Theo- 
dosius besieged him at Aquileia, where 
he was betrayed by his soldiers ; but the 
conqueror granted him life : the soldiers, 
however, refused him mercy, and in- 
stantly struck off bis head, a. r>. 383- His 
son Victor, who shared the imperial dig- 
nity with him, was soon after sacrificed 
to the fury of the soldiers. — II. Petronius, 
descended of an illustrious family, caused 
Valentiniah III. to be assassinated, and 
ascended the throne. He married the 
widow of Valentinian ; but on his con- 
fessing that he had murdered her husband 
solely with the view of obtaining her hand, 
she had recourse to the barbarians to avenge 
the death of Valentinian, and Maximus 
was stoned to death, and his body thrown 
into the Tiber, a.d. 455, after a reign of only 
seventy-seven days. — III. Pupienus. (See 
Pupienus.) — IV. A celebrated Cynic 
philosopher and magician of Ephesus. He 
was appointed preceptor of the emperor 
Julian, whose entire confidence he gained. 
According to some historians the apostacy 
of Julian originated in the conversation 
and company of Maximus. After the death 
of Julian, Maximus retired to Constanti- 
nople, where he soon after was accused of 
magical practices before Valens, and be- 
headed at Ephesus, a. d. 366. — V. Tyrius, 
a native of Tyre, distinguished for his elo- 
quence, and for his knowledge of the New 
Platonic philosophy. Maximus flourished 
under Antoninus, and reached the time of 
Commodus. Though frequently at Rome, 
he spent the greater part of his time in 
Greece ; and is sometimes confounded 
with Claudius Maximus, one of the pre- 
ceptors of Marcus Aurelius. We have 
from him, under the title of Discourses (or 
Dissertations), A6yoi (or Ata\e'|eis), forty- 
one treatises or essays on various subjects 



of a philosophical, moral, and literary 
nature. 

Mazaca. See C^esarea ad Arg^cm. 

Mazacje, a people of Sarmatia, in the 
vicinity of Palus Maeotis. 

Mazices and Mazyks, a people of Li- 
bya, expert in the use of missile weapons. 
The Romans used them as couriers on 
account of their great swiftness. 

Meczenas, Caius Cilnius, a Roman 
knight, descended from an ancient Etruscan 
family of Arretium. The time and place 
of his birth are both unknown, nor are we 
informed how he spent his youth ; but on 
arriving at maturity, he followed the for- 
tunes of Octavius, and was present at the 
battles of Mutina, Philippi, and Actium. 
During the absence of Augustus in Egypt 
he was made prefect of Rome, and though 
luxurious and effeminate in the hours of 
recreation, he distinguished himself by his 
knowledge of business and moderation and 
address ; and, on the return of the emperor, 
he shared with Agrippa his full confidence 
and friendship. But it is chiefly as a pa- 
tron of literature that Meca?nas has come 
down to posterity. It was mainly owing to 
his assistance that Virgil and Horace were 
raised to independence, and enabled to de- 
vote themselves to poetry ; and his splendid 
palace on the Esquiline Mount was open 
to all who could contribute to social en- 
joyment. A few years before his death 
he fell into disgrace with the emperor, 
probably owing to the intrigues of his wife 
Terentia ; but he was probably again re- 
ceived into favour ; for at his death, 
which took place b. c. 8, he left Augustus 
heir to his vast wealth and possessions. 
Mecaenas wrote several works, of which 
only a few fragments have come down to 
our times ; but these are not calculated to 
inspire regret for the loss, for, as has been 
well observed, they prove that " si Mecene 
jugeait bien, il ecrivit fort mal." 

Medea, daughter of iEe'tes, king of Col- 
chis, and famed for her skill in sorcery and 
enchantment. When Jason came to Col- 
chis in quest of the golden fleece, she aided 
him in obtaining it, and then fled with him 
to Greece. Here she is said to have dis- 
played her magic skill in the recovery of 
iEson, father of Jason, whom she restored 
from the infirmities of age to the vigour of 
youth : but there is much discrepancy of 
statement in regard to this story. (See 
-ZEson. ) Having treacherously deprived 
Pelias of life (see Pelias), she was obliged 
to seek refuge in Corinth, where she found 
herself deserted by Jason, who espoused 
the daughter of Creon, the Corinthian king. 
Taking, thereupon, summary vengeance 



MED 



MED 



361 



on her rival, and having destroyed her two 
sons whom she had hy Jason (see Jason), 
Medea mounted a chariot drawn by winged 
serpents and fled to Athens, where she had 
by King JEgeus a son named Med us. 
Being detected, however, in an attempt to 
destroy Theseus (see Thesecs), she fled 
from Athens with her son, and returned 
unknown to Colchis, where finding that 
her father JE'e'tes had been robbed of his 
throne by her brother Perses, she re- 
stored him, and deprived the usurper of 
life. After death she was deified by the 
Colchians. 

Medesicaste. a daughter of Priam, and 
wife of Imbrius son of Mentor, who was 
killed by Teucer during the Trojan war. 

Media, an extensive country of Asia, 
separated from Armenia by the Araxes ; 
bounded by Assyria on the west, on the 
north by the Caspian, east by Hyrcania 
and Aria, and south by Persis and Susi- 
ana. Its boundaries, however, cannot be 
stated with precision, since they differed 
materially at different times. It is now 
Irak Ajami, Persian Irak, to distinguish it 
from Irak Arabi, Babylonian Irak. Me- 
dia was divided into Great Media and 
Atropatene, of the former of which Ecba- 
tana, and of the latter Gaza, now Zebriz, 
was the capital. The Medes are said to 
have sprung from Madai, third son of Ja- 
phet. According to Herodotus, they were 
divided into six tribes, who were remark- 
able, in the primitive ages of their power, 
for their loyalty to their sovereigns, and 
their warlike disposition. On first emerg- I 
ing into notice, Media formed part of the 
Assyrian empire ; but it became an inde- 
pendent monarchy, under Dejoces, b. c. 
716, which continued down to B. c. 595, 
when it was reduced by Cyrus to a pro- 
vince of Persia, On the overthrow of the 
Persian empire it formed part of the king- i 
dom of the Seleucida?, and was subse- | 
quently subject to the Parthians 

Mediolanum, Milan, I., a city of Cis- 
alpine Gaul, among the Insubres, situated 
on the small river Olona, in a plain be- 
tween the Ticinus, Tesino, and the Addua, 
Adda. It was annexed to the Roman do- 
minions hy Scipio Nasica, b. c. 191, and 
became in the course of time such a flou- 
rishing city, that it was honoured with the 
appellation of " New Athens." In the 
fourth century of our era it held the rank 
of the sixth city of the empire, and is one 
of the few in Italy which survived the 
devastations of the middle ages, and 
brought down its celebrity to modern 
times. — IT. A town of the Gugerni in 
Germania Inferior, corresponding to the 



village of Mot/land. — III. A town of the 
Ordovices, in Britain, near EUesmere. 

MediomatrIci, a powerful nation of 
Gallia Belgica, on the Mosella, Moselle. 
Their chief town was Divodurum, after- 
wards Mediomatrici, Met:. 

Mkdttkbraneum mare, a sea which di- 
vides Europe and Asia Minor from Africa, 
2000 miles in length, between 400 and 500 
at an average in breadth, and occupving an 
area of 734,000 square miles. It is named 
from its situation, medio terra:, situate in 
the middle of the land; and it communi- 
cates with the Atlantic by the Columns of 
Hercules, and with the Euxine through 
the iEgean. According to Buffon, the 
Mediterranean Sea was originally a lake 
of small extent, and had received in remote 
ages a sudden and prodigious increase, at 
the time when the Black Sea opened a 
passage through the Bosphorus, and at 
that period when the sinking of the land 
which united Europe to Africa, in the 
part which is now the Straits of Gibraltar, 
permitted the water of the ocean to rush 
in. It was also his opinion that most of 
the islands of the Mediterranean made 
part of the continent before the great 
convulsions in this quarter. The word 
Mediterraneiun does not occur in the 
classics ; but the sea is sometimes called 
Internum, Xostrum, Medium JEquor. In 
the Scriptures, the Mediterranean is called 
" the Great Sea; " Herodotus calls it "the 
Sea," and Strabo " the Sea within the 
Columns." The Mediterranean was navi- 
gated from the remotest antiquity : in the 
<lawn of commerce it was traversed in all 
directions by the ships of the Phoenicians 
and Carthaginians : at a later period, by 
those of the Greeks and Romans ; and 
during the middle ages, and down to the 
discovery of America, it was the grand cen- 
tre of the commerce and navigation of the 
Old World. To the scholar and classical 
traveller the Mediterranean has the most 
powerful attractions. Its shores were 
the earliest seats of art, science, and civil- 
isation. It has been surrounded and oc- 
cupied by the most renowned nations of 
antiquity ; and its coasts and islands have 
still to boast the ruins of some of the 
noblest and most splendid cities of the an- 
cient world. " On those shores," to use the 
language of Dr. Johnson, " were the four 
great empires of the world — the Assyrian, 
the Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman. 
All our religion, almost all our law, almost 
all our arts, almost all that sets us above 
savages, has come to us from the shores of 
the Mediterranean." 

Meditrina, the goddess of healing, 



362 



MED 



MEG 



whose festivals, Meditrinalia, were cele- 
brated at Rome on the fifth day before the 
Ides of October. 

Medoacus, or Meduacus, the name of 
two rivers in Italy, which rise in the terri- 
tory of the Euganei, and fall into the Adri- 
atic below Venice ; Major, Brenta, and 
Minor, Bachiglione. Patavium was situ- 
ated between them. 

Medobriga, Marvao, a town of Lusi- 
tania, on the confines of Portugal. 

Medon, son of Codrus, was the seven- 
teenth and last king of Athens, and the first 
archon appointed with regal authority, 
b. c. 1070. His successors were called 
Medontidce, and the office of archon re- 
mained for 200 years in the family of 
Codrus under twelve perpetual archons. 

Medus, I., Kur, a river of Media, falling 
into the Araxes. Some take Medus ad- 
jectively, as applying to any of the great 
rivers of Media, as in Horace ( Od. ii. 
9. 21.), where it signifies the Euphrates. 
— II. Son of JEgeus and Medea, who was 
sometimes said to have given name to Me- 
dia, in Upper Asia. He conquered several 
barbarous tribes, and finally fell in battle 
with the Indians. 

Medusa, one of the three Gorgons, 
daughter of Phorcys and Ceto, and the 
only one of the number that was not im- 
mortal. According to one legend, Me- 
dusa was remarkable for personal beauty, 
and captivated by her charms the monarch 
of the sea. Minerva, however, incensed 
at their having converted her sanctuary 
into a place of meeting, changed the beau- 
tiful locks of Medusa into serpents, and 
made her in other respects hideous to the 
view. Some accounts make this punish- 
ment to have befallen her because she pre- 
sumed to vie in personal attractions with 
Minerva, and to consider her tresses as far 
superior to the locks of the formeV. Apol- 
lodorus, however, gives the Gorgons snaky 
tresses from their birth. (See Gorgones. ) 
Medusa had, in common with her sisters, 
the power of converting every object into 
stone on which she fixed her eyes. Per- 
seus slew her (see Perseus), and cut 
off her head ; and the blood that flowed 
from it produced the serpents of Africa, 
Perseus, on his return, having winged his 
way over that country with the Gorgon's 
head. The conqueror gave the head to 
the goddess Minerva, who placed it in the 
centre of her aegis or shield. See JEgis. 

Megabyzus, I. , one of the noble Persians 
who conspired against the usurper Smer- 
dis. Being set over an army in Europe 
by King Darius, he took Perinthus, and 
conquered all Thrace. — II. A satrap of 



Artaxerxes, who revolted from his sove- 
reign, and defeated two large armies sent 
against him. The interference of his friends 
restored him to the kin 's favour, and he 
died b. c. 477. 

Meg^era, one of the Furies. See 
Furi^e. 

MegalesTa, games in honour of Cybele. 
See Ludi Megalenses. 

Megalia or Megaris, a small island in 
the Bay of Naples, near Neapolis, on which 
the Castle del Ovo now stands. 

Megalopolis, the capital of Arcadia, 
situated in the southern part of the coun- 
try, in a wide and fertile plain watered 
by the Helissus, which flowed from the 
central parts of Arcadia, and nearly di- 
vided the town into two equal parts. By 
the advice of Epaminondas, it was founded 
b. c. 370, the year in which the Spartans 
were defeated at Leuctra, with the de- 
sign of making it at once the capital of 
Arcadia, and a fortress against the at- 
tacks of the Spartans. Ten commissioners, 
selected from the principal states, were 
deputed to make the necessary arrange- 
ments for conducting the new colony ; and 
in accordance with their advice, the other 
cities of Arcadia agreed to send thither 
the greater number of their inhabitants, 
who thus rendered it at once a large city, 
as its name implies. Megalopolis soon rose 
into great importance ; but it would be im- 
possible within our limits to give even an 
outline of its history. For a lengthened 
period it enabled the Arcadians to main- 
tain their ground against the Spartans ; but 
b. c. 232, it was taken and ruined by Cleo- 
menes, king of Sparta, and most of the in- 
habitants were put to the sword. Such of 
them as escaped retired to Messenia, but 
afterwards returned to Arcadia, and, by the 
advice of Philopcemen, rebuilt their city. 
In the time of Strabo, Megalopolis had 
become deserted. .The village of Sinano 
occupies its site. 

Meganira, wife of Celeus, king of 
Eleusis in Attica, and mother of Tripto- 
lemus, to whom Ceres taught agriculture. 
She received divine honours after death. 

Megara (gen. -ce ; and also, as a neuter 
plural, -a, -orum : in Greek, ra Meyapa), 
I., a city of Greece, the capital of a district 
called Megaris, about 210 stadia north-west 
of Athens. It was situated at the foot of 
two hills, on each of which stood a citadel, 
and was connected with the port of Nisasa 
by two walls, the length of which was 
about eight stadia, or eighteen, according 
to Strabo. It was founded b. o. 1 1 31. and 
was originally governed by kings ; it after- 
wards became subject to the Athenians, 



MEG 



MEL 



363 



but regained its original government on 
the Dorian migration under ~Codrus ; and, 
as long as it preserved its independence, 
was distinguished in arms, philosophy, and 
N arts. Statues of Praxiteles and Scopas 
adorned its monuments and public places ; 
the Gnomic verses of Theognis, a native 
of Megara, formed the moral code of 
Greece ; and Euclid and Stilpo founded 
at Megara a school which holds a high 
rank in the history of philosophy. At 
the battle of Salamis it furnished twenty 
ships of war for the defence of Greece ; 
3000 of its citizens fought at Plataea in 
the army of Pausanias ; and such was the 
excess of its population, that it from time 
to time sent forth colonies to Sicily, the 
Propontis, and the Black Sea. It subse- 
quently underwent the common fate of 
all the Grecian cities ; but, in spite of all 
vicissitudes and misfortunes, Megara has 
retained its original name till this day. — 
II. A town of Sicily, founded by a colony 
from Megara in Attica, about b. c. 728 ; 
and destroyed by Gelo, king of Syracuse. 
Before the arrival of the Megarean colony 
it was called Hybla. — III. A daughter of 
Creon, king of Thebes, given in marriage 
to Hercules for having freed the Thebans 
from the tribute they had bound them- 
selves to pay to the Orchomenians. Sub- 
sequently, having been rendered insane by 
Juno, Hercules threw into the fire the 
children of whom he had become the father 
by Megara ; but afterwards gave her in 
marriage to Iolaus. 

Megareus, a son of Neptune by CEnope, 
and father of Hippomenes by Merope. 

Megaris, a small territory of Achaia, 
separating the states of Athens from those 
of Corinth, and extending from the Saro- 
nic to the Corinthian gulf. It contained 
but a small number of towns and villages, 
and its soil was as ungrateful as that of j 
Attica ; but the favourable situation of its j 
two ports, Nisa?a on the Sarcnic, and 
Pega? on the Corinthian, gulf, raised it to 1 
great commercial and political importance j 
among the states of Greece. Its chief 
town was Megara. See Megara. 

Megasthenes, a Greek historian and ! 
geographer, in the age of Seleucus Ni- \ 
cator, king of Syria, about b. c. 300. He 
was sent by Seleucus to Palibothra in In- I 
dia, to renew and confirm a previous treaty 
with Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii ; and, ! 
after his return, wrote an account of his tra- I 
vels, of which only a few fragments remain 
in the works of Strabo, Arrian, and iElian. 

Mela Pomponius, a Latin geographical 
writer, the place and period of whose 
birth are involved in obscurity. It is ge- 



nerally supposed that he was born in Spain, 
of an illustrious family, and lived in the 
time of the emperor Claudius. His " Com- 
pendium of Geography," in three books, 
has reached our times. 

Melampus, a celebrated soothsayer and 
physician of Argos, son of Amythaon and 
Idomenea, or Dorippe. As he was sleep- 
ing on the grass, two young serpents 
wantonly played round him, and softly 
licked his ears. When he awoke he found 
himself acquainted with the chirping of 
birds, and all their rude notes ; and, learn- 
ing from their tongues the future, he was 
enabled to declare it to mankind. Meet- 
ing Apollo on the banks of the Alpheus, 
he was taught by him the art of reading 
futurity in the entrails of victims, and he 
thus became an excellent soothsayer. 
Meanwhile his brother Bias fell in love 
with Pero, the daughter of Neleus. As 
the hand of this beautiful maiden was 
sought by most of the neighbouring princes, 
her father declared that he would give her 
only to him who should bring him from 
Thessaly the cows of his mother Tyro, 
which Iphiclus of Phylace detained, and 
which he guarded by means of a dog whom 
neither man nor beast could venture to 
approach. Bias, relying on the aid of 
his brother, undertook the adventure. 
Melampus, previously declaring that he 
knew he should be caught and confined for 
a year, but then get the cattle, set out for 
Phylace. Every thing fell out as he said. 
He was caught in the attempt and im- 
prisoned for a year ; but his skill as a 
soothsayer procured his liberation, and, 
after he had taught the childless Iphiclus 
how to become a father, he obtained the 
oxen, and obliged Neleus to give his 
daughter to Bias. Melampus afterwards 
went to Argos, where he rendered himself 
famous by curing the daughters of Prcetus 
of insanity. ( See Prcetides. ) Anaxagoras, 
then king of Argos, rewarded his services 
by giving him part of his kingdom, over 
which his posterity reigned for six gene- 
rations. He himself received divine ho- 
nours after death, and temples were raised 
to his memory. Melampus was said to 
have introduced into Argolis the worship 
of Bacchus, with which he had become 
acquainted at Thebes, and to have regu- 
lated the Bacchic processions which took 
place every three years. He was surnamed 
Cathartos from having taught the mode of 
expiating crimes, and thus becoming re- 
conciled to the gods ; and became the 
founder of a distinguished family of sooth- 
sayers, one of whom was Amphiaraus, 
called by Homer the favourite of Jupiter 
R 2 



364 



MEL 



MEL 



and Apollo. — II. A wnter on divination, 
who lived in the time of Ptolemy Phila- 
delphia. He was the author of a treatise 
entitled MairriKT] -rrep] iraXfjicov, " Divination 
from vibrations of the muscles," and of 
another styled Uepl e\cuaiv tov au)/j.aTos, 
! Art of divining from marks on the body." 
We have only fragments remaining of 
these two works. 

Melampyges, an epithet applied to Her- 
cules in the Greek mythology, and connect- 
ing him with the legend of the Cercopes. 
These last, according to Diodorus Siculus, 
dwelt in the vicinity of Ephesus, and ra- 
vaged the country far and wide, while 
Hercules was leading with Omphale a life 
of voluptuous repose. Their mother had 
cautioned them against one to whom the 
name Melampyges should apply, but they 
disregarded her warning, and the hero, 
having at length been roused from his in- 
activity, proceeded against them by order 
of Omphale, and, having overcome them, 
brought them to her in chains. 

MELANCHLiENi, a people near the Cim- 
merian Bosphorus, so called from their 
black garments. Mannert conjectures 
them to have been the progenitors of the 
Russians. They are also called Rhoxolani. 

MelanippIdes, L, a lyric poet, who 
flourished about 500 b. c. He was either 
a native of the island of Melos, or of the 
city of Miletus. — II. A poet, who lived 
about 446 b. c. at the court of Perdiccas 
II., king of Macedonia. He was the 
grandson of the former.— Various poems, 
consisting of dithyrambics, epopees, ele- 
gies, and songs, are ascribed to these two 
individuals, but it is difficult to make a 
division between them. 

Melanippus, a son of Astacus, one of 
the Theban chiefs who defended the gates 
of Thebes against the army of Adrastus, 
king of Argos. He was opposed by Ty- 
deus, whom he wounded mortally. As 
Tydeus lay expiring, Minerva hastened to 
him with a remedy which she had obtained 
from Jupiter, and which would make him 
immortal ; but Amphiaraus, who hated 
Tydeus as the chief cause of the war, per- 
ceiving what the goddess was about, cut 
off the head of Melanippus, whom Tydeus, 
though wounded, had slain, and brought it 
to him. The savage warrior opened it and 
devoured the brain, and Minerva, in dis- 
gust, withheld her aid, 

Melanthius, I., an Athenian tragic 
poet, of inferior reputation, a contempo- 
rary of Aristophanes. He was afflicted 
with the leprosy, to which the comic poet 
alludes in the Aves. In the Pax he is 
ridiculed for his gluttony. — II. A painter, 



whose native country is uncertain. He 
was a contemporary of Apelles, and re- 
ceived, in connection with him, the instruc- 
tions of Pamphilus in the art of painting. 
Quintilian particularly mentions his skill 
in the designs of his pictures ; and Pliny 
observes, that he was one of those painters 
who, with only four colours, produced 
pieces worthy of immortality. Even 
Apelles conceded to him the palm in the 
arrangement or grouping of his figures. 

Melanthus, a son of Andropompus, 
whose ancestors were kings of Pylos, in 
Messenia. Having been driven by the 
Heraclida? from his paternal kingdom, he 
came to Athens, where Thymcetes, king 
of Attica, gave him a friendly recep- 
tion. Some time after this, the Boeo- 
tians, under Xanthus, having invaded At- 
tica, Thymcetes marched forth to meet 
them. Xanthus having proposed to de- 
cide the issue of the war by single com- 
bat, Thymcetes shrunk from the risk, but 
Melanthus came forward and accepted 
the challenge, and by a stratagem, fa- 
mous in after ages, he diverted the at- 
tention of his adversary, and slew him as 
be turned to look at the ally whom Melan- 
thus affected to see behind him. The 
victor was rewarded with the kingdom, 
which Thymcetes had forfeited by his pu#> 
sillanimity, and which now passed for ever 
from the house of Erechtheus. Melanthus 
transmitted the crown to his son Codrus. 

Melas (gen. -ce), I., Gulf of Saros, a 
deep gulf formed by the Thracian coast 
on the north-west, and the shore of the 
Chersonese on the south-east. — II. A 
river of Thrace, now the Cavatcha, flow- 
ing into the Sinus Melas at its north-eastern 
extremity. — III. A river of Thessaly, in 
the vicinity of the town of Trachis. — IV. 
A small river of Boeotia, near Orchomenus, 
emptying into the Lake Copa'is. Its waters 
had the property of dyeing the fleeces of 
sheep black. In the marshes formed 
near the junction of this river with the 
Cephissus grew the reeds so much esteemed 
by the ancient Greeks for making pipes 
and other wind-instruments. — V. A river 
of Cappadocia, rising near Ceesarea ad Ar- 
gasum, and falling into the Euphrates near 
the city of Melitene. — VI. A river of 
Pamphylia, rising in the range of Mount 
Taurus, west of Homonada, and flow- 
ing into the sea between Side and Cora- 
cesium. It formed originally the bound- 
ary between Pamphylia and Cilicia. The 
Melas is the river now called Menavgat-su. 

Meldje or Meldorum urbs, Meaux, a 
city of Gaul. 

Meleager, I., a celebrated hero of an- 



MEL 



MEL 



365 



tiquity, son of CEneus, king of iEtolia, by 
Althaea, daughter of Thestius. When he 
was seven days old, the Moiraa or Fates 
came to the dwelling of his parents, and 
declared that when the billet which was 
burning on the hearth should be con- 
sumed, the babe would die. Althaea, on 
hearing this, snatched the billet from the 
fire, and laid it carefully away in a coffer. 
The fame of Meleager increased with 
his years ; he signalised himself in the 
Argonautic expedition, and subsequently 
in the Calydonian boar-hunt. Of this 
latter event there appear to have been 
two legends, an earlier and a later one. 
According to the version of the story, 
commemorated, in the Iliad, CEneus, 
in the celebration of his harvest -home 
feast (baXvaia), had treated Diana with 
neglect, and the goddess took vengeance 
upon him by sending a wild boar, of 
surpassing size and strength, to ravage 
the territory of Calydon. Hunters and 
dogs were collected from all sides, and 
the boar was, with the loss of several lives, 
at length destroyed. A quarrel arose, 
however, between the Curetes and iEto- 
lians about the head and hide, and a 
war was the consequence. As long as 
Meleager fought, the Curetes had the 
worst of it, and could not keep the field ; 
but when, enraged at his mother Althaea, 
he remained with his wife, the fair Cleo- 
patra, and abstained from the war, noise 
and clamour rose about the gates, and the 
towers of Calydon were shaken by the 
victorious Curetes. In vain did his aged 
:£ather and the elders of the iEtolians im- 
plore him to return to the fight. He 
remained inexorable. At last, however, 
his wife besought him with tears, pictur- 
ing to him the evils of a captured town, 
the slaughter of the men, and the dragging 
away into captivity of the women and 
children. Moved by this last appeal, he 
arrayed himself in arms, went forth, and re- 
pelled the enemy ; but, as he had not done 
it out of regard for them, the iEtolians re- 
fused to give him the proffered recompence. 
Such is the more ancient form of the 
legend, in which it would appear that the 
iEtolians of Calydon and the Curetes of 
Pleuron alone took part in the hunt. In 
after times, when the vanity of the differ- 
ent states of Greece made them send their 
national heroes to every war and expedi- 
tion of the mythic ages, it underwent 
various modifications. Meleager, it is 
said, invited all the heroes of Greece to 
the hunt of the boar, proposing the hide 
of the animal as the prize of whoever 
should slay him. Many of the heroes 



inflicted grievous wounds upon the boar; 
but Meleager ran him through the flanks 
and killed him. He presented the skin 
and head to Atalanta ; but the sons of 
Thestius, his two uncles, offended at this 
preference of a woman, took the skin from 
her, saying that it fell to them of right, 
on account of their family, if Meleager 
resigned his claim to it. Meleager, in a 
rage, killed them, and restored the skin 
to Atalanta. Althaea, on hearing of the 
death of her brothers, influenced by re- 
sentment for their loss, took from its place 
of concealment the billet, on which de- 
pended the existence of Meleager, and 
cast it into the flames. As it consumed, 
the vigour of Meleager wasted away ; and 
when it was reduced to ashes, his life ter- 
minated. Repenting, when too late, of 
what she had done, Althaea put an end to 
her own life. Cleopatra died of grief ; 
and the sisters of Meleager, who would 
not be comforted in their affliction, were, 
by the compassion of the gods, all but 
Gorgo and Deianira, changed into birds 
called Meleagrides. There was another 
tradition, according to which Meleager 
was slain by Apollo, the protecting deity 
of the Curetes. — II. A Greek poet, a 
native of Gadara in Ccelesyria, and either 
contemporary with Antipater, or a very 
short time subsequent to him. He com- 
posed several works of a satirical charac- 
ter. — III. Another poet, contemporary 
with Antipater, who has left about 130 
epigrams. They are marked by purity of 
diction and by feeling, but they betray, 
at the same time, something of that so- 
phistic subtlety which characterised his age. 

Meleagrides, the sisters of Meleager, 
daughters of CEneus and Althsea, who 
became so disconsolate at the death of 
their brother, that they refused aliment, 
and were changed into birds called Mele- 
agrides, whose feathers and eggs are of a 
different colour. The youngest of the 
sisters, Gorgo and Dejanira, who had been 
married, escaped this metamorphosis. 

Meles (etis), L, a river of Asia Minor 
in Ionia, near Smyrna. Some suppose that 
Homer was born on its banks, whence they 
call him Melesigenes, and his compositions 
MtktcBiB chartce. — II. A king of Lydia, 
who succeeded his father Alyattes about 
a. c. 747. He was father of Candaules. 

Melesigenes, a name given to Homer, 
because he was said to have been born on 
the banks of the Meles, a river of Ionia. 

Melibcea, I., a town of Thessaly, in the 
district of Estiaeotis, near Ithome. — II. 
A maritime town of Magnesia, in Thes- 
saly, at the foot of Mount Ossa, famous 
a 3 



S66 



MEL 



MEL 



for dyeing -wool. The epithet Mdiboeus is 
applied to Philoctetes, because he reigned 
there. The village Daoukli marks the 
ancient site. 

Melibceus, a shepherd in Virgil's Ec- 
logues. 

Melicerta, Melicertes, or Melicer- 
tus, son of Athamas and Ino. His father 
prepared to dash him against a wall, as he 
had done his brother Learchus ; but his 
terrified mother threw herself into the sea, 
with Melicerta in her arms. Neptune 
had compassion on Ino and her son, and 
changed them into sea-deities. Ino was 
afterwards called Leucothoe or Matuta, and 
Melicerta was known among the Greeks by 
the name of Palaemon, and among the 
Latins by that of Portumnus. Some sup- 
pose that the Isthmian Games were insti- 
tuted in honour of Melicerta. See Isthmia. 

Meligunis, one of the earlier names of 
Lipara. See Lipara, 

Melisa, a town of Magna Gra?cia. 

Melissa, I., a daughter of Melissus, 
king of Crete, who, with her sister Amal- 
thaea, fed Jupiter with the milk of goats. 
— II. A nymph who was said first to 
have discovered the art of collecting ho- 
ney through means of bees, whence some 
imagined that she was changed into a bee 
(/Ae\i<r(ra). — III. One of the Oceanides, 
wife of Inachus, and mother of Phoroneus 
andiEgialus. — IV. A daughter of Procles, 
who married Periander, son of Cypselus, 
by whom she was killed with a blow of 
his foot, on the false accusation of his con- 
cubines. 

Melissus, L, a philosopher of Samos, of 
the Eleatic sect, who flourished about b. c. 
440. He was a disciple of Parmenides, 
to whose doctrines he closely adhered. He 
was appointed to the command of a fleet, 
and obtained a great naval victory over the 
Athenians. Themistocles is said to have 
been one of his pupils. — II. C. Mecaenas, 
a freedman of Mecaenas, under whose 
auspices he became librarian of Augustus. 

Melita, I., Malta, an island in the 
Mediterranean, between Sicily and Africa. 
Malta was probably first discovered by the 
Phoenicians, who communicated to the 
Greeks its oldest known appellation of 
Tiyvyia. From the Phoenicians it passed 
to the Carthaginians, from whom it was 
taken by the Romans in the first Punic 
war, and made a prefecture, subject to the 
praetor of Sicily. St. Paul, during his 
voyage from Palestine to Rome, was 
wrecked here ; and being kindly received 
by the people, performed some miraculous 
cures, which made him be " honoured with 
many honours, and, when he departed, 



laden with such things as were necessary." 
On the decline of the Roman empire, 
Malta fell under the dominion of the 
Goths, and afterwards of the Saracens. 
It was subject to the crown of Sicily from 
1190 till 1525, when the emperor Charles 
V. conferred it on the knights hospitallers 
of St. John of Jerusalem, who had a 
short while previously been expelled from 
Rhodes. — II. An island in the Adriatic, 
lying off the coast of Dalmatia, north- 
west of Epidaurus. It is now called 
Mtleda. The question has been frequently 
discussed whether it was on this island or 
Malta that St. Paul suffered shipwreck ; 
and though many ingenious arguments 
have been adduced in support of the for- 
mer, the weight of evidence in favour of 
the latter preponderates. 

Melitene, a district of Armenia Minor, 
lying along the right bank of the Eu- 
phrates. Its capital was Melitene, Malatie. 

Melitus, one of the principal accusers 
of Socrates. After the death of Socrates, 
the Athenians repented of their severity, 
and condemned Melitus to death. 

Melius. See M^blius. 

Mella or Mela, a small river of Cis- 
alpine Gaul, near Brixia, falling into the 
Allius. It retains its ancient name. 

Melo, a name given to the Nile by 
Virgil and Ausonius. 

Melos, now Milo, an island in the 
iEgean Sea, forming one of the group of 
the Cyclades. It was first inhabited by 
Phoenicians and afterwards colonised by 
Lacedaemon, nearly 700 years before the 
Peloponnesian war. It adhered to the 
interest of that state against the Athe- 
nians, and successfully resisted at first an 
attempt made by the latter to reduce it. 
But some years after the Athenians cap- 
tured their principal city after a brave and 
obstinate resistance, and, with a degree of 
barbarity peculiar to that age, put all the 
males to death, enslaved the women and 
children, and sent 500 colonists into the 
island. 

Melpes, a river of Lueania, flowing into 
the sea south-east of the promontory of 
Palinurus. It is now the Molpa t 

Melpomene, one of the Muses, daugh- 
ter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. Her 
name is derived from /neX-rrofiaL, " to cele- 
brate in song." She presided over tragedy, 
of which the poets made her the inven- 
tress, and was commonly represented as 
veiled, and holding in her hand a tragic 
mask. Her instrument was the lyre. 
Melpomene became by the river-god 
Aehelous the mother of the Sirens. See 

MuSiE. 



MEM 



MEN 



367 



Memmii, the name of one of the branches 
of an old plebeian house, who were them- 
selves subdivided into the families of the 
Galli and Gemelli, The most remarkable 
of the Memmii were, I., C. Memmius 
Gallus, praetor b. c. 176 and 170, and 
afterwards ambassador to the iEtolians. — ■ 
II. C. Memmius Gallus, son of the pre- 
ceding, tribune of the commons, and a 
bold and popular speaker. He was 
afterwards elected consul, b. c. 100, but 
was assassinated by Glaucia, a disap- 
pointed candidate. — III. L. Memmius 
Gemellus, tribune of the commons b. c. 
64, and praetor b. c. 59, in which latter 
capacity he had the government of Bithy- 
nia. He was distinguished as an orator 
and poet, and was the friend and patron 
of Catullus and Lucretius, the latter of 
whom dedicated his poem to him. Cicero 
describes him as a man of great literary 
acquirements, and well acquainted with 
the Grecian language and literature, but of 
licentious habits. He was an -opponent 
of Caesar, and was . driven into exile by 
means of the latter, on the charge of 
bribery in suing for the consulship, and 
also of extortion in the province of Bithy- 
nia. He died in- exile. 

Memnon, I. in Greek mythology, a fabu- 
lous king of Ethiopia, son of the goddess 
Aurora, who is said to have assisted the 
Trojans in the siege of Troy, and to have 
been slain by Achilles. Several Egyptian 
kings of this name are also mentioned by 
different Greek writers ; but the name 
is, in fact, supposed to be a general ap- 
pellation or epithet (Mei-amun, beloved 
of Ammon), borrowed by the Greeks from 
the Egyptian language, and erroneously 
applied by them to particular individuals. 
The famous statue called by the Greeks 
Memnon, at Thebes in Upper Egypt, 
which possessed the real or imaginary pro- 
perty of emitting a sound like that of a 
harp, at the rising of the sun, is supposed 
to have been in the building called by M. 
Champollion the Rhamesseion, from its 
founder Rhameses or Sesostris, of which 
the stupendous ruins are still seen between 
Medinet-Habou and Kournah. The sta- 
tue of black granite in the British Mu- 
seum, already styled the brother of the 
younger Memnon, was found in the Rha- 
messeion. The real Memnonium was, 
however, probably the temple erected by 
Amenoph, or Amenothph. — II. A native 
of Rhodes, and general of the Persian 
forces, when Alexander invaded Asia. He 
distinguished himself for attachment to 
the interest of Darius, defended Miletus 
against Alexander, and died in the midst 



of successful enterprises, b. c. 333. His 
wife Barsine was taken prisoner with the 
wife of Darius. — III. A native of Hera- 
clea Pontica, in Bithynia, generally re- 
garded as contemporary with Augustus, 
but who, in the opinion of some critics, 
ought to be placed in a later period. He 
wrote a history of his native city, and of 
the tyrants who had ruled over it, in 
twenty-four books, of which Photius has 
preserved an abridgment. 

Memphis, L, a famous city of Egypt, on 
the left side of the Nile, said by Diodorus 
Siculus to have been seven leagues in cir- 
cumference. The village of Gisa is supposed 
to occupy its site, but it is more accurate 
to make the small town of Memph corre- 
spond to the ancient city. After the course 
of the Nile, which lost itself in the sands 
of Libya, had been changed, and the Delta 
was formed out of the mud deposited by 
its waters, canals were cut to drain Lower 
Egypt. On this the kings of Thebes 
founded Memphis, which soon eclipsed in 
splendour the ancient capital of Thebes. 
It once contained many beautiful temples, 
particularly those of the god Apis (bos 
Memphites). In the neighbourhood those 
famous pyramids were built, whose gran- 
deur still astonishes the modern traveller. 
Memphis is thought by many to have 
been the Noph of Scripture. (See Pyra- 
mides.) — II. A Nymph, daughter of the 
Nile, and wife of Ephesus, by whom she 
had Libya. She gave her name to the 
city of Memphis. 

MemphItis, a son of Ptolemy Physcon, 
king of Egypt, by whom he was put to 
death. 

Menalcas, a shepherd in Virgil's Ec- 
logues. 

Menai.ippe, a name common to many 
women in antiquity, of whom the most 
celebrated was the sister of Antiope, queen 
of the Amazons, who was captured by 
Hercules in his war against that nation ; 
Hercules received in exchange the arms 
and belt of the queen. 

Menander, the most distinguished 
among the authors of the New Comedy, 
was born at Athens b. c. 342, exhibited 
his first play b. c. 321, and after having 
written above 100 dramas, and gained the 
prize, died b. c. 291, having, as some state, 
been drowned while bathing in the har- 
bour of the Piraeus. His writings were 
replete with elegance, wit, and judicious 
observations. Of the hundred dramas 
nothing remains but detached fragments ; 
but an accurate conception of his plots and 
general style may be gained from Terence, 
nearly all of whose plays are translations 
R 4 



368 



MEN 



MEN 



or adaptations from the works of Me- 
nander. 

Menapii, I., a powerful tribe of Belgic 
Gaul, occupying originally all the country 
between the Khenus and Mosa, as far 
nearly as the territory of Juliers. In 
Cassar's time they had even possessions on 
the eastern side of the Rhine, until driven 
thence by the German tribes. At a later 
period they removed from the banks of the 
Rhine, when the Ubii and Sigambri, from 
Germany, established themselves on the 
western bank of the river. The Menapii 
had no city, but lived, after the German 
fashion, in the woods and among the fens. 
— II. A Gallic tribe who migrated into 
Hibernia {Ireland), and settled in part of 
the modern province of Leinster. 

Menas, a freedman of Pompey the 
Great, who distinguished himself by his 
active and perfidious part in the civil wars 
kindled between the younger Pompey and 
Augustus. Horace has been thought to 
allude to him in his fourth Epode ; but 
this opinion has been repudiated by the 
most recent critics. 

Mendes, a city of Egypt, near Lyco- 
polis, on one of the mouths of the Nile, 
called the Mendesian mouth. Pan, under 
the form of a goat, was worshipped there 
with the greatest solemnity. Herodotus 
states that Mendes signifies " Pan," and 
" he-goat." 

Menecles, a native of Barce in Cyre- 
naica, who wrote an historical work on 
the Athenians. 

Menecrates, a name common to several 
individuals of antiquity, of whom the chief 
are, I., a native of Elasa, in JEolis, contem- 
porary with Hecataeus. Two works of his 
are cited by Strabo II. Tiberius Clau- 
dius, a physician at Rome in the reign of 
Tiberius. Several of his prescriptions are 
mentioned with approbation by Galen ; 
but of 155 works which he is said to have 
written not even a fragment remains. — 
III. A native of Syracuse, whose success 
in epileptical cures was such that he as- 
sumed the name of Jupiter, and regarded 
himself as the dispenser of health and life. 
Some amusing anecdotes illustrative of his 
vanity are recorded by Athenams. 

Menedemus, I., a Greek philosopher, 
native of Eretria, who lived about b. c. 
310. Though of a noble family, he was 
obliged to have recourse to the mean occu- 
pation of a tent-maker to earn his subsist- 
ence ; but after a series of difficulties and 
adventures, he emerged from obscurity, 
and rose to an eminent station, first in 
El is, whose school he afterwards trans- 
ferred to his native city, and gave it the 



[ name of Eretrian ; and then in Eretria, 
which sent him on several diplomatic mis- 
sions to Ptolemy, Lysander, and Deme- 
trius. His intimacy with Antigonus made 
the Eretrians suspect him of a design to 
betray their city to that prince. To save 
himself, he fled to Antigonus, and soon 
after died, in his eighty-fourth year. — II. 
A Cynic philosopher of Lampsacus, who 
said that he came from hell to observe 
the wickedness of mankind. His whole 
bearing and habits were strongly tinged 
by insanity. 

Menelai portus, a harbour on the coast 
of Africa, between Cyrene and Egypt, said 
to have derived its name from Menelaus, 
who landed on this coast in his flight from 
Egypt. ^ 

Mekelaium, a range of hills on the left 
bank of the Eurotas, from which they rise 
abruptly, stretching south-east of Sparta. 

Meneeaus, son of Atreus, brother of 
Agamemnon, and king of Sparta, was, of 
the numerous claimants of the hand of 
Helen (see Helena), he who had the mis- 
fortune to obtain it. The nuptials were 
celebrated at Sparta, after all his rivals 
had sworn to defend the rights of him 
who should become the spouse of Helen. 
Shortly afterwards, on the death of Tyn- 
darus, the crown of Sparta devolved on 
Menelaus, whose happiness appeared to be 
at its height : but the beauty of his wife 
became his misfortune. Venus, having pro- 
mised Paris the most beautiful woman in 
the world for his wife, conducted him to 
Sparta, where he saw Helen, loved her, 
and was loved in turn ; and taking advan- 
tage of the absence of Menelaus in Crete, 
he persuaded her to elope with him to 
Troy. As soon as Menelaus heard of this 
calamity, he reminded the Greek princes 
of their oath, and immediately all Greece 
took up arms to defend his cause. The 
combined forces assembled at Aulis in 
Bceotia, where they chose Agamemnon for 
their general, Calchas for their high-priest, 
and then marched to meet their enemies in 
the field. During the Trojan war, Mene- 
laus behaved with great courage, and Paris 
must have fallen by his hand, had not Venus 
interposed and redeemed him from certain 
death. In the tenth year of the Trojan war, 
Helen obtained the forgiveness of Mene- 
laus, by introducing him into the chamber 
of Deiphobus, whom she had married after 
the death of Paris; and after the fall of 
Troy she became the companion of his long 
wanderings and voyages, and reached Sparta 
in safety, where Menelaus died shortly 
after. But a different story is told by 
Herodotus. His daughter Herraione by 



MEN 



MER 



369 



Helen became the wife of Pyrrhus, son of 
Achilles. Games, called Menelaia, were 
celebrated by the Spartans in honour of 
Menelaus. 

Menenius Agrifpa, I., a celebrated 
Roman, who obtained the consulship b. c. 
501, and appeased the Roman populace 
when they had seceded to the Mons Sacer 
in the infancy of the consular government, 
by repeating the well-known fable of the 
belly and limbs. — II. Titus, son of the 
preceding, was chosen consul with C. Ho- 
ratius, b. c. 475, when he was defeated by 
the Tusci, and being called to an account 
by the tribunes for this failure, was sen- 
tenced to pay a heavy fine. He died of 
grief soon after. — III. A doubtful his- 
toric person. 

Menes, considered by most as the 
founder of the Egyptian empire, and whose 
era is fixed about b. c. 2000. He is said 
to have built Memphis ; and, in the prose- 
cution of his work, to have stopped the 
course of the Nile by constructing a cause- 
way several miles broad, and caused it to 
run through the mountains. He was dei- 
fied after death. Menes is supposed to be 
the Mizraim of Scripture. 

Menesthei portus, a harbour of His- 
pania Ba?tica, not far from Gades, now 
Puerto de Santa Maria. 

Menestheus, or Mnestheus, L, a son 
of Pereus, who, during the long absence of 
Theseus of Athens, was elected king ; and 
caused the lawful monarch to be expelled on 
his return. As he had been one of Helen's 
suitors, he went to the Trojan war at 
the head of the people of Athens, and died 
on his return in the island of Melos. He 
reigned twenty- three years, b. c. 1205 ; 
and was succeeded by Demophoon, son of 
Theseus. — II. A son of Iphicrates, who dis- 
tinguished himself in the Athenian armies. 

Menippe and MetIoche, daughters of 
Orion-. See Orion. 

MeNINX, or LoTOPHAGITIS, INSULA, 

Zerbi, an island on the coast of Africa, 
near the Syrtis Minor. It fell into the 
hands of the Romans during the first 
Punic war. At a later period it received 
the name of Girba, of which the modern 
name is evidently a corruption; and its 
coasts were famous for a species of murex, 
which yielded an excellent purple dye. 

Menippus, I., a Cynic philosopher of 
Sinope in Asia Minor. Originally a slave, 
he managed to obtain his freedom, and 
eventually became one of the greatest usu- 
rers at Thebes: but having lost all his 
money by fraud, he hung himself in de- 
spair. He was the author of several sa- 
tirical works, and his style was imitated 



by Varro, who called it Menippean. (See 
Varro.) — II. A native of Stratonice, pre- 
ceptor of Cicero for some time. 

Mennis, or Memnium, a town of As- 
syria, in the district of Adiabene, south of 
Arbela. 

Menodotus, a physician of the Empiric 
school, born at Nicomedia. He was a dis- 
c'ple of Antiochus of Laodicea in Lycia, 
and lived during the reigns of Trajan and 
Hadrian. He banished analogy from the 
Empiric system, and substituted what was 
called epilogism. 

Menceceus, I. a Theban, father of Hip-, 
ponome, Jocasta, and Creon. — II. A son 
of Creon king of Thebes, who sacrificed 
himself for his country. 

Mencetes, I., the pilot of the ship of 
Gyas, at the naval games exhibited by 
iEneas on the anniversary of his father's 
death. He was thrown into the sea for 
his unskilfulness.- — II. An Arcadian, killed 
by Turnus in the war of iEneas. 

Mencetius, a son of Actor and iEgina. 
Leaving his mother, he went to Opus, 
where he had, by Sthenele, Patroclus, often 
called from him Menadiades. He was one 
of the Argonauts. 

Menon, a Thessalian commander in the 
expedition of Cyrus the Younger against 
his brother Artaxerxes. He commanded 
the left wing in the battle of Cunaxa, and 
after the battle was taken along with the 
other generals by Tissaphernes, but not 
put to death with them. 

Mentor, I., one of the most faithful 
friends of Ulysses, and the person to whom 
before his departure for Troy, he consigned 
the charge of his domestic affairs. Minerva 
assumed his form and voice in her exhor- 
tation to Telemachus not to degenerate 
from the valour and wisdom of his sire. 
The goddess, under the same form, ac- 
companied him to Pylos. — II. An emi- 
nent engraver on silver, whose 30untry is 
uncertain. He must have flourished before 
the burning of the temple at Ephesus, 
b. c. 356, as several of his productions 
were consumed in that conflagation. 

Mephitis, the goddess of noxious and 
pestilential exhalations from the earth. 

Mera, I., a priest of Venus. — II. or 
M^era, a dog of Icarius, which by its howl- 
ing showed Erigone where her murdered fa- 
ther had been thrown. The daughter hung 
herself in despair ; and the dog pined away, 
and was made the constellation Canis. 

Mercurii promontorium. See Her- 

M^3EUM PROMONTORIUM. 

Mercukius, I., a celebrated Latin deity 
equivalent to the Hermes of the Greeks, 
and the Thaut of the Egyptians. He was 
R 5 



S70 



MER 



ME ft 



the son of Jupiter and Mala, one of the 
Atlantides, and was born on the summit 
of the Arcadian Cyllene. Mercury, as 
the name imports, (being evidently derived 
from Merx, merchandise,) was originally 
the Roman god of traffic and gain, and 
the protector of merchants and shop- 
keepers ; but the Romans in their usual 
spirit of imitation at once confounded him 
with Hermes, the god of merchandise 
among the Greeks, and invested him with 
all the attributes of the latter, and made 
him the inventor of the lyre, the patron of 
the gymnasium, the herald of the gods, 
the teacher of eloquence, and the con- 
ductor of the souls of the dead into the 
infernal regions. His infancy was intrusted 
to the seasons or Horaa ; but he had hardly 
been laid in his cradle, when he gave a 
proof of his skill in abstracting the pro- 
perty of others, by stealing away the oxen 
of Admetus, which Apollo was tending on 
the banks of the Amphrysus, but gave 
him in exchange the lyre which he had 
invented. He displayed his thievish pro- 
pensities on other occasions also, by de- 
priving Neptune of his trident, Venus of 
her girdle, Mars of his sword, Jupiter of 
his sceptre, and Vulcan of many of his me- 
chanical instruments. Jupiter took him 
as his messenger, interpreter, and cup- 
bearer, in which office he was succeeded by 
Hebe and Ganymede. It would far exceed 
our limits to attempt to give an outline of 
his exploits ; but his attributes and insig- 
nia are briefly enumerated by Horace : — 

Mercuri, facunde nepos Atlantis, 
Qui feros cultus hominum recentum 
Voce formasti catus, et decorae 

More palaestrae : 
Te canam, magni Jovis et Deorum 
Nuntium, curvaeque lyraa parentem ; 
Calidum, quidquid placuit, jocoso 

Condere furto. 

Between this passage and the lines of Ovid 
(Fasti, 663, &c. ) a curious coincidence will 
be found. Mercury was represented as a 
youth lightly clad, with the petasus, or 
winged hat, and wings at his heels. In his 
hand he bears the emblem of his herald's of- 
fice, the caduceus, a rod with two serpents 
twined about it. The more ancient statues 
of Mercury were square blocks of stone, 
with a rudely carved head on them. They 
were set up in great numbers in the streets 
of Athens. His worship was well esta- 
blished, particularly in Greece, Egypt, and 
Italy. The Roman merchants yearly ce- 
lebrated a festival on the fifteenth of May, 
in honour of him, in a temple near the 
Circus Maximus, and then entreated him 
to forgive whatever artful measures or 
falsehoods they had used in the pursuit of 



gain. — II. Trismegistus. See TaisMH- 

GISTUS. 

Me riones, son of Molus, a Cretan prince, 
and Melphidis, was charioteer of Idome- 
neus, king of Crete, during the Trojan 
war. He signalised himself before Troy, 
and fought with Deiphobus, son of Priam, 
whom he wounded. The Cretans paid 
him divine honours after death. 

MERMNADiE, the name of a dynasty of 
kings in Lydia, of whom Gyges was the 
first. They claimed descent from Her- 
cules, and occupied the throne till the 
reign of Croesus, who was conquered by 
Cyrus, king of Persia. 

Me roe, an ancient kingdom of Ethiopia, 
situated on a peninsula, called now Chandy, 
bounded in the east by the Nile, and in the 
west by the Astabaras, or Atbarah- Talazee. 
The capital of this kingdom, the ruins of 
which are still to be traced in the south 
of Chandy, in Sennaar, was also called 
Meroe, and was the seat of an ecclesias- 
tical government, who selected their king 
from one of their own number, and who 
kept him under their control. The in- 
habitants of this kingdom were, as Hero- 
dotus informs us, of the negro race. To 
a colony from Meroe is attributed the 
origin of the foundation of Thebes, which 
had the same theocratical government, 
and maintained uninterrupted relations 
with the mother country. It is said that 
Ammonium and Axum were also colonies 
of Meroe. It is the only country in an- 
tiquity where the black people had made 
some progress in civilisation. In the third 
century b. c, king Ergamenes threw off 
the yoke of the priests. Meroe was the 
great entrepot of the commerce of Ethi- 
opia, Egypt, and India. 

Me rope, I., one of the Pleiades. She 
married Sisyphus, son of ^Eolus, before 
her transformation into a star; and it was 
fabled that, in the constellation of the 
Pleiades, Merope appears less luminous 
than her sister-stars, through shame at 
having been the only one of the number 
that had wedded a mortal. Other mytholo- 
gists relate the same of Electra. — II. A 
daughter of Cypselus, who married Cres- 
phontes, king of Messenia, by whom she 
had three children. Her husband and two 
of her children were murdered by Poly- 
phontes. The murderer wished her to 
marry him, and she would have been 
obliged to comply had not Epytus or Te- 
lephones, her third son, avenged his fa- 
ther's death by assassinating Polyphontes. 

Merops, L, a king of the island of Cos, 
who married Clymene, one of the Ocean- 
ides. He was changed into an eagle, and 



ME It 



ME 8 



371 



placed among the constellations. — II. One 
of the companions of ^Eneas, killed by 
Turnus. 

Meros, a mountain of India sacred to 
Jupiter. It is said to have been in the 
neighbourhood of Nysa, and to have been 
named from the circumstance of Bacchus's 
being enclosed in the thigh (ixripos) of 
Jupiter. The mountain in question is the 
famous Merv, of Indian mythology. 

Mesembria, a maritime town of Thrace, 
east of the mouth of the Nessus, now Me- 
sevria or Mesera. According to Herodotus, 
it was a settlement of the Samothracians. 

Mesene, I., an island in the Tigris, 
where Apamea was built. It is now Disel. 
— II. Another, enclosed between the canal 
of Basra and the Pasitigris, and which is 
called in the Oriental wx-iters Perat- Miscan, 
or " the Mesene of the Euphrates," to dis- 
tinguish it from the Mesene of the Tigris. 
The term Mesene is Greek, and refers to 
land enclosed bttween two streams. 

Mesomedes, a Cretan poet, who was a 
freedman of the Emperor Hadrian, and 
wrote a eulogium on Antinous. The pen- 
sion conferred on him by Hadrian was 
stopped by his successor Antoninus. 

Mesopotamia, the ancient name of the 
country lying between the Tigris and 
Euphrates, and bounded on the north by 
Mons Masius, a branch of Mount Taurus, 
and on the south by the Median wall, and 
by the canals which united the Tigris and 
Euphrates, which separated it from Baby- 
lonia. The name Mesopotamia, which, in 
accordance with its meaning, is derived from 
ueaos iroTa/xbs, "between the rivers," did not 
come into use till after the Macedonian 
conquest of Asia. It was divided into two 
parts, the physical features of which differed 
materially, the southern part being flat 
and barren, while the northern was rich 
and fertile, and watered by the rivers Cha- 
boras and Mygdonius. The chief towns 
were Nisibis and Edessa. This country 
is celebrated in Scripture as the first dwell- 
ling of men after the deluge. It was suc- 
cessively possessed by the Assyrians, Per- 
sians, and Macedonians, and was incorpo- 
rated with the Roman empire by Trajan 
a. d. ] 00. In Scripture Mesopotamia is 
called Aram and Aramcsa. The lower part 
is now Irak Arabi, the upper Diar-Bekr. 

Messala, Marcus Valerius Corvinus, 
sprung from an ancient Roman family, was 
born b. c. 59, the same year as Livy. 
While yet a very young man he was pro- 
scribed by the triumvirs, and fled to 
Brutus and Cassius. His name was al- 
most immediately struck out of the fatal 
list, but he remained true to the cause of 



the republic until after the battle of Phi- 
lippi, when, the soldiers who escaped hav- 
ing chosen him for their general, he per- 
suaded them to yield to fortune and sur- 
render. For a considerable period, Messala 
remained in close alliance with Antony, 
but, disgusted by the conduct of Cleopatra, 
he passed over to Octavius, who received 
him with the greatest distinction, and ad- 
mitted him at once to full confidence. He 
distinguished himself in a campaign against 
the tribes of Illyria, was consul b. c. 31, 
and one of the leaders of Actium ; was 
afterwards despatched against the rebel 
Gauls of Aquitania, when he earned a 
triumph, and was the first person named to 
hold the honourable and important office 
of Prasfectus Urbis, a charge which, how- 
ever, he soon resigned. Messala also en- 
joyed the highest reputation in literature, 
and his compositions are warmly praised 
by Seneca, Quintilian, and the two Plinies. 
He was the author of a work, De Auspiciis, 
and of a treatise De Romanis Familiis ; but 
his fame rested chiefly on his oratorical ef- 
forts, which were characterised by great 
purity of style and neatness of expression, 
and by a lofty and generous tone. None of 
his works have been preserved, with the 
exception of a few insignificant fragments. 

Messalina, L, Valeria, the first wife 
of the Emperor Claudius, whom she dis- 
honoured by her unbridled licentiousness 
and cruelty. After a long career of guilt, 
she openly married a young patrician named 
Silius, during the absence of the emperor, 
who had gone on a visit to Ostia. Nar- 
cissus, the freedman of Claudius, was the 
only one who dared to inform Claudius of 
the fact, and when he had roused the 
sluggish resentment of his imperial master, 
he brought him to Rome. The arrival 
of Claudius dispersed in an instant all 
who had thronged around Messalina ; but 
though thus deserted, she resolved to brave 
the storm, and sent to the emperor demand- 
ing to be heard. Narcissus, however, fear- 
ing the effect of her presence on the weak 
mind of her husband, despatched an order, 
as if coming from him, for her immediate 
punishment. The order found her in the 
gardens of Lucullus. She endeavoured to 
destroy herself, but her courage failing, she 
was put to death by a tribune who had 
been sent for that purpose, a. d. 48. — II. 
Called also Statilia, the grand-daughter of 
Statilius Taurus, who had been consul, and 
had enjoyed a triumph during the reign of 
Augustus. She was married four times 
before she came to the imperial throne. 
The last of her four husbands was Atticus 
Vestinus, a man of consular rank, who had 
b, 6 



372 



MES 



MET 



ventured to aspire to her hand, although 
he was not ignorant that he had Nero for 
a rival. The tyrant who had long favoured 
Vestinus as one of the companions of his 
debaucheries, now resolved to destroy him, 
and accordingly compelled him to open his 
veins. Messalina was transferred to the 
imperial bed. After the death of Nero 
she endeavoured to regain her former rank 
as empress, by means of Otho, whom she 
had captivated by her beauty, and hoped 
to espouse. But Otho's fall having de- 
stroyed all these expectations, she turned 
her attention to literary subjects, and ob- 
tained applause by some public discourses 
which she delivered. 

MessalInus, M. Valer., son of Messala, 
whose virtues he inherited, was appointed 
governor of Dalmatia in the reign of 
Tiberius, and rendered himself known by 
his opposition to Piso. 

Messana, Messina, a celebrated town of 
Sicily, on the straits which separate Italy 
from Sicily. It was anciently called Zancle, 
and derived this name from the resemblance 
which its harbour bore to a hook or 
scythe, (dynXr). The inhabitants were 
called Messenii, Messanienses, and Ma~ 
mertini. The straits of Messana have 
always been regarded as dangerous, on 
account of the rapidity of the currents, and 
the irregular and violent flowing and ebb- 
ing of the sea. The accounts of the origin 
and early history of Messina differ con- 
siderably. It is admitted on all hands to 
be very ancient; and most probably de- 
rived the name it has so long borne from a 
settlement having been made in it by a 
body of emigrants from Messene,in Greece. 
Having been seized by the Mameitini, it 
became, under them, one of the most po- 
pulous, wealthy, and powerful cities of Si- 
cily. It was the first town of the island that 
came into the possession of the Romans. 

Messapia. See Iapygia. 

Messapus, an Italian prince, king of 
Apulia or Calabria, which was thence 
called Messapia. 

Messene, a daughter of Triopas, king of 
Argos, who married Polycaon, son of Lelex, 
king of Laconia. She encouraged her 
husband to levy troops, and seize Pelo- 
ponnesus, a district of which, after it had 
been conquered, received her name. She 
obtained divine honours after death. 

Messene, or Messena, Maura-Matra, a 
city in the Peloponnesus, capital of Mes- 
senia, built and fortified by Epaminondas, 
b. c. 369. The citadel was built on Ithome ; 
and the inhabitants were famous for the 
wars carried on against the Spartans, called 
the Messenian wars. 



Messenia, a province of Peloponnesus, 
between Laconia, Elis, Arcadia, and the 
sea. At the time of the Trojan war it 
belonged to Menelaus, and formed part of 
Laconia. It did not become a separate 
state till after the division of the Pelopon- 
nesus among the Heraclidaj. It subse^ 
quently fell under the power of the Lace- 
daemonians, after the long struggle called the 
Messenian wars, but regained its independ- 
ence after the battle of Leuctra, and finally 
underwent the common fate of Greece in 
its subjugation by the Romans. 

Messenia bella, the name given to three 
celebrated wars carried on between Lace- 
daemon and Messenia. The first began 
b. c. 743, and was occasioned by violence 
having been offered to some Spartan women 
who had assembled in a temple of devotion 
common to both nations ; the king of Sparta 
being killed in his efforts to defend the fe- 
males. This dreadful war raged for nine- 
teen years, and at one period threatened to 
depopulate the Spartan state : but, in the 
end, Ithome was taken, and the Messe- 
nians were condemned to pay tribute to the 
conquerors. The second war commenced 
b. c. 685, under Aristomenes, who induced 
his countrymen to throw off the galling 
Spartan yoke ; but it resulted also in the 
defeat of the Messenians, numbers of 
whom became the slaves of the victors. 
The third, which took place b. c. 465, 
endured ten years, and terminated in the 
surrender of Ithome by the Spartans, the 
Messenians having been aided by Epami- 
nondas. 

Metabus, a tyr.-mt of the Privernates, 
and father of Camilla, whom he consecrated 
to the service of Diana, when he had been 
banished by his subjects. 

Metagitnia, a festival in honour of 
Apollo, celebrated by the inhabitants of 
Melite, who migrated to Attica. It de- 
rived its name from being observed in the 
month Metagitnion. 

MetanIra, queen of ETeusis, and mo- 
ther of Demophoon, whom Ceres nursed. 

Metapontum, a town of Lucania in 
Italy, founded about b.c. 1269 by Metabus, 
father of Camilla, or Epeus, one of the 
companions of Nestor. It long retained 
its independence ; but ultimately fell into 
the hands of the Romans, together with 
the other colonies of Magna Graecia, on the 
retreat of Pyrrhus, and with them revolted 
in favour of Hannibal, after his victory at 
Cannae. It does not appear on what oc- 
casion the Romans recovered possession of 
Metapontum, but it must have been shortly 
after, as they sent a force thence to the 
succour of the citadel of Tarentum, which 



MET 



MET 



373 



was the means of preserving that fortress. 
In the time of Pausanias, this city was a 
heap of ruins. Considerable vestiges, situ- 
ated near the station called Torre di Mare, 
on the coast, indicate its ancient position. 

Metaurum, a town in the territory of 
the Brutii, in Italy, not far from Medura. 
Its site is generally supposed to accord 
with that of the modern Gioja. According 
to Stephanus, this ancient place was a 
colony of the Locri ; but Solinus, on the 
other hand, asserts, that Metaurum was 
founded by the Zanclaeans. 

Metaurus, I., a river in the territory 
of the Brutii, running into the Tyrrhene 
or Lower Sea. The town of Metaurum is 
supposed to have stood at or near its mouth. 
It is now called the Marro, and sometimes 
the Petrace. It appears to have been noted 
for the excellence of the thunny fish caught 

at its mouth II. A river of Umbria. in 

Italy, flowing into the Adriatic, memorable 
for the defeat of Hasdrubal, the brother of 
Hannibal, by the consuls Livius Salinator 
and Claudius Nero. It is now the Metro. 

Metelli, the surname of the family of 
the Caecilii at Rome, of whom the most 
distinguished were, L, Lucius Caecilius, 
Pontifex Maximus, and celebrated for sav- 
ing the palladium when the temple of 
Vesta was consumed by fire towards the 
end of the first Punic war. On that oc- 
casion he was deprived of sight, and the 
senate, in token of sympathy and gratitude, 
decreed that he should ever afterwards be 
conveyed to the senate house in a chariot. 
He was consul b. c. 251, magister equitum 
b.c. 249, and consul a second time b.c. 247. 
In b. c. 250 he celebrated a magnificent 
triumph over the Carthaginians, in which 
thirteen generals of the enemy, and a 
hundred and twenty elephants, were led in 
procession. — II. Quintus Caecilius, sur- 
named Macedonicus for his triumphs in 
Macedonia, was sent as praetor into that 
country, b.c. 148, against Andriscus, whom 
he defeated at Pydna and captured, and, 
after having humiliated the Achaean league, 
and reduced Macedonia to a Roman pro- 
vince, returned to Rome, where he was 
honoured with a triumph. Appointed 
consul, b. c. 143, he marched into Spain, 
where he obtained several victories over 
Veriathus, and would have made himself 
master of the whole country, had not the 
envy which his triumphs had excited at 
Rome caused him to be superseded in his 
command. Having, when censor, b. c. 132, 
expelled C. Atenius Labeo from the senate, 
he escaped with difficulty the vengeance of 
the latter, who, when tribune, insisted on 
his being precipitated from the Tarpeian 



rock. He was borne to his funeral by 
four sons, one of whom had been praetor, 
three consuls ; two had enjoyed a triumph, 
and one had been censor. — III. Q, Caecilius, 
surnamed Numidicus, from his victories in 
Numidia, a grand-nephew of the preced- 
ing, was sent at an early age to Athens, 
where he studied under Carneades. After 
being successively quaestor, tribune, aedile, 
praetor, and governor of Sicily, he at length 
attained the consulship, b. c. 109, and was 
sent into Numidia to oppose Jugurtha, 
who had overthrown his predecessor, Post- 
humius. Here his arms were crowned 
with complete success ; but owing to the 
intrigues of Marius, whom he had ap- 
pointed his lieutenant, Metellus was re- 
called to Rome, and accused of extortion 
and ill management, but honourably ac- 
quitted and rewarded with a triumph. He 
subsequently took an active part in the 
commotions of his times, and was one of 
the most powerful supporters of the aris- 
tocratic party ; but he was forced to retire 
into exile b.c. 100, whence, however, on the 
persuasion of his son, he was recalled in 
the following year. — IV. Q. Caecilius Celer, 
who distinguished himself by his exertions 
against Catiline. He married Clodia, 
sister of Clodius, and died b. c. 57, it is 
said by poison. — V. Q. Caecilius, one of the 
sons of Metellus Macedonicus, celebrated for 
his conquest of the Baleares, whence he was 
surnamed Balearicus. — VI. Lucius Caeci- 
lius, or Quintus, surnamed Creticus, from his 
conquests in Crete, b. c. 66, supposed by 
some to be the son of MetellusMacedonicus. 
— VII. Quintus Caecilius, surnamed Pius, 
from the sorrow he showed during the ba- 
nishment of his father Metellus Numidicus, 
whom he caused to be recalled, espoused the 
party of Sylla, who highly esteemed him, 
and made him his colleague in the consul- 
ship, b. c. 80. He greatly distinguished 
himself in Spain against Sertorius, and 
during the Marsian war. He died b. c. 62, 
and was succeeded by J. Caesar in his capa- 
city of Pontifex Maximus. 

Methodius, surnamed EubuliuS, a 
father of the church, who lived at the be- 
ginning of the fourth century. He was at 
first bishop of Olympus or Patara in Lycia, 
but was afterwards translated to the see of 
Tyre, which, however, he filled only a 
short time. His zeal for the purity of the 
Christian faith exposed him to the resent- 
ment of the Arians ; he was exiled to 
Chalcidice in Syria, and there received the 
crown of martyrdom, a. d. 312. He was 
the author of a long poem against Por- 
phyry, and various treatises, of which some 
fragments remain. 



374 



MET 



MET 



Methone, I., a city of Macedonia, about 
forty stadia north of Pydna, celebrated in 
history from the circumstance of Philip's 
having lost an eye in besieging it. (See 
Aster.) It was founded by a party of 
Eretrians who settled there, naming it 
Methone, from Methon, an ancestor of 
Orpheus. It was occupied by the Athe- 
nians towards the close of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, with a view of annoying 
Perdiccas by ravaging his territory and af 
fording a refuge to his discontented sub- 
jects ; but it was subsequently taken by 
Philip, son of Amyntas, and razed to the 
ground. The site of Methone answers to 
that of Leuterochoni. — II. A maritime city 
of Thessaly, noticed by Homer, and some- 
times confounded with the Macedonian 
city of the same name. — III. or Mo- 
thone, a city of Messenia, on the western 
coast, below Pylos Messeniacus. Tra- 
dition reported that it derived its name 
from Mothone, the daughter of iEneas ; 
but it more probably derived its name 
from the rock Mothon, which formed the 
breakwater of its harbour. Methone was 
supposed to be identified with Pedasus, 
which was ranked by Homer among the 
seven towns which Agamemnon offered to 
Achilles. It was taken by Agrippa, the 
Roman admiral, and is said to have been 
greatly favoured by Trajan, who conferred 
several privileges on its inhabitants. Not 
far from the site of Methone stands the 
modern town of Modon. — IV. or Me- 
thana, a peninsula of Argolis, within the 
district of Troczene, in which was a small 
cognominal town, with a temple of Isis. 

Methymna, a city of Lesbos, situated 
opposite to Assus in Troas, and near the 
northernmost point of the island. It was, 
next to Mytilene, the most important city 
of Lesbos. The territory of the place was 
contiguous to that of Mytilene, a circum- 
stance which appears to have created con- 
siderable rivalry between them, and pro- 
bably induced the Methymneans to adhere 
to the Athenians, while their neighbours 
were bent on detaching themselves from 
that power. Towards the close of the Pe- 
loponnesian war, Methymna fell into the 
power of the Spartan commander Calli- 
cratidas, who, though urged to treat the 
citizens with severity, and to sell them as 
slaves, refused to comply with the advice, 
declaring that, as long as he was admiral, 
no Greek, as far as lay in his power, should 
be enslaved. The best Lesbian wine was 
obtained from an adjacent territory be- 
longing to this city, and hence Bacchus 
was frequently called the god of Me- 
thymna. It was the native place of the 



historian Hellanicus and of Arion. The 
modern name, according to D'Anville, is 
Porto Petera ; but Olivier makes Molivo 
correspond to the site of the ancient city. 

Metiochus, son of Miltiades, was taken 
by the Phoenicians, and given to Darius, 
king of Persia, who treated him well. 

Metiscus, charioteer to Turnus. 

Metis (Prudence), daughter of Oceanus, 
was the first wife of Jupiter, and exceeded 
both gods and men in knowledge. Heaven 
and Earth, however, having told Jupiter 
that the first child of Metis, a maid, would 
equal him in strength and counsel, and 
that her second, a son, would be king of 
gods and men, he deceived her when she 
was pregnant, and swallowed her; and, 
after a time, the goddess Minerva sprang 
from his head. Metis is said to have 
given a potion to Saturn, which compelled 
him to vomit up the offspring whom he 
had swallowed. 

Meto, an astrologer and mathematician 
of Lacedaemon, son of Pausanias, who lived 
b. c. 452. In a book called Enneadeca- 
terides, " Cycle of nineteen Years," he en- 
deavoured to adjust the course of the sun 
and moon, and supported that the solar 
and lunar years could regularly begin from 
the same point in the heavens. It is now 
called the Metonic period or cycle ; and also 
the golden number, from its great use in the 
calendar. 

Metcecia, festivals instituted by Theseus 
in commemoration of the people of Attica 
having removed to Athens. 

Metids, or Mettus Fufetius, I., dic- 
tator of Alba. He fought against the 
Romans in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, 
and agreed at length with the foe to leave 
the issue of the war to a combat between 
the three Horatii and three Curiatii. Be- 
holding with pain his country subdued by 
the defeat of the latter, he imagined that 
he should be able to recover her freedom 
for her by joining with the Fidenates, who 
had attempted, during the late war, to 
shake off the Roman yoke. Secretly en- 
couraged by him, they took the field, and 
advanced to the neighbourhood of Rome, 
in conjunction with the Veientes, their 
allies. Fufetius had promised to abandon 
the Romans, and go over to the Fidenates 
and Veientes in the middle of the en- 
gagement. He had not courage enough 
to keep his word, but proved a traitor 
alike to the Romans and to his new allies, 
by drawing off his troops from the battle 
at the first onset, and retiring to a neigh- 
bouring eminence to wait the event of 
the battle, and fall on whatever side proved 
victorious. The Romans having obtained 



MET 



MID 



375 



the victory, Tullus ordered Metius to be 
tied between two chariots and drawn by 
four horses two different ways, till his 
limbs were torn away from his body, 
about b. c. 669.— II. Tarpa. See Tarpa. 

Metra. See Erisichthon. 

Metrocles, a pupil of Theophrastus, 
and subsequently of Crates, who became 
so dissatisfied with the world in his old 
age that he committed suicide. 

Metrodorus, I., an intimate friend of 
Epicurus. He first attached himself to 
that philosopher at Lampsacus, and after 
his death maintained the cause of his 
friend and master with great intrepid- 
ity against the Sophists and Dialectics, 
— II. A painter and philosopher of Stra- 
tonice, b. c. 171. He was sent to Paulus 
iEmilius, who, after his victory over Per- 
seus, king of Macedonia, b. c. 168, re- 
quested of the Athenians a philosopher 
and a painter ; the former to instruct his 
children, and the latter to make a painting 
of his triumphs. Metrodorus was sent, as 
uniting in himself both characters. 

Mevania, Bevagna, one of the most 
considerable cities of Umbria,on the Tinia, 
in the south-western angle of the country, 
and north-west of Spoletium. It was 
famous for its wide-extended plains and 
rich pastures. It was the birth-place of 
the poet Propertius. 

Mezentius, a bold but cruel king of 
Caere, in Etruria, when iEneas came into 
Italy. Being expelled by his subjects, he 
fled to Turnus, who employed him in his 
war against iEneas, by whom he was 
killed together with his son Lausus. 

Micipsa, king of Numidia, eldest son of 
Masinissa, shared with his brothers Gu- 
lussa and Manastabal the kingdom of their 
father, which had been divided among them 
by Scipio iEmilianus. On the death of 
his brothers he became monarch of the 
whole country, about 146 b. c. He ex- 
erted himself strenuously for the civilisa- 
tion of his subjects, established a colony 
of Greeks in his capital, and assembled 
there a large number of learned and en- 
lightened men. He adopted his nephew, 
the famous Jugurtha, and declared him, 
by his will, joint heir to the kingdom 
along with his two sons, Adherbal and 
Hiempsal ; an arrangement which brought 
with it the ruin of his family and king- 
dom. See Jugurtha. 

Micon, I., a painter and statuary, corn- 
temporary with Polygnotus, who flourished 
about Olymp. 80. Pliny states that, in 
connection with Polygnotus, he either in- 
vented some new colours or employed 
those in use in his paintings on a better 



plan than that previously adopted. — II. 
Another painter, distinguished from the 
former by the epithet of "the Younger." 
His age and country are uncertain. Bbt- 
tiger confounds him with Micon I. — 
III. A statuary of Syracuse. At the 
request of the children of Hiero II., king 
of Syracuse, he made two statues of this 
monarch, which were placed at Olympia, 
the one representing him on horseback, the 
other on foot. 

Midas, an ancient king of the Phrygians 
in Thrace, and son of Gorgias, whose 
name is associated with some of the earliest 
mythological legends of Greece. For the 
hospitality he showed to Silenus, preceptor 
of Bacchus, who had been brought to him 
by some peasants, he was permitted by the 
god to choose whatever recompence he 
pleased. He demanded that whatever he 
touched might be turned into gold, and 
his prayer was granted, for the very meats 
which he attempted to eat became gold in 
his mouth. He then begged Bacchus to 
take away a present so fatal to the receiver, 
and was ordered to wash himself in the 
Pactolus, whose sands were immediately 
turned into gold by his touch. Some time 
after, Midas supported that Pan was su- 
perior to Apollo in singing and playing on 
the flute, for which the offended god 
changed his ears into those of an ass, to 
show his ignorance and stupidity. This 
Midas attempted to conceal ; but one of 
his servants saw the length of his ears, and 
unable to keep the secret, afraid to reveal 
it, apprehensive of the king's resentment, 
opened a hole in the earth, and after he 
had whispered that Midas had the ears of 
an ass, covered the place as before, as if he 
had buried his words in the ground. On 
that place grew a number of reeds, which, 
agitated by the wind, uttered the same 
sound which had been buried beneath, and 
published to the world that Midas had the 
ears of an ass. Some explain the fable of 
the ears of Midas, by the supposition that 
he kept a number of informers and spies 
continually employed in gathering every 
seditious word which might drop from the 
mouths of his subjects. Midas, according 
to some, was a name common to many 
Phrygian kings. 

Midea, I., an ancient city of Boeotia, 
near the lake Copa'is, and, according to 
tradition, swallowed up, along with Arne, 
by the waters of that lake. — II. A town of 
Argolis, in the Tyrinthian territory, named, 
as was said, after the wife of Electryon ; 
but Apollodorus affirms that it already ex- 
isted in the time of Perseus. It was after- 
wards destroyed by the Argives. The 



376- 



MIL 



MIL 



vestiges of this place are near the monas- 
tery of Agios Adrianos. 

Milanion, or Meilanion, son of Am- 
phidamas, and husband of Atalanta of 
Scyra. See Atalanta. 

Milesii, the inhabitants of Miletus. 
See Miletus. 

Milesiorum Murus, a place in Lower 
Egypt, west of the Sebennytic mouth of 
the Nile, founded by the Milesians, or 
people of Miletus. 

MiletofoliS; a city of Mysia, north-east 
of Adramyttium, on a branch of the Rhyn- 
dacus. It coincides with Beli Kessk. 

Miletus, I., a son of Apollo, who fled 
from Crete, to avoid the wrath of Minos, 
whom he meditated to dethrone. He 
came to Caria, and was said to have been 
the founder of the city Miletus. — II. A 
celebrated city of Asia Minor, and the 
capital of all Ionia, situated on the south- 
ern shore of the gulf, into which the Ma?- 
ander emptied. It was a very ancient 
city, and had borne several names before 
it received that of Miletus, given to it by 
Neleus, son of Codrus, king of Athens, 
who conducted thither a colony of Ionians, 
1230 b. c. Few cities have been more 
celebrated for their population, wealth, 
commerce, and civilisation. The citizens 
of Miletus early distinguished themselves 
by their skill in navigation, and still more 
by the number of the colonies they had esta- 
blished along the coast of the Hellespont, 
the Propontis, and the Euxine ; which en- 
abled them to engross the greater part of 
the trade in slaves, which, in antiquity, 
were principally furnished by the country 
round the Euxine, as well as the trade in 
corn, fish, and furs. It was also famous 
for its numerous works of art, the mag- 
nificence of its festivals, and the luxury, 
refinement, and opulence of its people. 
Among its most illustrious citizens were the 
names of Thales, one of the sages of Greece ; 
Hecatasus, one of the most ancient histo- 
rians ; the philosophers Anaximander and 
Anaximenes ; Cadmus, the first who wrote 
in prose, and Timotheus, a famous musi- 
cian and poet. It also gave birth to As- 
pasia, the most accomplished and celebrated 
of courtesans ; and Venus had nowhere 
more numerous and beautiful priestesses. 
Near the Posideum Promontorium, now 
Cape Arbora, about 12 miles south by 
west of Miletus, was an oracle and splendid 
temple of Apollo, surnamed Didymaeus. 
This temple having been burned down by 
Xerxes, was rebuilt on a still more magni- 
ficent scale, by the Milesians. Miletus fell 
successively into the hands of the Persians, 
the Macedonians, and finally the Romans, 



and continued to be a flourishing city 
down to the time of Pausanias. The vil- 
lage Palatscha occupies its site. 

Milo, I., son of Diotimus, a celebrated 
athlete of Crotona in Italy,' of whose 
strength and voracity wonderful stories are 
related by the ancients. He was ap- 
pointed to the command of an army sent 
against Lybaris, b. c. 509, and gained a 
signal victory, was seven times crowned 
at the Pythian games, and six at Olympia. 
— II. T. Annius, born at Lanuvium, 
about b. c. 95, was elected tribune of the 
commons b. c. 57, and zealously but un- 
successfully exerted himself for the recal 
of Cicero, and the punishment of Clodius. 
Relying on the influence of Sylla, whose 
daughter Fausta he had married, he be- 
came a candidate for the consulship ; but 
Clodius the tribune opposed his views. 
As he was going into the country, accom- 
panied by his wife and a numerous retinue 
of gladiators and servants, he met his enemy 
Clodius, returning to Rome with three of 
his friends and some domestics completely 
armed. A quarrel arose between the ser- 
vants. The dispute became general ; Clo- 
dius and eleven of his servants were killed, 
and the body of the murdered tribune was 
carried to Rome, and exposed to public 
view. Cicero undertook the defence of Milo, 
but without effect. He was condemned, 
and banished to Massilia, where he died. 

Miltiades, I., an Athenian, son of Cyp- 
selus, who led a colony of his countrymen 
to the Chersonesus. The Thracian Do- 
lonci, harassed by a long war with the 
Absinthians, were directed by the oracle 
of Delphi to take for their king the first 
man they met on their return home, who 
invited them to come under his roof, and 
partake of entertainment. At Athens, 
Miltiades observed the Dolonci passing by, 
and perceiving they were strangers, called 
to them, and offered them the rights of 
hospitality. They accepted his kindness, 
and revealed to him the will of the oracle, 
with which they entreated his compliance. 
Disposed to listen to them because weary 
of the tyranny of Pisistratus, he first con- 
sulted the oracle at Delphi; and the answer 
being favourable, he went with the Do- 
lonci, and was invested by the inhabitants 
of the Chersonese with sovereign power. 
When he had established himself at home, 
he turned his arms against Lampsacus; 
but the expedition was unsuccessful ; and 
he was taken in an ambuscade, and made 
prisoner. His friend Croesus, king of Ly- 
dia, procured his release by threatening the 
people of Lampsacus with his severe dis- 
pleasure. He lived a few years after he 



MIL 



MIN 



377 



had recovered his liberty, and, as he had 
no issue, left his kingdom to Stesagoras, 
son of Cimon, his brother by the same 
mother. His memory was greatly revered 
by the Dolonci. — II. A younger son of 
Cimon, and brother of Stesagoras, on 
whose decease he was sent by the Athe- 
nians to take possession of the Chersonesus. 
At his arrival Miltiades appeared to 
lament the recent death of his brother ; 
and the principal inhabitants, suspecting 
no treachery, visited the new governor to 
condole with him. Miltiades, however, 
seized their persons, made himself ab- 
solute, and, to strengthen himself, mar- 
ried Hegesipyle, daughter of Olorus, king 
of the Thracians. "When Darius marched 
against the Scythians, Miltiades submitted 
to him and followed in his train, and was 
left with the other Grecian chiefs of the 
army to guard the bridge of boats by which 
the Persians crossed the Danube. He 
then proposed to break up the bridge, and, 
suffering the king and army to perish by 
the Scythians, to secure Greece, and de- 
liver Ionia from the Persian yoke. His 
suggestion was rejected ; but knowing well 
that his proposal would be communicated 
to Darius, he left Chersonesus in the 
sixth year of his government and set sail for 
Athens. Twenty years afterwards, b. c. 
492, when Darius, listening to the so- 
licitations and intrigues of his courtiers, 
resolved on the invasion of Greece, Mil- 
tiades was chosen one of the ten generals 
to oppose him ; and the hostile armies 
having met at Marathon (see Marathon), 
the Greeks, owing solely to the skill of 
Miltiades, obtained an important victory 
over the infinitely more numerous forces 
of his adversaries. Some time after he 
was intrusted with a fleet of seventy ships, 
and ordered to punish those islands which 
had revolted to the Persians. His opera- 
tions were at first successful, but while he 
was besieging Paros, a sudden report that 
the Persian fleet was coming to attack him 
induced him to raise the siege, and to re- 
turn to Athens, where he was accused of 
treason, and particularly of holding corres- 
pondence with the enemy. A wound re- 
ceived before Paros prevented him from 
making his defence in person ; and, not- 
withstanding the exertions of his brother 
Tisagoras, he was condemned to pay a fine 
of fifty talents to the state. But in conse- 
quence of his inability to discharge so large 
a sum he was thrown into prison, and soon 
after his wounds became incurable, and he 
died about b. c. 439. His body was ran- 
somed by his son Cimon, who was obliged 
to borrow the fifty talents, to give his father 



a decent burial. Corn. Nepos has written 
the Life of Miltiades, Son of Cimon; but 
the author, by confounding the actions of 
the son of Cimon with those of the son of 
Cypselus, has made his history dark and 
unintelligible. 

Milto. See Aspasia I. 

Milvius, or Mulvius Pons, a bridge 
about two miles from Rome, over the Ti- 
ber, in a northerly direction. Its construc- 
tion is ascribed to M. iEmilius Scaurus, 
who was censor a. u. c. 644, and its ancient 
appellation was probably a corruption of 
his nomen. The modern name is Ponte 
Molle. 

Milyas, an ancient name of Lycia. See 
Ltoia. 

Mimallones, a name given to the priest- 
esses of Bacchus among the Thracians, 
according to Hesychius and Suidas, or 
more correctly, to the female Bacchantes 
in general. Suidas deduces the term from 
the Greek fj.'ijX7](ns, imitation, because the 
Bacchanals, under the influence of the god, 
imitated in their wild fury the actions of 
men. Others, however, derive it from 
Mimas, a mountain of Thrace ; and others 
from the Greek fxaivofxai, to rage. 

Mimas, I., one of the giants that warred 
against the gods. — II. A mountain range 
of Ionia, terminating in the promontory 
Argennum, opposite the lower extremity 
of Chios. — III. A Trojan, son of Theano 
and Amycus, born on the same night as 
Paris, with whom he lived in great inti- 
macy. He followed the fortunes of iEneas, 
and was killed by Mezentius. 

Mimnermus, an elegiac poet, a native of 
Colophon in Ionia, and contemporary with 
Solon. He was one of the colonists of 
Smyrna from Colophon, and his ancestors 
came from Nelean Pylos. His poems had 
reference, for the most part, to those appe- 
tites which, in poetical language, are ex- 
pressed by the name of love ; but his mind 
was of a melancholy turn, which gave to 
his writings a pensive cast nowhere per- 
ceptible in the writings of the same class 
of authors. He was the first author who 
adapted the elegiac measure to the pur- 
poses for which it was afterwards rendered 
subservient by the muse of Tibullus, Ovid, 
and Propertius. The few fragments of his 
poems that still remain have been fre- 
quently edited. 

Mincius, Mincio, a river of Gallia Cis- 
alpina, flowing from the lake Benacus, and 
falling into the Po. Virgil was born on 
its banks. 

MIneides, three daughters of Minyas or 
Mineus, king of Orchomenos in Boeotia, 
whose names were Leuconoe or Clymene, 



37a 



MIN 



MIN 



Leucippe or Iris, and Alcithoe. They 
derided the orgies of Bacchus, for which 
impiety the god inspired them with an un- 
conquerable desire of eating human flesh. 
They then drew lots, which of them should 
give up her son as food to the rest ; and 
the lot fell on Leucippe, who gave up her 
son Hippasus to be devoured by the three 
sisters. They were changed into a bat, an 
owl, and a crow. 

Minerva, the Latin goddess correspond- 
ing to, and confounded with, the Grecian 
Pallas (UaXAds), or Athena ('Afl^Tj). She 
was fabled to have sprung in full armour 
from the forehead of her father Jupiter. 
Minerva was worshipped as the goddess of 
wisdom, and the patroness of industry and 
the arts. Athens, the city to which she 
gave name, was her favourite spot ; and 
there her worship was celebrated with great 
splendour, and the magnificent temple the 
Parthenon erected to her honour. But 
she was also worshipped at Rome with 
peculiar veneration. There she had three 
temples : one on the Capitol, which she 
shared with Jupiter and Juno ; a second 
on the Aventine ; and a third on the Cse- 
lian mount, in which she was worshipped 
as Minerva Capta, an epithet said to have 
been applied when her statue was trans- 
ported from Falerii, after the capture of 
that city by Camillus. At Rome there 
were also two great festivals celebrated 
annually to her honour ; the one called 
Quinquatrus or Quinquatria, the other 
Quinquatria Minora. (See these words.) 
The origin of the name of Minerva has 
long puzzled etymologists. Cicero says 
she is called " Minerva, qui minuit or mi- 
natur ; " but it is much more probable that 
the word is a shortened form of Meminerva 
(from memini, / remember,), she being the 
goddess of memory. It is evidently from 
the same root as the Latin mens, mind, 
which is expressed so clearly in many lan- 
guages wholly unallied, of which the Germ, 
mann (whence the English man), and the 
Hindostan mena, may serve as examples. 
The goddess was represented as a young 
woman, with a grave and noble counte- 
nance, clothed in armour. Her quarrel 
with Neptune concerning the right of 
giving a name to the capital of Cecro- 
pia deserves notice. The assembly of 
the gods settled the dispute by promis- 
ing the preference to whichever of the 
two gave the most useful present to the 
inhabitants of the earth. Neptune, on this, 
struck the ground with his trident, and 
immediately a horse issued from the earth. 
Minerva produced the olive, and obtained 
the victory by the unanimous voice of the 



gods, who observed that the olive, as the 
emblem of peace, is far preferable to the 
horse, the symbol of war and bloodshed. 

Minerv^e Promontorium, Punto della 
Campanella, a promontory of Campania, 
closing the Bay of Naples to the south- 
west. It was sometimes called Surren- 
tinum Promontorium, from the town of 
Surrentum in its vicinity ; and also not 
unfrequently the Sirens' Cape. It derived 
its name from a temple of Minerva which 
stood here, and which was said to have been 
erected by Ulysses. 

Minervalia. See Quinquatria. 
Minio, Mignone, a small river of Etruria, 
falling into the Mare Tyrrhenum, a short 
distance above Centum Cellar. 

Minn^ei or Mincei, a people in the 
southern extremity of Arabia Felix. Their 
country was called Minnaaa, and their 
capital Carana. 

Minois, a patronymic of Ariadne, as 
daughter of Minos. 

Minos, L, king of Crete, son of Jupiter 
and Europa, gave laws to his subjects b. c. 
1406, (according to the Arundelian mar- 
bles, b. c. 1 642, and, according to Banier, 
1340,) which still remained in full force 
in the age of Plato. His justice and mo- 
deration procured him the appellation of 
the favourite of the gods, confidant of Ju- 
piter, and wise legislator ; and, according 
to the poets, he was rewarded, after death, 
with the office of supreme judge in the 
infernal regions. In this capacity he is 
represented sitting in the middle of the 
shades, holding a sceptre in his hand. 
Minos occupies a middle place between 
history and fable; but it is probable that 
he was the first who introduced civilisation 
into Crete, encouraged commerce, and ex- 
ercised a mild sway over his subjects. He 
was the first Greek sovereign that possessed 
a considerable navy ; and Aristotle says, 
that he conquered and colonised several 
islands, and at last perished in an expedi- 
tion against Sicily. He married Ithona, 
by whom he had Lycastes, father of Minos 
II. — II. Son of Lycastes, and grandson 
of Minos I , king of Crete. He married 
Pasiphae, daughter of Sol and Perseis, by 
whom he became father of Androgeus, 
Glaucus, Deucalion, Phaedra, and Ariadne. 
When .ZEgeus, king of Athens, had treacher- 
ously compassed the death of Androgeus, 
son of Minos, the latter, eager for revenge, 
invaded Attica, and having laid siege to 
the capital, and reduced the inhabitants to 
the last extremity, granted peace on the 
cruel terms that seven chosen boys, and 
the same number of virgins, should be 
sent annually to Crete to be devoured by 



MIN 



MIS 



379 



the Minotaur. This bloody tribute was 
abolished when Theseus had destroyed 
the monster. Minos was put to death by 
Cocalus, king of Sicily. 

Minotaurus, a celebrated monster, half 
man half bull, the fruit of Pasiphae's in- 
tercourse with a bull, whom her husband 
confined in his celebrated labyrinth. The 
Minotaur usually devoured the chosen 
young men and maidens whom the tyranny 
of Minos yearly exacted from the Athe- 
nians. Theseus, when it had fallen to his 
lot to be sacrificed to the voracity of the 
Minotaur, by means of Ariadne, the king's 
daughter, destroyed the monster, and made 
his escape from the labyrinth. Many in- 
genious explanations of the story of the 
Minotaur have been given. 

Minthe, a daughter of Cocytus, loved 
by Pluto. Proserpine discovered her hus- 
band's amour, and changed his mistress 
into the herb, called by the same name, 
mint. 

Minturn^e, a town of Latium, on the 
Liris. It originally belonged to the Au- 
sones ; but when that nation ceased to 
exist, it fell into the hands of the Romany 
by whom it was colonised, a. u. c. 456. A 
second colony was afterwards sent thither 
under the direction of Julius Caesar. Min- 
turnae is chiefly known in history from the I 
events by which it was connected with the j 
fallen fortunes of Marius. (See Marius.) 
The grove and temple of Marcia, supposed 
to have been the mother of Latinus, and 
sometimes identified with Circe, were in 
the vicinity, and held in great veneration. 

Minutia, I., a vestal virgin, falsely ac- 
cused of incontinence on account of the 
beauty and elegance of her dress, and con- 
demned to be buried alive, a. u. c. 418. 
— II. Via, a public way from Rome to 
Brundusium through the country of the 
Sabines. 

Minutius, a name common to many in- 
dividuals of antiquity, of whom the most 
celebrated were, I., Augurinus, a Roman 
consul b. c. 458. He was defeated by the 
iEqui, and would have lost, his whole army 
had not the dictator Cincinnatus come to : 
his aid. He was degraded by the latter to j 
the rank of lieutenant or legatus, and at 
the same time deprived of his consular | 
authority. — II. Rufus, a master of horse I 
to the dictator Fabius Maximus. His dis- i 
obedience to the commands of the dictator, J 
who was unwilling to hazard an action, \ 
was productive of an extension of his pre- i 
rogative, and the master of the horse was 
declared equal in power to the dictator. | 
Minutius, soon after this, fought with ill | 
success against Hannibal, and was only I 



saved by the interference of Fabius. He 
was killed at the battle of Cannae. — III. 
An officer under Caesar in Gaul, against 
whom he afterwards conspired. — IV. 
Felix, a native of Africa, who lived at 
the commencement of the third century 
of our era, and came to Rome, where he 
acquired great distinction as a pleader. 
He renounced Paganism for Christianity, 
wrote an elegant dialogue in defence of 
'.he Christian religion, called Octavius, 
from the principal speaker in it, which 
still exists. 

Minyae, the original name of the in- 
habitants of Orchomenos in Bceotia, from 
Minyas, father of Orchomenos, king of the 
city. This name is said to have been given 
to distinguish the inhabitants of Orchome- 
nos in Rceotia from those of Orchomenos 
of Arcadia. A colony of Orchomenians 
passed into Thessaly and settled in Iol- 
chos ; hence the people of the place, par- 
ticularly the Argonauts, took the name of 
Minyae, to indicate their origin. On re- 
turning from the expedition, the Argonauts 
gave the name of Minyae to the children 
whom they had by the Lemnian women, 
and who remained in possession of Lemnos 
till they were expelled by the Pelasgi, b. c. 
1 160. They then took refuge in Laconia, 
where they were hospitably received, but 
on aiming at supreme power were driven 
out by the Lacedaemonians, and took re- 
fuge on Mt. Taygetus, whence they repaired 
first to Thera, and thence to Africa, where 
they founded the city of Cyrene, under 
Battus. 

Minyas, a king of Boeotia, son of Nep- 
tune and Tritogenia, daughter of iEolus. 
Some make him a son of Neptune and Cal- 
lirrhoe, or of Chryses, Neptune's son, and 
Chrysogenia, daughter of Halmus. By 
his first wile, Clytodora, he had Presbo, 
Periclymenus, and Eteoclymenus ; and by 
a second marriage with Phanasora, daughter 
of Paon, he became the father of Orcho- 
menos, Diochithondes, and Athamas. Ac- 
cording to Plutarch and Ovid he had three 
daughters, called Alcifhoe, Leucippe, and 
Leuconoe, changed into bats. Minyas was 
celebrated for his unbounded wealth. 

Minyejdes. See Mineides. 

Min via, a festival at Orchomenos, in 
honour of Minyas, father of Orchomenos, 
founder of the city so called. 

Misenum, I., Promontorium, now Cape 
Miseno, a promontory of Campania, form- 
ing the upper extremity of the Bay of 
Naples, so named from Misenus, the 
trumpeter of iEneas, who was drowned and 
interred here. — II. A town and harbour 
on the promontory of the same name, which 



380 



MIS 



MIT 



in the reign of Augustus became one of 
the first naval stations of the Roman em- 
pire. The neighbourhood of this place 
abounded with marine villas, among which 
may be mentioned that of C. Marius, which, 
after numerous vicissitudes, came into the 
possession of Tiberius, as we learn from 
Phasdrus, who has made it the scene of 
one of his fables . 

Misenus, a Trojan, conspicuous for both 
his prowess in arms and his skill on the 
clarion. He often signalised himself by 
the side of Hector in the fight ; and, after 
the fall of Troy, accompanied iEneas to 
Italy, on whose shores he was drowned. 
Virgil calls him JEolides. 

Misitheus. See Gordianus III. 

Mithras, the grand deity of the Per- 
sians, supposed to be the sun, or the god 
of fire, to which they paid adoration as the 
purest emblem of the divine essence. The 
Romans also raised altars to the honour of 
this divinity, with the inscriptions Deo 
Soli MithrcB, or Soli Deo invicto Mithrce. 
As to the introduction of this oriental 
worship in Rome, see Mem. de V Acad, des 
Inscr. vol. xvi. p. 270. It was one of those 
which resisted Christianity the longest. M i- 
thras is generally represented as a young 
man, whose head is covered with a turban, 
after the manner of the Persians, and sup- 
porting his knee on a bull, which lies on the 
ground, and one of whose horns he holds 
in one hand, while with the other he 
plunges a dagger into his neck. 

Mithridates, the name of several kings 
of Pontus, descended from Artabazes, one 
of the seven Persian chiefs who overthrew 
the Magi, b. c. 521. I. The first of the 
name was the third king of Pontus. He was 
tributary to the crown of Persia, and at- 
tempted to make himself independent, but 
was conquered. — II. Grandson of Mith- 
ridates I., and son of Ariobarzanes II., 
whom he succeeded b. c. 363. He re- 
gained Pontus, which had been conquered 
by Alexander, and ceded to Antigonus at 
the general division of the Macedonian 
empire among the conqueror's generals. 
Some say that Antigonus put him to 
death, b. c. 302, because he favoured the 
cause of Cassander. — III. Son of the pre- 
ceding monarch. He enlarged his pos- 
sessions by the conquest of Cappadocia and 
Paphlagonia, and reigned from b. c. 302 
to 266. — IV. Son of Ariobarzanes III., 
whom he succeeded b. c. 240. He allied 
himself with the Rhodians, and became 
monarch of Phrygia in consequence of his 
marriage with the sister of Seleucus Calli- 
nicus. His own daughter Laodice be- 
came the wife of Antioghus the Great, — 



V. Surnamed Euergetes, succeeded his 
father Pharnaces b. c. 156. He was the 
first of the kings of Pontus who made 
alliance with the Romans, and furnished 
them with a fleet in the third Punic war. 
He was murdered at Sinope b. c. 121, 
and was succeeded by his son Mithri- 
dates, surnamed the Great. — VI. Eupator, 
and Hie Great, succeeded his father Mith- 
ridates, at the age of eleven, b. c. 121. 
Hardly had he escaped the intrigues which 
during his minority had been entered into 
against him by his guardians and his own 
mother, and which ended in forcing him 
into acts of cruelty, when he attacked the 
Colchians, and subjugated Paphlagonia, 
part of which he conferred on Nico- 
medes II., king of Bithynia. Nico- 
medes became jealous of the increasing 
power of Mithridates; and, on the death 
of Ariarathes VII., king of Paphlagonia, 
who had married a sister of Mithridates, 
Nicomedes married his widow, and seized 
the kingdom of Cappadocia, to the exclu- 
sion of the son of Ariarathes. Mithri- 
dates immediately took up arms in favour 
of his nephew, defeated Nicomedes, and 
placed his nephew on the throne, under 
the title of Ariarathes VIII. In a few 
months afterwards this prince was mur- 
dered by his uncle at a private conference, 
who placed a son of his own on the vacant 
throne, and defeated successively the bro- 
ther of the late king, and a pretender to 
the throne, whom Nicomedes represented 
as a son of Ariarathes. Meanwhile, the 
Roman senate, alarmed at the proceedings 
of Mithridates, interfered, and proclaimed 
the independence of Paphlagonia and Cap- 
padocia, of which they appointed Ario- 
barzanes king. Mithridates, however, 
did not tamely submit to the loss of these 
possessions. He entered into an alliance 
with Tigranes, king of Armenia, to whom 
he gave his daughter in marriage : and 
with his assistance he expelled Ariobar- 
zanes from his kingdom, and also deprived 
Nicomedes III., who had lately succeeded 
his father, of Bithynia. The two expelled 
kings applied to the Romans for assist- 
ance, and the latter sent an army to rein- 
state them in their kingdoms. A war 
with the Romans was now inevitable, and 
Mithridates conducted it with the utmost 
vigour. (See Mithridaticum Bellum. ) 
Mithridates never lost an opportunity by 
which he might lessen the influence of his 
adversaries; and the more effectually to 
destroy their power in Asia, he ordered 
all the Romans in his dominions to be 
massacred; when no less than 150,000, 
according to Plutarch, or 80,000 Romans, 



MIT 



MIT 



381 



as Appian mentions, were sacrificed, victims 
of his cruelty. This massacre called for 
revenge. Aquilius, and soon after Sylla, 
marched against Mithridates with a large 
army. The former was made prisoner, but 
Sylla obtained a victory over the king's 
generals, and another decisive engagement 
rendered him master of all Greece, Mace- 
donia, Ionia, and Asia Minor, which had 
submitted to the victorious arms of the 
monarch of Pontus. Mithridates, weakened 
by repeated ill success by sea and land, at 
length sued for peace, which he obtained, 
B. c. 85, on condition of defraying the ex- 
penses the Romans had incurred by the 
war, and of remaining satisfied with his 
hereditary possessions. But while the ne- 
gotiations of peace were carried on, Mith- 
ridates was not unmindful of his real 
interest. Scarcely had Sylla quitted the 
theatre of the war, when Mithridates re- 
fused to fulfil his engagements. Muraena, 
who was sent against him, was defeated ; 
and though this defeat was subsequently 
compensated by Aulus Gabinius, who 
compelled Mithridates to retreat within 
his own dominion, the latter soon indem- 
nified himself for his temporary discom- 
fiture by seizing the kingdom of Bithynia. 
Meanwhile, the death of Sylla, b. c. 78, 
was the signal for another aggression on 
the Roman empire. Mithridates took the 
field with an army of 140,000 infantry 
and 1 6,000 horse, and soon made himself 
master of the Roman provinces in Asia. 
Lucullus, the consul, however, marched 
into Asia, and blocked up the camp of 
Mithridates, who was then besieging Cyzi- 
cus ; but the Asiatic monarch escaped from 
him, and fled into the heart of his kingdom. 
The appointment of Glabrio to the com- 
mand of the Roman forces, instead of 
Lucullus, was favourable to Mithridates, 
and he recovered the greatest part of his 
dominions. The sudden arrival of Pom- 
pey, however, soon put an end to his vic- 
tories. A battle was fought near the Eu- 
phrates, in which an universal overthrow 
ensued. Mithridates rushed through the 
thickest ranks of the enemy, at the head 
of 800 horsemen, 500 of whom perished 
in the attempt to follow him. He then fled 
to Tigranes, who supported him with all 
the collected forces of his kingdom, and 
though at first unsuccessful, the courage 
and prudence of Mithridates overcame all 
obstacles, and he succeeded in regaining 
possession of greater part of his dominions. 
But the power of Mithridates had been 
shaken to its foundation, and, on the ap- 
pointment of Pompey to the command, 
B. c. 66, the war was soon brought to an 



end. Mithridates was defeated on the 
banks of the Euphrates; and, in conse- 
quence of Tigranes having submitted to 
Pompey, fled to the barbarous tribes dwell- 
ing to the north of Caucasus, who received 
him with hospitality and promised him 
support. Here he once more purposed, 
with the assistance of the Colchians and 
Scythians, to carry into execution a plan 
which he is said to have formed in his 
earlier years, namely, of marching through 
Thrace and Macedonia, and invading Italy 
from the north. But these plans were 
frustrated by the plots of his eldest son, 
Pharnaces, who gained over the army to 
his side, and deprived his father of the 
throne. Unwilling to fall into the hands 
of the Romans, Mithridates put an end to 
his own life, b. c. 63, at the age of sixty- 
eight or sixty-nine, after a reign of fifty- 
seven years. Such were the misfortunes, 
abilities, and miserable end of a man, who 
supported himself so long against the 
power of Rome, and who, according to 
the declaration of the Roman authors, 
proved a more powerful adversary to the 
capital of Italy, than the great Hannibal, 
Pyrrhus, Perseus, or Antiochus. He has 
been commended for eminent virtues, and 
censured for vices. According to Cicero, 
he was the greatest monarch that ever sat 
on a throne. It is said that Mithridates 
conquered twenty-four nations, whose dif- 
ferent languages he knew, and spoke with 
the same ease and fluency as his own. 
His skill in physic is well known ; and 
even now. a celebrated antidote is called 
Mithridate. — VII. Mithridates was also 
the name of numerous other persons in 
antiquity, of whom the most worthy of 
note was a king of Parthia, who enlarged 
his possessions by the conquests of neigh- 
bouring countries ; examined the constitu- 
tion and political regulations of the nations 
conquered, and framed from them, for his 
own subjects, a code of laws. 

Mithridaticum bellum, one of the most 
extensive and most celebrated wars carried 
on by the Romans against a foreign power. 
The ambition of Mithridates, from whom 
it receives its name, may be called the cause 
of this war. (See Mithridates VI. ) It 
began b. c. 89, and its duration is not 
precisely known. According to Justin, 
Orosius, Florus, and Eutropius, it lasted 
for forty years ; but the opinion of others, 
who limit its duration to thirty years, is far 
more credible ; indeed, by proper calcu- 
lation, there elapsed no more than twenty- 
six years from the time that Mithridates 
first entered the field against the Romans 
till the time of his death. 



382 



MIT 



MOL 



Mitylene and Mityxen^e, the capital 
city of the island of Lesbos, so called from 
Mitylene, daughter of Macareus, king ot 
the country. It was distinguished alike 
by the magnificence of its buildings, the 
amenity of its climate, its proficiency 
in the belles lettres and philosophy, the 
number of its great men, and the luxury 
and refinement of the inhabitants. Epi- 
curus is said to have read lectures in Mi- 
tylene ; and Aristotle resided in it for two 
years to profit by the society and conversa- 
tion of its learned men. At a later period 
it became, like Rhodes, a favourite resort of 
those Romans who preferred quiet enjoy- 
ment to the turmoil and bustle of Rome. 
Among the illustrious persons who were 
natives of the city of Mitylene may be men- 
tioned Pittacus, one of the seven sages of 
Greece ; Theophrastus, the scholar and suc- 
cessor of Aristotle ; Alcaeus, so famous for 
bis odes ; Sappho, celebrated alike for her 
beauty, her poetical talents, her loves, and 
her death ; Terpander, who added a seventh 
string to the lyre ; Diophanes, a famous 
rhetorician, tutor to Tiberius Gracchus, 
&c. Mitylene was taken and sacked by 
Julius Caesar ; but Pompey restored it to 
the full enjoyment of its privileges ; and 
Trajan, who enriched it with several costly 
buildings, gave it the name of Trajanopolis, 
which, however, it did not retain. 

Mnasilus, a youth who assisted Chro- 
mis to tie the old Silenus, whom they 
found asleep in a cave. Some imagine 
that Virgil spoke of Varus under the name 
of Mnasilus. 

Mnejion, a surname given to Arta- 
xerxes, on account of his retentive me- 
mory. See Artaxerxes II. 

Mnemosyne, a daughter of Coclus and 
Terra, mother of the nine Muses by Ju- 
piter, and goddess of Memory. The 
meaning of the myth becomes very ap- 
parent when we regard the Muses as sym- 
bolical of the inventive powers of the mind 
as displayed in the various arts. 

Mnesarchus, I., an engraver on pre- 
cious stones, born in Etruria, and father of 
Pythagoras the philosopher. — II. A son 
of Pythagoras, who succeeded Aristseus of 
Crotona, the immediate successor of Py- 
thagoras himself. 

Mnesicles, an Athenian who, from being 
a slave in the house of Pericles, rose to be 
a distinguished architect. The magni- 
ficent vestibule in the cathedral of Athens 
was his design. 

Mnestheus, a Trojan, descended from 
Assaracus. He obtained the prize given 
to the best sailing vessel by iEneas, at the 
funeral games of Anchises, in Sicily, and 



became the progenitor of the family of the 
Memmii at Rome. — II. or Menestheus. 

See Menestheus. 

Mnevis, the name of a sacred bull, con- 
secrated to the sun, and worshipped by 
the Egyptians at Heliopolis. The worship 
of Mnevis gradually disappeared when 
Apis became the general deity of the 
country. From the era in which Cam- 
byses overthrew the magnificent temple of 
Heliopolis, we may date the downfal of 
the worship of Mnevis. He was regarded 
as the emblem of Osiris, and his worship 
was identical with that of Apis. 

Mcedi, a people of Thrace, conquered 
by Philip of Macedonia. 

Mceris, L, a king of Egypt who reigned 
sixty-eight years, and was succeeded by 
Sesostris. — II. A lake of Egypt, supposed 
to have been the work of a king of. the 
same name, and said to answer to Birket- 
Caroun. Herodotus makes it 3600 stadia 
in circumference, and its greatest depth 
200 cubits. Two pyramids were in its 
centre, each of which was 200 cubits above 
and as many below the water, while on 
the summit of each was a colossus in a 
sitting posture. The object "of the exca- 
vation was to regulate the inundations of 
the Nile. When the waters of the river 
were high, a large portion was carried off 
by a canal to the lake, in order that it 
might not remain too long on the soil 
of Egypt (lower at that time than in our 
days), and occasion sterility; and when 
the inundation had declined, a second one 
was produced by the waters in lake Mceris. 
The pyramids in this lake were no longer 
visible in the time of Strabo. The lake 
itself is said to have afforded a most 
abundant supply of fish. 

Mcesia, a country of Europe, bounded 
on the west by Pannonia and Illyricum, 
south by Macedonia and Thrace, east by 
the Euxine, north by the Danube, occupy- 
ing the present provinces of Servia and 
Bulgaria. Under Augustus it was re- 
duced to a Roman province, under the 
names of Mcesia Superior, near Pannonia, 
and Mcesia Inferior, nearer to Thrace. The 
centre of Mcesia was called Dacia Cis- 
Danubiana, or Dacia Aureliava, by Au- 
relian, when he abandoned the province 
beyond the Danube called Dacia Trajani. 

Moguntiacum. See Magontiacum. 

Molione, the wife of Actor, son of 
Phorbas, and mother of Cteatus and Eu- 
rytas, who from her are called Molionides. 

Molionipes, the two sons of Actor and 
Molione, called Actorides from their father, 
and Molionides from their mother. Their 
names were Eurytus and Cteatus. Homer 



MOL 



MON 



383 



describes them, according to the common 
interpretation, as twins (St'Si^oi), the one 
managing the chariot, while the other 
held the lash. They are mentioned as 
having come to the aid of Augeas against 
Hercules, who, in one version, is said to 
have slain them, whereas Homer speaks 
of them as surviving Hercules, as being 
still young, and contemporary with Nestor. 

Molo Afollonius, a native of Alabanda 
in Caria. He taught rhetoric at Rhodes, 
and his school enjoyed a high reputation. 
Cicero and Julius Caesar were among the 
number of his pupils. Cicero often alludes 
to him, sometimes under the name of 
Apollonius, on other occasions under that 
of Molo. 

Moloch, the name of the chief god 
of the Phoenicians, frequently mentioned in 
Scripture as the God of the Ammonites, 
and probably the same as the Saturn of 
the Syrians and Carthaginians. Human 
sacrifices were offered at the shrine of this 
divinity ; and it was chiefly in the valley 
of Tophet, to the east of Jerusalem, that 
this brutal idolatry was perpetrated. Solo- • 
mon built a temple to Moloch upon the 
Mount of Olives, and Manasseh long after 
imitated his impiety by making his son 
pass through the fire kindled in honour of 
this horrid king. Milton has described 
the character of Moloch in the following 
well-known lines : — 

First Moloch, horrid king, hesmear'd with blood 
Of human sacrifice and parents' tears ; 
Though for the noise of drums and timbrels loud 
Their children's cries unheard, that passed through 
fire 

To his grim idol. Him the Ammonite 

"Worshipt in Rabba and her watery plain, 

In Argob and in Basan, to the stream 

Of utmost Arnon. Nor content with such 

Audacious neighbourhood, the wisest heart 

Of Solomon lie led by fraud to build 

His temple righr against the temple of God, 

On that opprobrious hill ; and made his grove 

The pleasant valley of Hinnom, Tophet thence 

And black Gehenna call'd, the type of Hell. 

Molorchus, an old shepherd near Cle- 
onae, who received Hercules with great 
hospitality when the latter was on his way 
to destroy the Nemaean lion. On his 
wishing to offer up a sacrifice for the suc- 
cess of Hercules, the hero desired him to 
refrain for thirty days, saying that, if he 
should then return, the offering might be 
made to Jupiter the preseiwer ; but if he 
fell in the conflict, it should be regarded as 
a funeral offering to himself. Hercules 
returned on the last day of the appointed 
period, and found him in the act. of per- 
forming the funeral sacrifice. 

Molossi, a people of Epirus, who in- 
habited that part of the country called 
Molossia, or Moiossis, from king Molossus, 



corresponding chiefly to the territory of 
Joannini, the capital of modern Albania. 
This country had the bay of Ambracia on 
the south, and the country of the Perrhae- 
beans on the east ; but its limits cannot be 
precisely ascertained. The principal town 
of the Molossi was Ambracia. Under their 
king Alexander, about 320 b. c, they gained 
the preponderance over the rest of Epirus, 
which they maintained under his successors, 
of whom Pyrrhus was the most celebrated. 
After the defeat of Perses, Paulus iEmi- 
lius, the Roman general, ravaged the coun- 
try of the Molossi, as well as the rest of 
Epirus, and destroyed their towns. This 
country was famed for its dogs. 

Molossia, or Molossis, the country of 
the Molossi in Epirus. See Molossi. 

Molossus, a son of Pyrrhus and An- 
dromache, who reigned in Epirus after the 
death of Helenus. 

MoLYcuioN, or Molycreia, a maritime 
town of iEtolia, on the borders of the 
Locri, and in the immediate vicinity ot 
Antirrhium. It had been colonised by 
the Corinthians, who were expelled by 
the Athenians, and it was afterwards 
taken by the iEtolians and Peloponnesians 
under Eurylochus. The spot on which it 
stood is now called Cavrolimne, where its 
remains are yet perceptible. 

Momus, god of pleasantry among the 
ancients, son of Nox, without a father ac- 
cording to Hesiod. He was continually 
employed in satirising the gods, who ulti- 
mately caused him to be driven from heaven 
on account of his illiberal reflections. He 
is generally represented raising a mask 
from his face, holding a small figure in his 
hand. 

Mona, I., an island between Britain and 
Hibernia, now the Isle of Mcui. — II. The Isle 
of Anglesey, an island off the coast of Britain, 
facing the territory of the Ordovices, of 
which it formed part. It was remarkable 
as having been one of the principal seats of 
the Druids. Suetonius Paullinus had con- 
quered Anglesey ; but the insurrection of 
the Britons under Boadicea did not leave 
him time to secure its possession. Agricola, 
at a subsequent period, having subdued the 
Ordovices, undertook the reduction of the 
island, and succeeded. 

Monjeses, L, a king of Parthia who de- 
feated Crassus, and favoured the cause of 
Mark Antony against Augustus. He is 
called also Surena — a Parthian term in- 
dicative of his high rank. — II. A Parthian 
in the time of Corbulo. 

Monda, Mondcgo, a river between the 
Durius and Tagus, in Portugal. Conim- 
brega, Coimbra, was situated on its banks. 



384 



MON 



MOS 



Moneta, a surname of Juno among the 
Romans, because she advised them to sa- 
crifice a pregnant sow to Cybele, to avert 
an earthquake. Livy says that a temple 
was vowed, and raised, to Juno under this 
name by the dictator Furius Camillus, 
when the Romans waged war against the 
Aurunci. Money was coined in the temple 
of Juno Moneta, whence English money. 

MoNonus, a son of Prusias, who had one 
continued bone instead of a row of teeth, 
whence his name (fiovos 65ovs). 

Moncecus. See Herculis Monceci 
Portus. 

Mons sacer, a mountain near Rome, 
where the Roman populace retired in a 
tumult, which caused the election of the 
tribunes. 

Mokychus, a powerful giant, who could 
root up trees, and hurl them like a javelin. 

Mopsium, a hill and town of Thessaly, 
between Tempe and Larissa on the southern 
bank of the Peneus, near which a severe 
skirmish took place between the troops of 
Perses and the Romans. 

Mopsopia, an ancient name of Athens, 
from Mopsus, one of its kings ; whence 
Mopsopius is often applied to an Athenian. 

Mofsuhestia, or Mopsos, a town of 
Cilicia near the sea, supposed to be named 
from M6\pov 'icrTia, " home of Mopsus," from 
a tradition that the city was founded by 
Mopsus after the Trojan war. 

Mopsus, I., son of Manto and Apollo, 
a celebrated prophet, during the Trojan 
war. He distinguished himself at the siege 
of Thebes ; but he was held in particular 
veneration at Claros, and at Colophon in 
Ionia. The two soothsayers Mopsus and 
Calchas, jealous of each other's fame, came 
to a trial of skill in divination, when Cal- 
chas confessed his inferiority, and died from 
excess of grief. (See Calchas.) Amphi- 
lochus, king of Colophon, having occasion 
to visit Argos, intrusted the sovereign 
power to Mopsus, to keep it for him du- 
ring the space of a year. On his return, 
however, Mopsus refused to restore to him 
the kingdom, whereupon they quarrelled, 
and slew each other. According to another 
legend, he was slain by Hercules. Mopsus, 
after death, wes ranked among the gods, 
and had an oracle at Malia, celebrated for 
true and decisive answers. — II. A son of 
Ampyx and Chloris, born at Titaressa in 
Thessaly. He was the prophet and sooth- 
sayer of the Argonauts, and died at his 
return from Colchis by the bite of a ser- 
pent in Libya. 

Morgantium (or ia), a town of Sicily, 
near the Simanhus, south-east of Agyrium, 
and nearly due west from Catana. The 



village of Mandri Bia?ichi at present oc- 
cupies a part of its site. 

Morimarusa, a name applied by the 
Cimbri to the Northern Ocean, signifying 
" the Dead Sea." 

Morini, a people of Belgic Gaul on the 
shores of the British Ocean, from the Cel- 
tic 7nor, " sea," denoting a maritime people, 
occupying what would correspond to U 
Boulonnais, part of the Departementdu Nord, 
and of Flanders along the sea. They were 
called extremi hominum by the Romans, 
because situate on the extremities of Gaul. 
Their chief cities were Morinorum Castel- 
lum, now Mont Cassel in Artois; and Mori- 
norum Civitas, Terouenne, on the Lis. 

Moritasgus, a king of the Senones at 
the arrival of Caesar in Gaul. 

Morpheus, the god of sleep, and also 
of dreams ; and hence his name from the 
various forms (fj-opcp-f], form, figure,} to 
which he gives being in the imagination of 
the dreamer. Morpheus is generally re- 
presented as a man advanced in years, with 
two large wings on his shoulders, and two 
smaller ones attached to his head; but 
sometimes as a sleeping child of great cor- 
pulence, and with wings. 

Mors, one of the infernal deities, born 
of Night, without a father. She was wor- 
shipped with great solemnity, and repre- 
sented not as an actually existing power, 
but as an imaginary being. 

Mortuum Mare. See Mare Mor- 
tuum. 

Mosa, Maese or Meuse, a river of Belgic 
Gaul, rising on Mt. Vogesus and falling 
into the German Ocean. The bridge over 
it, Mosa? Pons, is now supposed to be 
Maestricht. 

Moscha, a harbour of Arabia Felix, 
at the mouth of the Sinus Persicus. It 
was much frequented on account of the 
incense obtained there. Moscha has been 
sometimes identified with the modern 
Mascuti ; but it more probably answers to 
the modern Sadschar, Seger, or Schoehr. 

Moschi, a people of Asia, dwelling, ac- 
cording to Mela, in the vicinity of the 
Hyraanian Sea; but according to Pliny, 
around the sources of the Phasis, between 
the Euxine and Caspian Seas. 

Moschiox, a name common to four dif- 
ferent writers, whose compositions, cha- 
racter, and native place are unknown. 

Moschus, I., a philosopher of Sidon, 
who is said to have lived pri©r to Pytha- 
goras, and to have been the original founder 
of the Atomic philosophy, which subse- 
quently rose into great celebrity under the 
Greek philosophers Leucippus and Epi- 
curus. — II. A celebrated Greek pastoral 



MOS 



MUR 



385 



poet, born at Syracuse, as is conjectured in 
the third century b. c. ; but the precise 
period is uncertain. He is said to have 
been the friend and disciple of Bion of 
Smyrna, whose death he bewails in one of 
his compositions. Four of his Idylls and 
a few minor pieces, distinguished by great 
elegance and delicacy, have reached our 
times, and have been repeatedly edited. 

Moschylus. See Mosychlus. 

Mosella, Moselle, a river of Belgic 
Gaul, rising in Mt. Vogesus, and falling 
into the Rhine at Coblentz. 

Mosychlus, a mountain of Lemnos, and 
the oldest volcano known to the Greeks. 

Mosynceci, a people of Pontus in Asia 
Minor, on the coast, near Cerasus. They 
were so named by the Greeks, from dwell- 
ing in wooden towers or forts, fi6a<rvv, and 

Mulciber, one of the designations of 
Vulcan, the Roman god of fire. The name 
is evidently formed from mulceo, and may 
refer to the power he possessed in softening 
iron or other metals, or it may be a title 
intended to induce the deity to manifest 
himself as a gentle and beneficent and not 
as a raging and destructive power. 

Mulucha, Moloch ath, or Malva, Mirf- 
looiah, a river of Africa, dividing Numidia 
from Mauritania. Some geographers make 
all these rivers distinct. 

Mulvius Pons. See Milvius Pons. 

Mummius, I., Lucius, a Roman of 
plebeian origin. Having been sent b.'c. 
153 into Farther Spain as prsetor, he ex- 
perienced at first a considerable check ; but 
not long after gained several advantages, 
which obtained for him the honours of a 
triumph. Elected consul, b. c. 146, and 
charged with the continuance of the war 
against the Achaean League, he received 
the command of the forces from Metellus, 
encamped under the walls of Corinth, 
where he defeated the, enemy in a pitched 
battle, took possession of the city, and 
gave it up to be burned and plundered by 
his troops. (See Corinthus. ) On his 
return, he was honoured with another 
triumph, and obtained the surname of 
Achuicus. He was elected consul a second 
time, B.C. 141, during which year the 
Capitol was gilded ; and died so poor as 
not to leave sufficent for a dowry for his 
daughter, who accordingly received a por- 
tion from the senate. He left some ora- 
tions behind him. — IT. Spurius, brother 
of the preceding. He is mentioned by 
Cicero with more praise, as a public 
speaker, than his brother ; and is also 
said to have been attached to the Stoic 
philosophy. 



Munatius, Plancus, a Roman whose 
name frequently occurs in the history of 
the civil wars. He was one of the warmest 
partisans of Caesar, who sent him into 
Gaul to found colonies, and intended him 
for the consulship. After the battle of 
Mutina, he joined his forces to those of 
Antony and Lepidus, and became consul 
with the former, a. u. c. 712. He after- 
wards accompanied Antony into Egypt, 
where he performed the part of a vile 
courtier, and even of a buffoon, around the 
person of Cleopatra. When fortune de- 
serted his protector, he turned his back 
upon him and embraced the party of Oc- 
tavianus; a. u, c. 732 he was chosen censor. 
Several of his letters exist in the corres- 
pondence of Cicero. 

Munda, a strongly fortified maritime 
city of Hispania Baetica. In its vicinity 
was fought the famous battle between 
Caesar and the sons of Pompey which put 
an end to the war, b. c. 45. The village 
of Monda in Grenada is supposed to lie 
near the ancient city. 

Munychia (and -m), one of the ports 
of Athens, between the Piraeus and the 
promontory of Sunium, called after king 
Munychus, who built there a temple 
to Diana, in whose honour he instituted 
festivals called Munychia. This temple 
formed a sanctuary for all criminals who 
took refuge in it. See Phalerus, Piraeus. 

MurjENA, I. L. Licinius, a Roman 
commander. Lie had charge of Sylla's left 
wing in the battle with Archelaus, near 
Chseronea, and contributed powerfully to 
the victory which Sylla gained on that 
occasion. After the latter had concluded 
a treaty of peace with Mithridates, Muraena 
was left in command of the Roman forces 
in Asia, but, not long after, broke the 
treaty and invaded Cappadocia, plundering 
the treasures of the temple at Comana. 
Mithridates, however, met and defeated 
him on the banks of the Halys. (See Mi- 
thridates VI.) — II. The son of the 
preceding, a consul, and colleague of D. 
Silanus, was accused by Servius Sulpicius 
and Cato of having been guilty of bribery 
in suing for the consulship, and was ably 
defended by Cicero. The oration delivered 
on this occasion is still extant. Muraena 
was acquitted. 

Mursa, Essek, a city of Pannonia In- 
ferior, founded by Hadrian, on the Dravus, 
a short distance to the west of its junction 
with the Danube. 

Murtia or Murcia, a surname given to 
Venus by the Romans. The more po- 
pular orthography was Myrtia, from myrtu$, 
" the myrtle," and various reasons are as- 
s 



386 



MUS 



MUT 



signed for this etymology ; but Cicero 
explains the other form of the name to be 
derived from Murcidus, signifying idle or 
slothful. She had a temple at the foot 
of the Aventine Hill, which was thence 
anciently called Murcius. 

Mus, a Roman consul. See Decius. 

Musa Axtonius, I., a freedman and 
physician of Augustus, whom he cured 
of a dangerous disease, by recommend- 
ing the use of the cold bath ; for this cele- 
brated cure, he was honoured with a brazen 
statue by the Roman senate, placed near 
that of iEsculapius, and Augustus per- 
mitted him to wear a golden ring, and to 
be exempted from all taxes. Musa was 
brother of Euphorbus, physician of king 
Juba, and appears to have lived on terms 
of intimacy with Horace, Virgil, and most 
of their distinguished contemporaries. — 
II. A daughter of Nicomedes, king of 
Bithynia, who attempted but in vain to 
recover her father's kingdom from the 
Romans. 

MusiE, in the Greek and Roman Mytho- 
logy, nymphs or inferior divinities, distin- 
guished as the peculiar protectresses of 
poetry, painting, rhetoric, music, and ge- 
nerally of the belles lettres and liberal 
arts ; with which, indeed, they are some- 
times identified: — Quis est omnium, qui 
modo cum Musis, id est cum humanitate 
et cum doctrina, habeat aliquod commer- 
cium, qui, See. Helicon and the region 
round Parnassus was the favourite seat 
of the Muses, where they were supposed, 
under the presidency of Apollo, to be 
perpetually engaged in song and dance, 
and in elevating the style and conceptions 
of their favoured votaries. It appears pro- 
bable that the early Grecian poets, struck 
with the beauty and sublimity of the 
scenery in this part of Greece, ascribed the 
humanising influence it was so well fitted 
to exercise over the mind to the agency of 
the nymphs and other tutelary deities of 
the place, to whom they gave the name of 
Muses. Originally there appear to have 
been only three of these divinities ; and 
their names — Mneme, Melete, and Acede, 
or Memory, Reflection, and Song — suffi- 
ciently show the nature of the faculties 
over which they were supposed to preside. 
According as the fine and liberal arts were 
cultivated and expanded, the province of 
each muse seems to have been more re- 
stricted ; and additions were made to their 
number, which ultimately was fixed at 
nine. Their names and functions are suc- 
cinctly stated in the following verses of 
Ausonius : — 



" Clio gesta canens, transactis tempora reddit. 
Melpomene tragico proclamat moesta boatu. 
Comica lascivo gaudet sermone Thalia. 
Dulciloquos calamos Euterpe flatibus urget 
Terpsichore affectus citharis movet, imperat, 
auget. 

Plectra gerens Erato, saltat pede, carmine, vultu. 
Carmina Calliope libris heroica mandat 
Urania cceli motus scrutatur, et astra. 
Signat cunctamanu, loquitur Polyhymxia gestu. 
Mentis Apollinese vis has movet undique Musas. 
In medio residens complectitur omnia Phoebus." 

Edyll. 20. 

They have been called Pier ides, Aganip- 
pides, Aonides, Castalides, Heliconiades, Le- 
bethrides, &c, from the places where they 
were worshipped, or over which they pre- 
sided. Apollo, as patron aud conductor of 
the Muses, was named Musagetes, " Leader 
of the Muses ;" the same surname also was 
given to Hercules. They were generally 
represented as young, beautiful, and mo- 
dest virgins, commonly appeared in dif- 
ferent attire, according to the arts and 
sciences over which they presided ; and 
sometimes as dancing in a chorus, to in- 
timate the near and indissoluble connexion 
between the liberal arts and sciences. 
Their worship was universally established, 
particularly in Greece, Thessaly, and Italy. 
No sacrifices were offered to them ; but 
the poets invariably prefaced their com- 
positions with a solemn invocation for their 
aid and inspiration. Festivals were in- 
stituted in their honour in several parts of 
Greece, especially among the Thespians, 
every fifth year. The Macedonians ob- 
served also a festival in honour of Jupiter 
and the Muses. 

Mus^eus, an ancient Greek poet, sup- 
posed to have been son or disciple of Linus, 
or Orpheus, and to have lived about b. c. 
1410. None of his compositions are ex- 
tant. The poem on The Loves of Leander 
and Hero was written by a Musaeus who 
flourished in the fourth century. 

Muta, or Tacita, a goddess who presided 
over silence among the Romans, and who 
was propitiated with certain spells and 
magic rites to avert the influence of evil 
tongues, on the same day that the Feralia 
were solemnised. 

Mutia, a daughter of Q. Mutius Scas- 
vola, sister of Metellus Celer, and third 
wife of Pompey, by whom she was di- 
vorced on the ground of infidelity. 

Mutica, or Mutyce, a town of Sicily, 
west of Cape Pachynus. 

Mutina, Modena, a strong and magni- 
ficent city of Cisalpine Gaul, south-east 
from Placentia and Parma. It is supposed 
to have been founded by the Etruscans, 
and colonised by the Romans, a. u. c. 569; 
but it is chiefly memorable for the severe 



MUT 



MYL 



387 



siege which it sustained against the troops 
of Antony, a. u. c. 709, who was ultimately 
obliged to raise it, after sustaining two de- 
feats from D, Brutus, Hirtius, Pansa. and 
Octavius. 

Mutines, one of Hannibal's generals, 
honoured with the freedom of Rome on 
delivering up Agrigentum. 

Mutinus. See Mutunus. 

Mutius. See Scjevola. 

Mutunus, or Mutinus, a deity among 
the Romans, nearly identical with the 
Priapus of the Greeks. 

Muzeris, a harbour of India, much 
frequented in the early centuries of our 
era. Mannert makes it to be Mirzno or 
Mirdschno. 

Myagrus, or Myodes, a divinity among 
the Egyptians, who entreated him to pro- 
tect them from flies and serpents. 

Mycale, a city and promontory of Asia 
Minor, opposite Samos, celebrated for a 
battle between the Greeks and Persians, 
Sept. 22, b. c. 479, the same day that Mar- 
donius was defeated at Plataea. The 
Persians were about. 100,000 men, just 
returned from the unsuccessful expedition 
of Xerxes into Greece ; but the Greeks ob- 
tained a complete victory, slaughtered 
some thousands of the enemy, burned 
their camp, and sailed back to Samos 
with an immense booty. 

Mycalessus, an inland town of Boeotia, 
where Ceres had a temple. It was at- 
tacked by some Thracian troops in the pay 
of Athens, during the Peloponnesian war, 
sacked and pillaged, and the inhabitants 
put to the sword. 

Mycenae, an ancient city of Argolis, 
north-east of Argos, built by Perseus, son 
of Danae, and named after Mycene, a 
nymph of Laconia. Perseus was succeeded 
by Sthenelus, Eurystheus, Atreus, and 
Agamemnon, under whom the kingdom of 
Mycenae reached its highest degree of 
opulence and power. Mycenae, which had 
been superior even to Argos in the Trojan 
war, declined after the return of the Hera- 
clidae ; and in the 78th Olympiad, or 
468 b. c, the Argives, having attacked 
and captured the city, levelled it to the 
ground and enslaved its inhabitants. Many 
ruins are still extant, indicative of the 
power and opulence of the ancient city. 
The Modern Krabata stands on its site. 

Mycenis (idis), a name applied to 
Iphigenia as residing at Mycenae. 

Mycerinus, a son of Cheops or Chem- 
nis, king of Egypt. After the death of 
his father he reigned with great justice 
and moderation from b. c. 1072 to 1052. 
He built one of the pyramids. 



Mycithus, or Micalus. See Anaxi- 

LAUS. 

Myconos (or-E), one of the Cyclades 
between Delos and Icaria, named from 
Myconus, an unknown person. Some 
suppose that the giants whom Hercules 
killed were buried under that island ; 
whence the proverb Every thing is under 
Mycone, applied to those who treat of dif- 
ferent subjects under one and the same 
title, as if none of the defeated giants had 
been buried under any other island but 
Mycone. The inhabitants of Mycone 
became bald very early, even at the age 
of twenty or twenty-five ; hence they were 
called the bald-heads of Mycone. 

Mygdonia, I., a small province of Ma- 
cedonia, near Thrace, between the Axius 
and Strymo. The inhabitants, called Myg- 
dones, migrated into Asia, and settled near 
Troas, where the country received the 
name of their ancient habitation. Cybele 
was called Mygdonia, from the worship she 
received in Mygdonia, in Phrygia. — II. 
A small province of Mesopotamia, proba- 
bly peopled by a Macedonian colony. It 
was afterwards called Anthemusia. 

Mygdonius, Hernias or Sindschar, a 
river of Mesopotamia, called also the Sao- 
coras, rising in the district of Mygdonia, 
and falling into the Chaboras. The epithet 
" Mygdonian " is applied by Horace to 
Phrygia, either from a branch of the Myg- 
dones having settled there at a very early 
period, or else from one of the ancient 
kings. 

Mygdonus, or Mtgdon, L, a brother of 
Hecuba, Priam's wife, who reigned in 
part of Thrace. His son Corcebus was 
called Mygdonides. — II. An ancient mo- 
narch of the Mygdones. 

Mylassa (or jjm), Melasso, an ancient city 
of Caria, founded by Mylasus, son of Chry- 
saor. It was famous for an ancient temple 
of the Carian J ove, and for another sacred 
to Jupiter Osogus. In after-times a beau- 
tiful temple was erected here in honour of 
Augustus and Rome. 

Myle, or MnhM, Milazzo, a maritime 
town of Sicily, situated on a tongue of 
land south-west of Pelorum,on the northern 
coast of the island. It was the scene of 
two great naval conflicts in antiquity. The 
first of these occurred 261 b. c, when the 
consul Duillius defeated a Carthaginian 
fleet, and showed his countrymen how to 
conquer by sea as well as by land. Another 
and far more important contest, which 
influenced, indeed, in no small degree, the 
fate of the Roman world, took place in 
this gulph 3 1 b. c. , when the fleet of the 
younger Pompey was entirely defeated, and 
s 2 



MYN 



MYS 



all but destroyed, by Octavius Caesar, or 
rather by his general, Agrippa. 

Myndus, a maritime town of Caria, 
north-west of Halicarnassus. 

Myriandros, a city of Asia Minor, on 
the bay of Issus, below Alexandria (/ferret 
iaanv), placed by Xenophon in Syria be- 
yond the Pylas Ciliciae ; but included by 
Scylax and Strabo within the limits of Ci- 
licia. It was a place of considerable trade 
in the time of the Persian dominion ; but 
it subsequently declined, in consequence of 
its vicinity to the more flourishing city of 
Alexandria. 

Myiuna, I., Sandarlik, an ancient city 
and harbour of iEolis, in Asia Minor, forty 
stadia north of Cyma, so called from My- 
rinus, its founder. Philip, king of Mace- 
donia (son of Demetrius), held possession 
of it for some time, with a view to future 
operations in Asia Minor; but the Romans 
compelled him to evacuate it. It was 
the native place of Agathias. — II. One 
of the chief cities of Lemnos, on the north- 
western coast, captured by the troops of 
Miltiades after a considerable resistance. 
Ruins are still to be seen at Castro, which 
stands on its site. — III. A town of Crete, 
north of Lyctus, which still retains its 
ancient name. 

Mvrinus, a surname of Apollo, from 
Myrina in IEolis, where he was worship- 
ped. 

MyrmecIdes, an artist of Miletus, men- 
tioned as making chariots so small that they 
could be covered by the wing of a fly. He 
also inscribed an elegiac distich on a grain 
of sesamum. 

Myrmidones, a people on the southern 
borders of Thessaly, who accompanied 
Achilles to the Trojan war. They derived 
their name from Myrmidon, son of Jupiter 
and Eurymedusa, who married one of the 
daughters of JEolus, and whose son Actor 
married JEgina, daughter of the Asopus. 
But according to some the Myrmidons re- 
ceived their name from having been ori- 
ginally ants, fxvpfj.7)Kes (see iEAcus), or 
from their industry, because they imitated 
the diligence of the ants, and were con- 
tinually employed in cultivating the earth. 

Myron, a celebrated Athenian statuary 
and engraver on silver, who lived in Olymp. 
87. He rendered himself particularly fa- 
mous by his statue of a cow, which was so 
true to nature that bulls approached her as 
if she were alive. 

Myiirha, a daughter of Cinyras, king 
of Cyprus, by whom she had a son called 
Adonis. Cinyras attempted to stab his 
daughter ; but she fled into Arabia, where 
she was changed into a tree called myrrh. 



MyrtYlus, a son of Mercury and Phae- 
tusa, or Cleobule, and charioteer of GEno- 
| maus, king of Pisa. He was so experienced 
I in the management of horses, that he ren- 
j dered those of CEnomaus the swiftest in all 
Greece. (See Hippodamja.) Myrtilus was 
changed into a constellation. 

Myktis, a Grecian female of distin- 
guished poetical abilities, who lived about 
b. c. 500. She was born at Anthedon in 
Boeotia. Pindar is said to have received his 
first instructions in the poetic art from her, 
Mvrtouji mare, that part of theiEgean 
Sea lvingbetween Eubcea, Attica, and Pelo- 
ponnesus, as far as Cape Malea : or, accord- 
! ingto Strabo, between Argolis, Attica, and 
Crete. It derived its name from a woman 
named Myrto, mentioned by Pausanias. 

Myrtuntium, I., an inland lake of Acar- 
nania, below Anactorium ; the water of 
which, however, is salt, as it communicates 
with the sea. It i; now called Muritari. — 
II. An ancient town of Elis, originally 
named Myrsinus, under which appellation 
it is classed by Homer among the Epean 
towns. Its ruins correspond with the ves- 
tiges of high antiquity observed near the 
village of Kaloteichos. 

Mys, I., a celebrated engraver on silver, 
whose country is uncertain. He carved 
the battle between the Centaurs and La- 
pitha? on the shield held by the Minerva of 
Phidias. — II. A slave and follower of 
Epicurus, who manumitted him by his 
will. 

Myscellus, or Miscellus, a native of 
Achaia, who founded Crotona, in Italy, 
according to an oracle, which told him to 
build a city where he found rain with 
fine weather. The meaning of the oracle 
long perplexed him, till he found a beau- 
tiful woman all in tears in Italy, which he 
interpreted in his favour. 

Mysia, I., a country of Asia Minor, 
lying to the north of Lydia and west of 
Bithynia, and divided into the Greater and 
Lesser Mysia. The latter was situated on 
the Propontis, and thence extended to 
Mount Olympus, including a part of what 
was afterwards called Bithynia, Mysia 
Major was bounded on the west by Troas, 
north by the Propontis, east by Mysia 
Minor and Phrygia, south by iEolia. Its 
chief cities were Cyzicus, Lampsacus, &c. 
The inhabitants were once warlike, but 
became so degenerated, that the words My- 
siorum ultimus were used to signify " a per- 
son of no merit." It was the prevailing 
opinion of antiquity, that the Mysians 
were not an indigenous people of Asia, 
but that they had been transplanted to its 
shores from the banks of the Danube. — 



MYS 



NAP 



389 



II. A festival in honour of Ceres ; named 
Mysia, from Mysias, an Argive, who raised 
her a temple near Pallene in Achaia, airb 
rod jxvffiav, " to cloy or satisfy," because 
Ceres first satisfied the wants of men by 
giving them corn. The festival continued 
seven days. 

Mysius, a river of Mysia, which falls 
into the Caicus near its source. 

Mystes, a son of the poet Valgius, whose 
early death was so deeply lamented by the 
father, that Horace wrote an ode to allay 
his grief. 

Mytilene. See Mitylene. 

Myus (untis), a town of Ionia on the 
confines of Caria, about 30 stadia from the 
mouth of the Masander. It was one of 
the twelve capital cities of Ionia. Artax- 
erxes, king of Persia, gave it to Themis- 
tocles to maintain him in meat'; Magnesia 
was to support him in bread, and Lamp- 
sacus in wine. 



N. 

NlBATHiEA, a country of Arabia, ex- 
tending from the Euphrates to the Sinus 
Arabicus. Petra was the chief city. 
The term Nabathaea was often applied to 
any of the eastern countries of the world, 
and seems to be derived from Nabath, son 
of Ismael, 

Nabis, a celebrated tyrant of Lacedaa- 
mon, who, in acts of cruelty and oppres- 
sion, surpassed a Phalaris or Dionysius. 
He made -an alliance with Flaminius, the 
Roman general, and pursued with invete- 
rate enmity the war undertaken against 
the Achoeans. He besieged Gytheum, and 
defeated Philopoemen in a naval battle. 
Hie general of the Aehasans, however, 
having soon repaired his losses, Nabis was 
defeated, and treacherously murdered as 
he attempted to save his life by flight, 
b. c. i92, after an usurpation of fourteen 
years. 

Nabonassar., a king of Babylon who 
lived about the middle of the eighth cen- 
tury b. c, after the division of the Assy- 
rian monarchy. From him the Nabonas- 
sarean epoch received its name, agreeing 
with a. m. 3237, b. c. 746. 

Nabopolassar, a king of Babylon, who 
united with Astyages against Assyria, and 
having conquered the country, divided it 
between them and founded two kingdoms; 
that of the Medes under Astyages, and 
Chaldeans under Nabopolassar, b. c. 626. 
Necho, king of Egypt, jealous of the latter, 
declared war against, and defeated him. 
He died after a reign of twenty-one years. 



N^enia, the goddess of funerals among 
the Romans ; but the term is more com- 
monly employed to denote a funeral dirge. 
The songs sung at funerals were also called 
ncenice. 

N^vins, I., Csr. a native of Campania, 
and the first imitator of the regular dra- 
matic works produced by Livius Andro- 
nicus. He served in the first Punic war, 
and his earliest plays were represented at 
Rome b.'c. 235. Cicero has given us some 
specimens of his jests, with which he ap- 
pears to have been greatly amused. Nee- 
vius indulged in such personal invective 
and satire against the patrician family of 
the Metelli, that he was thrown into ymson, 
whence he was liberated on a recantation ; 
but relapsing soon after into his former 
courses, he was driven from Rome and 
retired to Carthage, where he died about 
b. c. 204. — II,, or Navius. See Attus 
Navius. 

Naharvali, a people of Germany, 
ranked by Tacitus under the Lygii. Their 
territory corresponds to what is now part 
of Silesia, Prussia, and Poland. 

Naiades, or Naides (Gr. vaioo, I inhabit, 
or vaco, I flow), female deities who pre- 
sided over fountains, rivers, brooks, &c. 
The number of these goddesses was inde- 
finite. In his Georgics (book iv. ) Virgil 
enumerates sixteen ; and Ovid, in his Ele- 
gies (book iii. 64.), speaks of at least one 
hundred in the river Anio. The most 
beautiful of the Naiads is said to have 
been iEgie. Many of the Homeric heroes 
are represented to have been the offspring 
of these deities. 

Nais, a name common to several nymphs 
in mythology, of whom the most famous 
were I., one of the Oceanides, mother of 
Chiron or Glaucus, by Magnes. — II. A 
nymph in an island of the Red Sea, who 
by incantations turned to fishes all who 
approached her residence, and was herself 
changed into a fish by Apollo. The word 
Nais is used for " water" by Tibullus. 

Naissus, Nissa, a city of Dacia Medi- 
terranea, south-west of Ratiaria. It was 
the birth-place of Constantine the Great. 

Namneies or Nannetes, a people of 
Gallia Celtica, on the north bank of the 
Liger or Loire, near its mouth. Their 
capital was Condivienum, afterwards Nam- 
netes, now Nantes. 

Nantuates, a people of Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, south of the Lac us Lemannus, Lake 
of Geneva. 

Nap^e^e, certain divinities among the 
ancients who presided over the forests and 
groves. Their name is derived from 
vdiirr), a grove, 

s 3 



390 



NAR 



NAS 



Nar, Neva, a river of Italy, rising at 
the foot of Mount Fiscellus, not far from 
Nursia, and, after receiving the Velinus 
and several other smaller rivers, falling 
into the Tiber near Ocriculum. It was 
noted for its sulphurous stream and the 
whitish colour of its waters. 

Nakbo Martius, Narbonne, a city of 
Gaul, in the southern section of the coun- 
try, and south-west of the mouths of the 
Rhone. It was situated on the river Atax 
(or Aude), and became, by means of this 
stream, a seaport and a place of great trade. 
It was formed into a Roman colony 
116 b. c. ; and Julius Caesar further en- 
larged it by sending thither the veterans 
of the tenth legion. At the distribution 
of Gaul into provinces by Augustus it 
gave its name to the south-west province 
called Narbonensis : Mela speaks of it as a 
place uncle olim terris auxilium nunc et no- 
men et decus est, and Strabo designates it 
as the emporium of all Gaul. Its public 
buildings, and great commercial wealth, 
are mentioned by other authors ; but the 
present remains of its ancient grandeur 
are confined to a few fragments and in- 
scriptions, chiefly incorporated in the walls 
of the town. It fell into the hands of the 
Visigoths, a. n. 462, and was shortly after 
made the capital of their kingdom. 

Narbonensis Gallia, one of the four 
great divisions of Ancient Gaul, deriving 
its name from Narbo, its capital, bounded 
by the Alps, Pyrenean mountains, Aqui- 
tania, Belgicum, and the Mediterranean, 
and containing the modern provinces of 
Languedoc, Provence, Dauphine, and Savoy. 
It was more anciently called Gallia Brac- 
cata, from the braccee, breeches, worn by 
the inhabitants. 

Narcissus, I., the beautiful son of 
Cephisus and the nymph Liriope, whose 
history formed one of the most favourite 
topics with the poets of classical anti- 
quity. Though beloved by all the Grecian 
nymphs, he treated them with contemp- 
tuous indifference ; but having accident- 
ally seen his own image reflected in a 
fountain, he became so enamoured of it 
that he languished till he died, and thus 
realised the prophecy of Tiresias. that he 
should live until he saw himself. After 
his death the gods, moved with compassion 
for his fate, changed him into the flower 
which bears his name. — II. A freedman 
and secretary of Claudius, who abused his 
trust, and plundered the citizens of Rome 
to enrich himself. Messalina, the em- 
peror's wife, endeavoured to remove him, 
but Narcissus sacrificed her to his resent- 
ment. Agrippina, who succeeded Mes- 



salina, was more successful. Narcissus 
was banished by her intrigues to Cam- 
pania, and compelled to kill himself, 
a. d. 54. 

Narisci, a nation of Germany in the 
Upper Palatinate. 

Narnia, a town of Umbria, on the Nar, 
a short distance above its junction with 
the Tiber. The more ancient name was 
Nequinum, which it exchanged for Narnia 
when a Roman colony was sent thither, 
a. u. c. 453. Narnia was celebrated for 
the noble bridge raised over the Nar by 
Augustus, the ruins of which still remain 
and have been described as the stateliest in 
Italy. The modern Narni occupies the 
site of the ancient town. 

Naro, Narenta, a river of Dalmatia, ris- 
ing in the mountains of Bosnia, and falling 
into the Adriatic. On its banks was Na- 
rona, Narenza, now buried in ruins. 

Narses, an eunuch in the court of Jus- 
tinian, with whom he so ingratiated him- 
self, that he was appointed his chamber- 
lain and private secretary, and ultimately 
made governor of Italy for the skill and 
valour he had displayed in numerous cam- 
paigns against the Barbarians who had in- 
vaded it. His ambition leading him to 
attempt to shake off* the imperial yoke, he 
was deposed and died at Rome, a. d. 567. 

Narycia, or -dm, or Naryx, a town of 
Magna Graecia, built by a colony of Lo- 
crians after the fall of Troy, and celebrated 
for being the birth-place of Ajax, son of 
Oileus. The epithet " Narycius " used by 
Virgil is universally understood as apply- 
ing to the Italian colony, near which pines 
and other trees grew in abundance. 

Nasamones, a people of Africa, south- 
east of Cyrenaica, and extending along 
the coast as far as the middle of the 
Syrtis Major. They were a roving race, 
uncivilised in their habits, and noted for 
their robberies in the case of all vessels 
thrown on the quicksands. They were 
subjugated to Rome in the time of Au- 
gustus - 

Nascio, or Natio, a goddess of Rome, 
who presided over the birth of children, 
and had a temple at Adrea. 

Nasica, I. (See Scipio.) — II. An ava- 
ricious fellow, who married his daughter 
to one Coranus, as mean as himself, that he 
might not only not repay money borrowed, 
but become his creditor's heir. Coranus 
purposely alienated his property from him 
and his daughter, and exposed him to 
ridicule. 

Nasidienus, ( QuadrisylT), a Roman 
knight, whose luxury, arrogance, and os- 
tentation, were ridiculed by Horace. 



NAS 



NAU 



391 



Nasithus, L„ sent by Pompey to assist 
the people of Massilia. After the battle 
of Pharsalia he followed the interest of 
Pompey's children; and afterwards re- 
volted to Antony. 

Naso. See Ovidius. 

Nasus or Nescs, a town or fortress near 
(Eniadas in Acarnania. The name evi- 
dently implies an insular situation. Nasos 
was probably the port and arsenal of 
(Eniadse ; for, though now joined to the 
continent, it was probably an island in 
ancient times, 

Natiso, Natisone, a river of Venetia, in 
Cisalpine Gaul, rising in the Alps, and 
falling into the Adriatic near Aquileia. 

Natta, a person ridiculed by Horace 
for his manner of living, which became 
so mean that his name passed into a pro- 
verb. 

Natjcrates, a Greek poet, employed by 
Artemisia to write a panegyric on Mau- 
solus. 

Naucratis, a city of Egypt, in the 
Delta, belonging to the Saitic nome, and 
situated on the Canopic arm of the Nile, 
south of Metelis and north-west of Sais. 
It was given to the Ionians by Amasis, 
king of Egypt, as an entrepot for their 
commerce, for which its admirable po- 
sition eminently qualified it ; and it re- 
mained even down to the sixth century of 
our era a large and important city. Sal- 
hadsjar occupies its site. 

Naulochtjs, I., a naval station on the 
north-eastern coast of Sicily, not far from 
which the fleet of Sextus Pompeius was 
defeated by that of Octavius, b. c. 36 — II. 
An island off the coast of Crete, near the 
promontory of Sammonium. — III. The 
port of the town of Bulis in Phocis, 
near the confines of Bceotia, supposed to 
have been the same with the Mychos of 
Strabo. 

Naupactus, a city of Locris, situated 
on the Sinus Corinthiacus, at the western 
extremity of the territory of the Ozoke. It 
was said to have derived its name from the 
circumstance of the Heraclidas having there 
constructed the fleet in which they crossed 
over into the Peloponnesus (vavs, a ship, 
an&ir-fiyvvfii, to construct). After the Persian 
war, Naupactus was occupied by the Athe- 
nians, who there established the Messenian 
Helots after they had evacuated Ithome. 
It then became a naval station of the great- 
est importance; and after numerous vicissi- 
tudes, was nearly destroyed by an earth- 
quake during the reign of Justinian. The 
modern town is called Enebathe by the 
Turks, Nepacto by the Greeks,. and Lepanto 
by the Franks ; and its walls are built on 



the foundations of those by which it was 
surrounded in antiquity. 

Nauplia, a maritime city of Argolis, 
said to have derived its name from Nauplius, 
a son of Neptune and Amymone. The 
ancient Nauplia was the port and arsenal 
of Argos during the flourishing period of 
Grecian history ; but it was deserted and 
in ruins when visited by Pausanias, who 
noticed the vestiges of its walls and docks 
(\ip.evss), the temple of Neptune, and a 
fountain called Canathus, still existing. 
The inhabitants had been expelled several 
centuries before by the Argives, on sus- 
picion of having favoured the Spartans, who 
in consequence received them into their 
territory and established them at Methone 
in Messenia. The town revived under the 
Byzantine emperors. The ancient nanqe 
is corrupted into Anapli and Napoli di 
Romania. 

Naupliades, a patronymic of Palamedes, 
son of Nauplius. 

Nauplius, I., a son of Neptune and 
Amymone, and the founder of Nauplia. 
He sold Auge, daughter of Aleus, to King 
Teuthras. (See Auge.) This Nauplius 
must not be confounded with the second 
of the name, who was, in fact, one of his 
descendants. — II. A descendant of the 
preceding, and one of the Argonauts. ■ — III. 
A son of Neptune, father of Palamedes by 
Clymene, and king of Euboea. He was 
so indignant at the treatment which his 
son had experienced from the Greeks, that, 
to avenge his death, he set up a burning 
torch on a dangerous part of the promon- 
tory of Caphareus, in order to deceive the 
Grecian vessels that were sailing by in the 
night on their return from Troy ; and thus 
caused their shipwreck on the coast, for 
the Greeks mistook it for a friendly signal, 
inviting them to land here as the safest 
part of the island. Those of the ship- 
wrecked crews that came safe to the land 
were slain by Nauplius, who is said, how- 
ever, to have thrown himself into the sea 
when he saw his plan of vengeance in a 
great measure frustrated by the escape of 
Ulysses, whom the winds bore away in 
safety from the dangerous coast. Accord- 
ing to a curious legend related by Apollo- 
dorus, Nauplius attained a great age, and 
passed his time on the sea, lamenting the. 
fate of those who were lost on it, till at 
length, through the anger of the gods, he 
himself met with the same fate which he 
deplored in others. 

Nauportus, a town of Pannonia, on a 
river of the same name, now Ober ( Upper) 
Laybach. 

Nausicaa, daughter of Alcinous, king 
s 4 



392 



NAU 



NEA 



of the Phaeacians. She met Ulysses ship- 
wrecked on her father's coast, and gave 
him a kind reception. 

Nausithous, L, son of Neptune and 
Periboea, king of the Phaeacians, and 
father of Alcinous. Hesiod makes him 
son of Ulysses and Calypso. — II. The 
pilot of the vessel which carried Theseus 
into Crete. 

Naustathmus, I., Asparanetto, a port 
and harbour of Sicily at the mouth of the 
Cacyparis, below Syracuse. — II. A village 
and anchoring-place of Cyrenaica, between 
Ery thron and Apollonia. — II I. An anchor- 
ing-place on the coast of the Euxine, in 
Asia Minor, about 90 stadia from the 
mouth of the Halys : supposed by some 
to have been identical with the Ibyra or 
Ibora of Hierocles. 

Nautes, a Trojan soothsayer, who com- 
forted JEneas when his fleet had been 
burned in Sicily. He was progenitor of the 
Nautii at Rome, a family to whom the 
Palladium of Troy was afterwards en- 
trusted, b. c. 794. 

Nava, Nape, a river of Germany, fall- 
ing into the Rhine at Bingen, below 
Mentz. 

Navius Attus. See Arrus Navius. 

Naxos, I., a town of Crete, celebrated 
for producing excellent whetstones. — II. A 
celebrated island in the iEgean Sea, and the 
largest of the Cyclades, being about 105 
miles in circumference, 30 in breadth. It 
is said by Pliny to have borne the several 
names of Strongyle, Dia, Dionysias, Sicilia 
Minor, and Callipolis. It was first peopled 
by the Carians, but afterwards received a 
colony of Ionians from Athens. The 
Naxians were among the most steadfast 
opponents of Persian aggression, and the 
failure of the expedition undertaken by the 
Persians against this island at the sugges- 
tion of Aristagoras led to the revolt of the 
Ionian states. Soon afterwards, Naxos was 
conquered by the Persian fleet under Datis 
and Artaphernes, who destroyed the city 
and enslaved its inhabitants. The Naxians, 
however, had sufficiently recovered seven 
years afterwards to enable them to furnish 
four well-equipped triremes for the fleet at 
Salamis. The Athenians, even at the time 
of Pisistratus, claimed them as colonial de- 
pendents ; and, after the Persian war, they 
deprived them of their liberty. Naxos was 
celebrated in ancient mythology for the 
worship of Bacchus, who is alleged to have 
been born in the island. It became tri- 
butary to the Romans after the fall of 
Corinth, b. c. 1 46, but was ceded by Mark 
Antony to the Rhodians after the battle of 
Philippi. — III. A city on the eastern side 



of Sicily, founded by a colony from the 
island of Naxos, one year before the settle- 
ment of Syracuse, b. c. 759. The rapid 
growth of the new state is clearly shown 
by the early founding of Zancle or Messana. 
It, however, not long after this, fell under 
the sway of Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, 
but soon recovered its freedom, waged a 
successful contest with Messana, and ap- 
peared subsequently as the ally of the 
Athenians against Syracuse, the rapid in- 
crease of this city having filled it with 
apprehensions for its own safety. At a 
still later period, Dionysius, tyrant of Sy- 
racuse, destroyed the city ; but the old in- 
habitants, together with some new-comers, 
afterwards settled in the immediate vicinity, 
and founded Tauromenium. See Tauro- 

MENIUM. 

Nazianzus, a city in the south-western 
angle of Cappadocia, south-east of Arche- 
lais. It derives all its celebrity from St. 
Gregory, who was born at Arianzus, a 
small village in the immediate neighbour- 
hood, but promoted to the bishopric of 
Nazianzus. 

Nea, or Nova insula, a small island 
between Lemnos and the Hellespont, which 
rose out of the sea during an earthquake. 

Ne^ra, I., a nymph, mother of Phae- 
tusa and Lampetia by the Sun. — II. A 
daughter of Pereus, and wife of Aleus, by 
whom she had Cepheus, Lycurgus, and 
Auge. — III. A favourite of Horace and 
Tibullus. 

Ne^thus, Nieto, a river of Bruttium, 
rising north-east of Consentia, and falling 
into the Sinus Tarentinus above Crotona. 
It is said to have derived its name from 
an old tradition that the captive Trojan 
women there set fire to the Grecian fleet 
(vavs, a ship, aXQv, to burn). 

Nealces, a friend of Turnus, in his war 
against JEneas. 

Neapolis, I., now Naples, a celebrated 
city of Campania, rising like an amphi- 
theatre at the back of a beautiful bay 
twelve miles in diameter. It was founded 
by the people of Cumae, a colony from 
Greece, who gradually spread themselves 
round the Bay of Naples, and was called 
from this circumstance Neapolis, or the 
new city. It was also called Parthenope, 
from its being the burying- place of one of 
the sirens of that name. It was, therefore, 
to all intents and purposes, a Greek city ; 
its inhabitants spoke the Greek language, 
and were long distinguished by their at- 
tachment to the manners and customs of 
their ancestors. It was on this account, 
according to Tacitus, that it was selected 
by Nero to make his debut on the stage, 



NEA 



NEM 



393 



such a proceeding being less offensive there 
and less repugnant to the prevailing senti- 
ments, than in Rome. Naples, in truth, 
was then, as now, a chosen seat of pleasure. 
Its hot baths were reckoned equal to those 
of Baice ; and the number and excellence 
of its theatres and other places of amuse- 
ment, its matchless scenery, the mildness 
of the climate, and the luxury and effemi- 
nacy of the inhabitants, made it a favourite 
retreat of the wealthy and luxurious Ro- 
mans, and justifies Ovid in calling it in 
otia natam Parthenopen. After the fall of 
the Roman empire, it underwent many 
vicissitudes. It, however, early became 
the capital of the modern kingdom of 
Naples ; and, notwithstanding the cala- 
mities it has suffered from war, earth- 
quakes, &c, it has long been the most po- 
pulous city of Italy. 

Nearchus, L, an officer of Alexander 
in his Indian expedition, who was ordered 
to conduct Alexander's fleet along the In- 
dian Ocean to the Persian Gulf, and to ex- 
amine it along with Onesicritus. He wrote 
an account of his voyage, which still exists, 
and after the king's death was appointed 
over Lyciaand Pamphylia II. A beau- 
tiful youth mentioned by Horace in one of 
his odes. 

Nebo, a mountain east of the Jordan, 
and forming part of the chain of Aharim, 
north of the Dead Sea. It was from the 
summit of this mountain, Pisgah, that 
Moses had a view of the promised land. 

Nebrissa, or Colonia Venerea Ne- 
brissa, Labrixa, a town of the Turdetani, 
in Hispania Bcetica, north-east of Gades, 
and south-west of Hispalis. 

Nebrodes, a general name for the chain 
of mountains running through the north- 
ern part of Sicily. 

Necho, a king of Egypt, who at- 
tempted to make a communication between 
the Mediterranean and Red Seas, b. c. 610, 
with a loss of 120,000 men. Necho is 
famous for having engaged a number of 
Phoenician mariners to circumnavigate 
Africa — an exploit which the best autho- 
rities agree in saying was accomplished. 

Necropolis (from vzupos, dead, and 
itiKis, city), the city of the dead ; a 
name applied to the cemeteries in the 
neighbourhood of many of the ancient 
cities, such as Thebes in Egypt, Cyrene, 
Alexandria, &c. 

Nectanebis, a king of Egypt, cousin of 
Tachos, during whose Absence in Phoenicia 
with the Egyptian forces he was pro- 
claimed king. He was supported by 
Agesilaus, whom Tachos had offended by 
rejecting his advice. By the aid of this 



monarch he defeated his competitor for the 
crown, and was at last firmly established 
in his kingdom ; but being subsequently 
attacked by Artaxerxes Ochus, who wished 
to reduce Egypt once more under the 
Persian sway, he met with adverse fortune, 
and fled into ^Ethiopia, b. c. 350, whence 
he never returned. Nectanebis was the 
last king of Egypt of the Egyptian race." 

Nectar, in the mythology of the Greeks 
and Romans, was the supposed drink of 
the immortal gods (ambrosia being their 
food), and was fabled to contribute largely 
to their immortality. If we believe the 
accounts of the poets, the qualities of this 
liquor must have been of a most delicious 
character. It imparted youth, bloom, and 
vigour to the body, and possessed the power 
of repairing ail the defects and injuries of 
the mind. 

Neitha, one of the most ancient Egyp- 
tian deities, supposed to be identical with 
the Grecian Minerva, or Rhea. Her name, 
according to Jablonski, indicates old or 
harmonious. She was regarded as an in- 
carnation of nature, and as the patroness 
of all the arts. Her most celebrated tem- 
ple was at Sais, where she was worshipped 
with peculiar veneration, and where stood 
the veiled image so famous in the mytho- 
logy of Egypt, the rash inspection of 
which cost the adventurer either his life 
or his reason. 

Neleus, L, a son of Neptune and Tyro. 
Together with his brother Pelias, he was 
exposed by his mother ; but the children 
were preserved by some shepherds, and 
when they grew up to manhood discovered 
their mother, who was then married to Cre- 
theus, king of Iolchos. After the death of 
Cretheus, Pelias and Neleus seized the 
kingdom of Iolchos, which belonged to 
iEson, son of Tyro by the deceased mo- 
narch ; but after they had reigned for some 
time conjointly, Pelias expelled Neleus, 
who, thereupon, departed for the Pelopon- 
nesus, where he founded Pylos in Messenia, 
and, marrying Chloi is, daughter of Am- 
phion, became the father of twelve sons and 
of one daughter, named Pero, whom Neleus 
promised in marriage to him who should 
bring to Pylos the cows of Tyro, detained 
by Iphiclus. Bias was the successful suitor 
— for an account of which legend, consult 
the article Melampus. When Hercules 
attacked Pylos, he killed Neleus and all his 
sons with the exception of Nestor, (See 
Nestor.) — II. A disciple of Theophrastus, 
to whom that philosopher bequeathed the 
writings of Aristotle. See Apellicon. 

Nemausus, A"ismes, an important city of 
Gallia Narbonensis, next in rank to Narbo. 
s 5 



394 



NEM 



NEO 



It was situated on the main route from 
Spain to Italy, and was the capital of the 
Arecomici. The modern city is famed for 
its remains of antiquity. 

Nemea, a city of Argolis, north-west 
of Mycenae, celebrated as the haunt of 
the lion slain by Hercules, and the spot 
where triennial games were held in 
honour of Archemorus, or Opheltes, 
son of Lycurgus, king of Nemea. The 
games were solemnised in the grove of 
Molorchus, who was said to have enter- 
tained Hercules when he came to Nemea 
in pursuit of the lion. With respect to 
the periods at which these festivals were 
celebrated, different accounts are given by 
the old writers ; but the most consistent 
statement is, that they were celebrated bi- 
ennially, in the Athenian month Boedro- 
mion, corresponding with the modern 
August. The Argives were the judges 
at these games, which comprised boxing, 
and athletic contests, as well as chariot- 
races ; and the conquerors were crowned 
with olive till the time of the Persian war, 
when, in consequence of the losses that 
the Argolic republic had sustained in their 
struggle for independence, smallage, a fu- 
neral plant, was introduced in its stead. 
It appears from Polybius and Livy, that 
the games were in a flourishing state in 
the reign of Philip, son of Demetrius, in 
the second century preceding the Christian 
era. It may be inferred, however, from 
the slight mention that Pausanias makes 
of the Nemean games, that they had in 
his time fallen into great neglect. 

Nemesianus, Marcus Aurelius Olym- 
pius, a Latin poet, a native of Carthage, 
who lived about a. d. 280. Few parti- 
culars of his life are known. His true 
family name was Olympius ; that of Ne- 
mesianus indicating probably that his an- 
cestors were inhabitants of Nemesium, a 
city of Marmarica. Vopiscus states that 
Nemesianus composed three poems, entitled 
Halieutica, Cynegetica, and Nautica, and 
gained several prizes. 

Nemesis, a Greek divinity, worshipped 
as the goddess of vengeance. According 
to Hesiod, she was the daughter of Night, 
and was represented as pursuing with in- 
flexible hatred the proud and insolent. 
The reluctance of the Greeks to speak 
boastfully of their good fortune, lest they 
should incur a reverse, is well known : and 
from various passages in the Anthologia, 
and other ancient writings, it is clear that 
this feeling originated in a desire to pro- 
pitiate this divinity. The worship of this 
goddess was very extensive. Temples were 
erected to her honour, not only in Greece, 



but throughout the Roman empire. No- 
where, however, was her worship so pom- 
pously celebrated as at Rhamnus, a town 
of Attica, where she had a statue ten 
cubits high of a single stone, and so ex- 
quisitely beautiful as to equal even the 
finest productions of Phidias. A frag- 
ment supposed to be the head of this statue 
was presented to the British Museum in 
1820, where it may still be seen. 

Nemesius, a native of Emesa in Syria, 
and one of the ablest of the ancient Chris- 
tian philosophers. Of his life very few 
particulars are known ; and even the time 
when he lived is uncertain, though it is 
generally supposed to have been during the 
reign of Theodosius the Great, towards 
the end of the fourth century. He became, 
in time, bishop of his native city, and left 
a work " on the Nature of Man," which 
is considered one of the most accurate 
treatises of antiquity. 

Nemetacum. See Atrebates. 

Nemetes, a nation of northern Gaul, in 
the division called Germania Prima, lying 
along the banks of the Rhine, and between 
the Vangiones and Trihocci. Their chief 
city was Noviomagus, now Spires. Ac- 
cording to some, they occupied both banks 
of the Rhine, and their transrhenane terri- 
tory corresponded in part to the Grand 
Duchy of Baden. 

Nemoralia, festivals observed in the 
woods of Aricia, in honour of Diana, who 
presided over the country and forests ; 
hence that part of Italy was denominated 
Nemorensis ager. 

Nemossus, the same with Augustone- 
metum and Claromontium, the capital of 
the Arverni in Gaul, now Clermont. 

Neobule, I., a daughter of Lycambes, 
betrothed to the poet Archilochus. — II. 
A young lady to whom Horace addressed 
one of his odes. 

Neoc^esarea, I., more anciently called 
Ameria, Niksar, a city of Pontus, on the 
Lycus. It was one of the most important 
cities of Pontus, and appears also to have 
been the principal seat of pagan idolatry 
and superstitions. — II. Kalat el Nedsjur, 
a city on the Euphrates, in the Syrian dis- 
trict of Chalybonitis. 

Neocles, an Athenian philosopher; fa- 
ther, or, according to Cicero, brother of 
the philosopher Epicurus. 

Neomenia, (Gr. veos, new, and jxt)v> 
a month,') a festival observed by the 
Greeks at the beginning of every lunar 
month in honour of all the gods, but more 
especially of Apollo, thence called Neofiyvos, 
as being the author of all light, and the 
grand luminary from which all time receives 



NEO 



NEP 



395 



its distinctions and divisions. At these 
solemnities the Athenians offered u p prayers 
and sacrifices, in the temple of Erechtheus, 
for the prosperity of their city during the 
month that had commenced. Games were 
also instituted during their celebration, and 
grand entertainments given by the richer to 
the poorer citizens. 

Neon, the same with Tithorea in Phocis. 
See Tithorea. 

Neontichos, a mai-itime town of iEolis, 
in Asia Minor, thirty stadia from Larissa, 
founded by the iEolians, as a temporary for- 
tress, on their first arrival in the country. 

Neoptolemus, I. (See Pyrrhus I.) — 
II. A king of the Molossi, father of Olym- 
pias, mother of Alexander. — III. An 
uncle of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, during 
whose absence in Italy he was raised to 
the throne. Pyrrhus, on his return home, 
associated Neoptolemus with him in the 
government ; but afterwards put him to 
death on a charge of conspiracy. — IV. 
A captain of Alexander s life-guards, af- 
ter whose death he took part in the col- 
lisions of the generals, was defeated, along 
with Craterus, and slain by Eumenes, 
B. c. 321. — V. A native of Naupactus, 
who wrote a poem on the heroines and 
other females celebrated in mythology, 
which he entitled NaviraKTiKa, in honour of 
his native city. Others, however, make 
Carcinus to have been the author of this 
poem. — VI. A native of Paros, who com- 
posed a work on Inscriptions. 

Nepe, I. , a constellation of the heavens, 
sometimes identified with Cancer and 
sometimes with Scorpio. — II. or Nepete, 
Nepi, an inland town of Etruria. The 
inhabitants were called Nepesini. 

Nephalia, festivals of Greece, in ho- 
nour of Mnemosyne, mother of the Muses. 

Nephele, first wife of Athamas, king 
of Thebes, and mother of Phryxus and 
Helle. (See Athamas.) Nephele was af- 
terwards changed into a cloud ; hence her 
name was given by the Greeks to the 
clouds. The fleece of the ram, which 
saved the life of Nephele's children, is 
often called the Nephelian fleece. 

Nephereus, a king of Egypt, who as- 
sisted the Spartans against Persia, when 
Agesilaus was in Asia, and sent them a 
fleet of 100 ships, which were intercepted 
by Conon as they were sailing towards 
Rhodes. 

Nephthis, an Egyptian deity, sister and 
wife of Typhon, and mother of Anubis by 
Osiris. 

Nepia, a daughter of lasus, and wife of 
Olympus, king of Mysia ; hence the plains 
of Mysia are sometimes called Nepice campi. 



Nepos, Cork., I., a celebrated Roman 
biographer, born at Hostilia, He came to 
Rome during the dictatorship of Julius 
Caesar ; and though he does not appear to 
have filled any public office in the state, 
his merit soon procured him the friendship 
of the most eminent men who at that time 
adorned the capital of the world, and among 
others Augustus, Catullus, Cicero, and 
Atticus. The precise period of his death is 
unknown, and it can only be ascertained that 
he survived Atticus, who died a. u. c. 722. 
Of all his valuable compositions, nothing 
remains, but his Lives of the Illustrious 
Greek and Roman Generals. Cornelius 
Nepos has always been admired, and he is 
entitled to many commendations for the 
delicacy of his expressions, elegance of 
his style, and the clearness and precision 
of his narrations ; but the investigations 
of modern commentators have discovered 
many mistakes and inconsistencies in 
almost every one of his biographies. — II. 
Opimius. See Opimius. 

Nepotianus, Flavius Popilius, a son of 
Eutropia, sister of Constantine. He pro- 
claimed himself emperor after the death of 
his cousin Constans ; and having marched 
to Rome, took and pillaged the city ; but 
his cruelty and oppression rendered him 
odious, and he was murdered after one 
month's reign by Marcellinus, one of the 
generals of Magnentius. 

Neptunium, or Posidium, Bos Burum. 
a promontory of Bithynia, on the Propon- 
tis, at the mouth of the Cianus Sinus. 

Neptunius Dux, an expression applied 
by Horace to Sextus Pompeius, who boast- 
ingly styled himself the son of Neptune, 
because he had obtained numerous suc- 
cesses at sea. See Pompeius. 

Neptunus, one of the great Roman 
deities, whose attributes were nearly iden- 
tical with those of the Greek Poseidon, was 
son of Saturn and Ops or Rhea, and brother 
of Jupiter, Pluto, and Juno. He was 
worshipped as the god of war generally, 
but more particularly as the god of the sea, 
which he obtained as his share of the domi- 
nions of Saturn. His queen was Amphitrite, 
and his paramours were nearly as numerous 
as those of his brother ; but his progeny 
was not so celebrated, with the exception 
of the hero Pelops. His most famous 
temples were at the Corinthian isthmus, 
Helice, Troezene, and the promontories of 
Sunium and Tasnarus; to which may be 
added the magnificent temple of Pa?stum, 
in Italy, still in existence. Neptune was 
said to preside over horses and the manger. 
He is represented similar in appearance 
to Jupiter, but his symbols are a trident 
s 6 



396 



NER 



NER 



and the dolphin. His festivals, called 
Neptunalia, were celebrated by the Ro- 
mans, during the months of July, in ho- 
nour of Neptune. There were other fes- 
tivals in honour of Neptune in his capacity 
of presiding over horses, called consualia ; 
but the former were instituted to him in 
his character of god of the sea. During 
the solemnity it was customary to live in 
booths erected on the banks of the Tiber. 

Nereides, nymphs of the sea, daughters 
of Nereus and Doris. They are said by 
most ancient writers to have been fifty in 
number, but Propertius makes them a 
hundred. The most celebrated of them 
were Amphitrite, the wife of Neptune; 
Thetis, the mother of Achilles ; Galateea, 
Doto, &c. The worship of the Nereids 
was generally connected, as might be sup- 
posed, with that of Neptune. Thus they 
were worshipped in Corinth, where Nep- 
tune was held in especial honour, as well 
as in other parts of Greece. The Nereids 
were originally represented as beautiful 
nymphs ; but they were afterwards de- 
scribed as beings with green hair, and with 
the lower part of their bodv like that of 
a fish. 

Nereus, a sea-deity, the eldest son of 
Pontus and Earth, and husband of Doris, 
an ocean nymph, by whom he had the 
nymphs called Nereids. He was endowed 
with the gift of prophecy. When Her- 
cules was in quest of the apples of the 
Hesperides, he was directed by the nymphs 
to Nereus. He found the god asleep and 
seized him. Nereus, on awaking, changed 
himself into a variety of forms, but in vain : 
he was obliged to instruct him how to 
proceed before the hero would release him. 
He also foretold to Paris, when carrying 
away Helen, the evils he would bring on 
his country and family. He was generally 
represented as an old man with a long 
flowing beard, and with hair of an azure 
colour. His chief place of residence was in 
the iEgean Sea, where he was attended by 
his daughters, who often danced in cho- 
russes round him. Nereus is sometimes 
called the most ancient of all the gods. The 
word Nereus is often taken for " the sea." 

Neritos, a mountain in the island of 
Ithaca, of which Ulysses was king. 
Hence he was called Neritius dux, his ship 
Neritia navis, and the people of Sagun- 
tum, as descended from a Neritian colony, 
Neritia proles. 

Neritum, Nardo, a considerable city of 
Calabria, belonging to the Salentini. 

NerIum, the same as Artabrum, which 
see. 

Nerius, I., a banker in the time of 



Horace, very skilful in tying down his 
creditors by written obligations for repay- 
ment. — II. A usurer in Nero's age, so 
eager to get money that he married as 
often as he could, and, as soon as he was 
married, destroyed his wives by poison, to 
possess himself of their estates. 

Nero, Lucius Domitius Ahenobar- 
bus, I., a Roman emperor, son of Caius 
Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina, 
daughter of Germanicus, born at Antium, 
a. d. 37. He was adopted by Claudius, 
a. n. 50, whom his mother Agrippina 
had married, and four years after suc- 
ceeded him on the throne. The com- 
mencement of h% reign was marked by the 
greatest moderation, affability, and popu- 
larity. "When desired to sign his name to 
a list of malefactors, who were to be ex- 
ecuted, he exclaimed, " I wish to heaven 
that I could not write." But he soon dis- 
played the propensities of his nature, and 
having delivered himself from the sway of 
his mother, who had become indignant 
at his marriage with a freedwoman Acte, 
at last ordered her to be assassinated. 
Many of his courtiers shared the unhappy 
fate of Agrippina, and Nero sacrificed to 
his fury or caprice all such as obstructed 
his pleasure or diverted his inclination. 
Among his numerous victims may be 
mentioned his wives Octavia and Poppasa, 
and the celebrated writers, Seneca, Lucan, 
Petronius, &c. In the night he generally 
sallied from his palace to visit all the scenes 
of debauchery which Rome contained. 
He publicly appeared on the Roman stage 
in the meanest characters, and performed 
many other acts even more horrible and 
disgusting. In imitation of the burning 
of Troy, he caused, it is said, Rome to be 
set on fire in different places. The con- 
flagration raged for nine successive days, 
during which he enjoyed the general con- 
sternation, placing himself on a high 
tower, and singing on his lyre the de- 
struction of Troy. Suetonius and Dion 
Cassius positively charge this conflagra- 
tion on Nero ; but Tacitus expresses a 
doubt concerning its origin, and the pro- 
bability is that the fire was accidental. At 
all events, in order to remove* the suspi- 
cions of the people, he spread a report that 
the Christians were the authors of the fire, 
and numbers of them accordingly were 
seized and put to death. Their execution 
served as an amusement to the people. 
Some were covered with skins of wild 
beasts, and were torn to pieces by dogs ; 
others were crucified ; and several were 
smeared with pitch and other combustible 
materials, and burned in the imperial gar- 



NER 



NES 



Jens in the night. But his continuation 
of debauchery, cruelty, and extravagance, 
at last roused the resentment of the people. 
Many conspiracies were formed against 
him, but discovered. At length, however, 
Galba having declared himself emperor, 
was acknowledged by all the Roman em- 
pire ; and the senate condemned Nero to 
be dragged naked through the streets of 
Rome, whipped to death, and afterwards 
thrown from the Tarpeian rock. The 
tyrant, however, prevented the execution 
of the sentence by a voluntary death, a. d. 
68. Rome was filled with acclamation 
at the intelligence ; and the citizens, 
more strongly to indicate their joy, wore 
the caps generally used by slaves who had 
received their freedom. The name of 
Nero is even now used emphatically to 
express " a barbarous and unfeeling op- 
pressor." — II. Claudius. (See Claudius 
III.) — III. Caesar, son of Germanicus 
and Agrippina. He married Julia, daughter 
of Drusus, the son of Tiberius. By the 
wicked arts of Sejanus he was banished to 
the isle of Pontia, and there put to death. 
The Neros were of the Claudian family ; 
the surname of Nero, in the language of 
the Sabines, signifies " strong," " warlike." 

Neronea. See Artaxata. 

Nertobriga, I., also called Concordia 
Julia, Valera la Vieja, a city of Hispania 
Bsetica, some distance to the west of Cor- 
duba. — II. Almunia, a city of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, in the territory of the Cel- 
tiberi, between Bilbilis and Caesaraugusta. 

Nerva, I., Cocceius, thirteenth Roman 
emperor, descended from an ancient Cre- 
tan family, many of the members of which 
had acquired high honours at Rome, was 
born a. d. 27 or 32. .His skill in poetry 
first recommended him to the notice of 
Nero, who conferred on him triumphal 
honours when praetor elect, a. d. 66. Dur- 
ing the subsequent reigns of Vespasian and 
Titus, he held the highest offices of state ; 
but he incurred the suspicion of Domitian, 
and was banished to Tarentum, whence he 
was only recalled a.d. 96, to be raised to 
the throne on the assassination of that ty- 
rant. His reign formed a striking contrast 
to that of his sanguinary predecessor. He 
rendered himself popular by his mildness, ge- 
nerosity, and the active part he took in the 
management of affairs. He made a solemn 
declaration that no senator should suffer 
death during his reign ; and observed it 
with such sanctity, that when two members 
of the senate had conspired against his life 
he was satisfied to tell them that he was 
informed of their wicked machinations. 
But his excellent administration met with 



little favour ; for the praetorian guards, 
to whom Domitian had permitted un- 
bounded licence, mutinied, and obliged 
Nerva to surrender some of his friends 
and supporters to the fury of his soldiers. 
Seeing the necessity of vigorous mea- 
sures being adopted to secure the well- 
being of the state, he resolved to associate 
with himself a colleague in the empire, 
and for this purpose fixed upon M. Ulpius 
Trajanus, the commander of the army 
of Lower Germany, as his adopted son 
and successor, a choice which was ap- 
proved by the acclamations of the people. 
He died a. d. 98, in his seventy-second 
year, after a reign of little more than six- 
teen months. — II. M. Cocceius, grand- 
father of the emperor Nerva, was consul 
a. d, 22, and one of the most celebrated 
jurists of his age. He is said to have put 
an end to his own existence, because he 
would not be concerned in the extrava- 
gance of the emperor Tiberius, of whom 
he was an especial favourite. 

Nervii, a warlike people of Belgic 
Gaul, whose country lay on both sides of 
the Scaldis, Scheldt; afterwards Hainault 
and Nord. Their original capital was 
Bagacum, Bavia, but Camaracum, Cam- 
bray, and Turnacum, Tournay, became their 
chief cities towards the end of the fourth 
century. 

Nesis (is, or idis), Nisita, an island on 
the coast of Campania, famous for aspa- 
ragus. 

Nessus, I., a celebrated Centaur, son of 
Ixion and Nephele, who offered violence 
to Dejanira. (See Dejanira.) — II. See 
Nestus. 

Nestor, a son of Neleus and Chloris, 
nephew of Pelias, and grandson of Nep- 
tune. He was the youngest of twelve 
brothers, all of whom except himself were 
put to death by Hercules, who spared his 
life on account of his tender years, and 
placed him on the throne of Pylos. He 
married Eurydice, the daughter of Cly- 
menus, or, as some say, Anaxibia, the 
sister of Agamemnon, and had seven sons 
and two daughters. The most conspicuous 
enterprises in which Nestor bore a part 
were the war of the Pylians against the 
Elians, the affair of the Lapithaa and Cen- 
taurs, and the Argonautic expedition. He 
subsequently led his forces to the Trojan 
war, in which he particularly distinguished 
himself among the Grecian chiefs by his 
eloquence, wisdom, justice, and prudence, 
and indeed by every quality becoming an 
excellent prince. He returned in safety 
from the Trojan war, and ended his days 
in his native land. — Nestor is sometimes 



398 



NES 



NIC 



called the " Pylian sage," from his native 
city Pylos. He is also styled by Homer 
" the Gerenian," an epithet commonly 
supposed to have been derived from Ge- 
renia, where he is said to have been 
educated, although others refer it to his 
advanced age (yrjpas). Homer makes 
Nestor, at the time of the Trojan war, to 
have survived two generations of men, and 
to be then living among a third. This 
would make his age about seventy years 
and upwards. 

Nestoricjs, a Syrian by birth, who be- 
came patriarch of Constantinople a. d. 
428, under the reign of Theodosius II. 
He at first showed himself very zealous 
against the Arians and other sects ; but 
afterwards embraced certain heterodoxical 
opinions concerning the incarnation of 
Christ, whence debates and contentions 
arose which harassed the church for more 
than two centuries. His principal ad- 
versary was Cyril, the learned patriarch 
of Alexandria ; and a general council hav- 
ing, at his instigation, been convoked at 
Ephesus a. n. 431, by command of the 
Emperor Theodosius, Nestorius was con- 
demned, deposed, and banished to an oasis 
in Upper Egypt, where he died. His 
opinions however spread throughout Asia, 
and appear to have been carried to the 
farthest parts of India and China. 

Nestus, or Nessus, Nesto, a small river 
of Thrace, rising on Mount Rhodope, and 
falling into the iEgean Sea, above the 
island of Thasos. It formed for some time 
the boundary of Macedonia on the east. 

Netum, Noto, a town of Sicily. 

Neuri, a Scythian race, who appear to 
have been originally established towards 
the source of the rivers Tyras and Hypanis, 
and to have touched on the Bastarnian Alps, 
which would separate them from the Aga- 
thyrsi. 

Nicosia, I., a city of India, founded by 
Alexander in commemoration of his victory 
over Porus, on the left bank of the Hy- 
daspes, on the road from the modern 
Attock to Lahore, and just below the south- 
ern point of the island of Jamad. — II. Nice, 
or Is-nik, a town of Bithynia, situated at 
the eastern extremity of the Lake Ascanius, 
built by Antigonus, son of Philip, king of 
Macedonia ; originally called Antigonia, 
afterwards Niccea, by Lysimachus, who 
gave it the name of his wife, daughter of 
Antipater. At a later period, it super- 
seded Nicomedea as the capital of the 
country, and became the royal residence. 
Nicasa remained, as a place of trade, of the 
greatest importance, for from it all the 
great roads diverged into the eastern and 



southern parts of Asia Minor. It was 
the birth-place of Hipparchus the astro- 
nomer ; but it derives its chief celebrity 
from being the seat of the first and most 
important council held in the Christian 
church, a. d. 325. — III. A maritime city 
of Liguria, not far from the mouth of 
the Varus. Nicasa was of Milesian origin, 
and was established in this quarter as 
a trading-place with the Ligurians. The 
modern name is Nizza, or, as we term it, 
Nice. 

Nicander, a physician, poet, and gram- 
marian, born at Claros, a town of Ionia, 
near Colophon, whence he is commonly 
called Colophonius, in the beginning of the 
second century b. c. He succeeded his 
father as hereditary priest of Apollo Cla- 
rius, and dedicated one of his poems, which 
is no longer extant, to Attalus III., the 
last king of Pergamus. He appears to 
have been a voluminous writer ; but only 
two of his poems, entitled Theriaca and 
Alexipharmaca, are extant. 

Nicator, a surname assumed by Seleucus 
1., king of Syria. See Seleucus. 

Nicephorium, Racca, a town of Me- 
sopotamia, where Venus had a temple. Se- 
leucus Callinicus fortified the place, or 
some spot adjacent, and gave it the name 
of Callinicum, which, in the fifth century, 
the emperor Leo caused to be changed to 
Leontopolis. 

Nicephorius. See Centritis. 

Nicer, Neckar, a river of Germany, 
falling into the Rhine at Manheim. 

Niceratus, I., a Greek physician, and 
one of the followers of Asclepiades, lived 
about b. c. 40. None of his works remain, 
but some of his prescriptions are cited by 
Galen. — II. The father of Nicias. 

Nicete ria, a festival at Athens in me- 
mory of the victory Minerva obtained over 
Neptune, in their dispute about giving a 
name to the capital of the country. 

Nicia, Lenza, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, 
rising in the territory of the Ligures Ap- 
uani, and falling into the Po at Brixellum. 
It separates the Duchy of Modena from 
Parma. 

Nicias, I., son of Niceratus, an Athe- 
nian general, celebrated for valour and 
misfortune. Having established his mili- 
tary character by taking the island of 
Cythera from Lacedaemon, he subjugated 
many cities of Thrace which had revolted 
from the Athenian sway, and shut up the 
Megarians within their city walls, cutting 
off all communication from without, and 
taking their harbour Nisaea. When Athens 
determined to make war against Sicily, 
he was appointed, with Alcibiades and 



XI c 



XI c 



399 



Lj machus, to conduct the expedition, but \ 
after the recal of Alcibiades, his natural \ 
indecision, increased by ill-health and dis- | 
like of his command, proved a principal 
cause of the failure of the enterprise ; 
and in endeavouring to retreat by land 
from before Syracuse, the Athenian com- 
manders, Xicias and Demosthenes, (who 
had come with reinforcements,) were 
pursued, defeated, compelled to sur- 
render, and put to death, b, c. 413. 
Their troops were at first confined in 
the quarry of Epipoiae, and afterwards 
sold as slaves. — II. An Athenian artist, 
who flourished with Praxiteles, Ol. 104, 
and assisted him in the decoration of 
some ©f his productions. — III. The 
younger, an Athenian painter, son of Xi- 
comedes, and pupil of Euphranor. He 
began to practice his art Ol. 112. Xicias 
is said to have been the first artist who 
used burnt ochre in his paintings. 

Xico, father of Galen, an architect and 
geometrician, who lived in the beginning 
of the second century of our era. 

Xicocles, I., king of Paphos, in the 
island of Cyprus. He owed his throne to 
the kindness of Ptolemy I., king of Egypt ; 
but he subsequently formed an alliance 
with Antigonus. upon which Ptolemy sent 
two of his confidential emissaries to Cyprus, 
with orders to despatch him. These two 
individuals, after making known to him 
the orders of Ptolemy, compelled him to 
destroy himself, although he protested his 
innocence ; and all his family followed his 
example, b. c. 310. — II. King of Cyprus, 
succeeded his father Evagoras b. c. 374. 
H e c aebrated the funeral obsequies of his 
parent with great splendour, and engaged 
Isocrates, whose pupil he had been, to 
write his eulogium. — III. A familiar 
friend of Pbocion, condemned to death, — 
IV. A tyrant of Sicyon, deposed by Ara- 
tus the Achaean. 

Nicocreon, a tyrant of Cyprus in the 
age of Alexander the Great. A fabulous 
story is related of his having caused the 
philosopher Anaxarchus to be pounded 
alive in a mortar, in revenge for the ad- 
vice which he is said to have given to 
Alexander to serve up his head at an en- 
tertainment. 

Xicodorus, a wrestler of Mantinea, who 
studied philosophy in his old age. 

Xicolaus, I., a Greek Comic poet whose 
era is unknown. A fragment of his in 
forty-four verses is given by Stobeeus, who, 
however, ascribes it to Xicolaus Damas- 
cenus. — II. Surnamed Damascenus (Ni- 
HoKaos 6 Aaua<rnrjv6s), a native of Damascus 
cf good family. He was the friend of 



Herod the Great, king of the Jews, and in 
the year e. c. 6, was sent by that monarch 
on an embassy to Augustus. He was a 
very voluminous writer, and several of his 
works have come down to our times. ( See 
Xicolaus, I.) — III. A celebrated Syra- 
cusan, who endeavoured, but in vain, to 
dissuade his countrymen from offering 
violence to the Athenian prisoners, when 
taken with Xicias their general. 

Xicomachus, the father of Aristotle. 
Xicomedes, I., a king of Bithynia who 
succeeded his father Ziphcetes, b. c. 278. 
His succession being disputed by his bro- 
thers, he called in the Gauls to support 
his claims, and by their assistance suc- 
ceeded in establishing himself on the 
throne, which however became tributary 
to his allies. He built the city Xico- 
media, and left his kingdom to his son 

Zielas, b. c. 250 II. The second of the 

name, surnamed Epiphanes, succeeded his 
father Prusias II., b, c. 149. He accom- 
panied his parent to Rome, b. c. 167, where 
he appears to have been brought up under 
the care of the senate. Prusias, becoming 
jealous of the popularity of his son, and 
anxious to secure the succession of his 
younger children, formed a plan for his 
assassination ; but Xicomedes, having 
gained intelligence of his purpose, de- 
prived his father of the throne, and sub- 
: sequently put him to death. Xicomedes 
I remained during the whole of his long 
j reign a faithful ally of the Romans. Dur- 
I ing the latter part of his reign he was 
involved in a war with Mithridates. — 
III. The third of the name, surnamed 
j Philopator, succeeded his father Xicome- 
i des II., b. c. 91. During the first year of 
I his reign, he was expelled from his king- 
dom by Mithridates, who placed upon the 
throne Socrates, the younger brother of 
Xicomedes. He was restored, however, 
to his kingdom in the following year by 
the Romans, who sent an army under 
Aquilius to support him. At the break- 
ing out of the Mithridatic war, b. c. 88, 
Xicomedes took part with the Romans ; 
but his army was completely defeated by 
the generals of Mithridates, near the river 
Amnias, in Paphlagonia, and he himself 
was again expelled from his kingdom, and 
obliged to take refuge in Italy. At the 
conclusion of the Mithridatic war, b. c. 84, 
Bithynia was restored to Xicomedes. He 
died b. c. 74, without children, and left his 
kingdom to the Romans. — IV. A geome- 
trician in the age of the philosopher Era- 
tosthenes, famous for being the inventor of 
the curve called the conchoid. 

Xicomedia (Is-nikmid), the capital of 



400 



NIC 



NIG 



Bithynia, founded by Nicomedes L, who 
transferred to it the inhabitants of the 
neighbouring Astacus. Its fine position, 
handsome buildings, numerous warm 
baths and mineral waters, soon raised 
it into importance ; and under the Ro- 
mans it became one of the chief cities 
of the empire, being inferior in extent and 
populousness only to Rome, Alexandria, 
and Antioch. Nicomedia, however, suf- 
fered severely from earthquakes, one of 
which almost destroyed it in the reign of 
Julian ; but it was again rebuilt with 
great splendour and magnificence, and re- 
covered nearly its former greatness. 

Nicopolis (" City of Victory," vIktj and 
ir6\is), or Emmaus, I., a city of Palestine, 
north-west of Jerusalem, so called by the 
emperor Heliogabalus, who restored and 
beautified it. — II. A city in the north- 
eastern corner of Cilicia, where the range 
of Taurus joins that of Amanus. — III. 
or Tephrice, Devrigni, a city of Armenia 
Minor, on the Lycus, near the borders of 
Pontus, built by Pompey in commemora- 
tion of a victory which he gained here over 
Mithridates. — IV. Nicopoli, a city in 
Moesia Inferior, on the Istrus, or lster, 
founded by the emperor Trajan in com- 
memoration of a victory over the Da- 
cians, and generally called, for the sake of 
distinction, Nicopolis ad Istrum or ad Danu- 
bium. — V. Nikub, a city of Moesia Inferior, 
south-east of the preceding, at the foot of 
Mount Hsemus, and near the sources of 
the Istrus, called, for the sake of distinction, 
Nicopolis ad Hcemum. — VI. Kars or Kias- 
sera, a city of Egypt, in the immediate 
vicinity of Alexandria, founded by Au- 
gustus in commemoration of a victory 
gained here over Antony. — VII. Nicopoli, 
a city of Thrace, not far from the mouth 
of the Nessus, founded by Trajan and after- 
wards called Christopolis. — VIII. A city 
of Epirus, near the mouth of the Am- 
bracian Gulf, founded by Augustus, in ho- 
nour of the victory at Actium. Nicopolis 
may be said to have risen out of all the 
surrounding cities of Epirus and Aear- 
nania, and even of iEtolia, all of which 
were compelled to contribute to its pros- 
perity. Augustus ordered games to be 
celebrated with great pomp every five years, 
enlarged a temple of Apollo, and conse- 
crated to Mars and Neptune the site on 
which his army had encamped before the 
battle of Actium, adorning it with naval 
trophies. Having afterwards fallen to 
decay, it was restored by the emperor Julian. 
The remains of Nicopolis are very exten- 
sive : the site which they occupy is now 
known by the name of Prevesa Vecchia. 



Nicostratus, one of the sons of Aristo- 
phanes, and ranked among the poets of the 
Middle Comedy. The titles of some of his 
own and his brothers' (Araros and Philip- 
pus) comedies are preserved in Athena?us. 

Niger, I., called also Joliba, by the 
Moors Nile el Abeede, " Nile of the Ne- 
groes," and by the natives Quori-a, a 
celebrated river of Africa, rising in the 
mountains of Kong, and flowing into the 
Gulph of Guinea near Cape Formosa. 
This river was little known to the an- 
cients ; and it is only within a very recent 
period that its sources and debouchement have 
been ascertained. — II. Caius Pescexnics, 
a native of Aquinum, of simple equestrian 
family, who, from being a centurion^rose to 
high offices of trust and honour under Mar- 
cus Aurelius, Commodus, and Pertinax, and 
at last obtained the government of Syria. 
On the murder of Pertinax, a. d. 193, the 
empire being exposed for sale by the Prae- 
torian guards, was purchased by Didius 
Julianus; but the people refused to ac- 
knowledge him as emperor; and three ge- 
nerals, at the head of their respective le- 
gions, Septimius Severus, who commanded 
in Pannonia, Clodius Albinus in Britain, 
and Pescennius Niger in Syria, claimed 
each the empire. Of these Niger was the 
most popular, and his cause was warmly 
espoused by all the provinces of the East. 
But instead of hastening to Italy, where 
his presence was indispensable, he quietly 
remained at Antioch, while his rival Severus 
marched to Rome, dethroned Didius, and 
made active preparations for prosecuting the 
war against Niger in Asia. Roused at length 
from his inactivity, Niger crossed over to 
Europe, and established his headquarters 
at Byzantium ; but he had scarcely ar- 
rived there, before his troops in Asia were 
defeated near Cyzicus by the generals of 
Severus. He was soon, however, able to 
collect another army, which he commanded 
in person ; but, being defeated successively 
near Niceea and at Issus, he abandoned 
his troops, and fled towards the Euphrates, 
with the intention of seeking refuge among 
the Parthians. But before he could reach 
the Euphrates, he was overtaken by a de- 
tachment of the enemy, and put to death, 
a. d. 194. 

Nigidius Figulus, P., a celebrated phi- 
losopher and astrologer at Rome. He 
was a senator at the time of Catiline's 
conspiracy, and lent his best endeavours 
in aid of Cicero, whose friend he was. 
He subsequently attained to the prastor- 
ship, and displayed great firmness in dis- 
charging the duties of that office. In the 
civil wars he followed the party of Pompey, 



NIG 



KIN 



401 



for which he was banished by the Dictator, 
notwithstanding all the efforts of Cicero 
in his behalf, and died in exile a year be- 
fore the assassination of Csesar. 

NiGRiTiE, a people of Africa, who dwelt 
on the banks of the Niger, 

Nileus, a son of Codrus, who conducted 
a colony of Ionians to Asia, where he 
built Colophon, Clazomenae, Ephesus, Le- 
bedos, Miletus, Myus, Priene, Teos, &c. 

Nilus, (Gr. NetAos, from vkav Ihvv, 
" new mud," because it brings down vast 
quantities of slime or mud), a large and 
famous river of north-east Africa, flow- 
ing north through Abyssinia, Nubia, and 
Egypt, to the Mediterranean Sea, ce- 
lebrated alike for its magnitude, the 
inexhaustible fertility which it confers 
on the " land of Egypt," the uncertainty 
of its origin, its connection with some of 
the most interesting events in the remotest 
periods of authentic history, the great 
cities that were early built on its banks, 
and the stupendous monuments that still 
attest the wealth and power of their found- 
ers. The discovery of its real source was 
an object of intense curiosity to the an- 
cients, as it still remains to the travellers 
and geographers of modern days ; the 
words of Tibullus, 

Nile pater, quanam te possim dicere causa 
Aut quibus in terris occuluisse caput, 

being nearly as applicable now as in his 
time. It issues from a chain of mountains 
called Gebel-el- Kumr, "Mountains of the 
Moon," under the name of Bahr-el-Abiad, 
" White River ; " and after running in an 
easterly direction along the foot of the 
mountains, turns to the north, and re- 
ceives two principal tributaries, the As- 
tapus, Abawi, mistaken by Bruce for the 
Nile itself, and Astaboras, Tacazze. It 
then pursues a circuitous course through 
Nubia, and on the frontiers of Egypt 
forms two cataracts, the lowest of which 
is near Syene. Below Syene, it continues 
its course for 500 miles, till, a little below 
Cairo, the river divides into two branches ; 
the one of which flowing to Rosetta, the 
other to Damietta, contain between them 
the present Delta. The ancients were 
acquainted with seven mouths of the Nile, 

1 . The Canopic, partly lost in Lake Elko ; 

2. Bolbitine at Rosetta; 3. Sebennytic, 
probably the opening into Lake Burlos ; 

4. Phatnitic or Bucolic at Damietta ; 

5. Mendesian, lost in the Lake Menzaleh ; 

6. Tanitic, or Saitic, seems to leave some 
traces of its termination to the east of Lake 
Menzaleh, under the name of Omm- Farecfje. 
The branch of the Nile which conveyed 



its waters to the sea corresponds to the. 
canal of Moez, which now loses itself in 
the lake ; 7. The Pelusiac seems to be 
represented by what is now the most east- 
erly mouth of Lake Menzaleh, where the 
ruins of Pelusium are still visible. The 
periodical rains, which begin to fall in 
Abyssinia about the end of June, occasion 
the overflowing of this celebrated river. 
It continues to rise until the autumnal 
equinox, when it attains its greatest height. 
It then continues stationary for a few days, 
and after this diminishes at a less rapid 
rate than it rose. At the winter- solstice 
it is very low, but some water still remains 
in the large canals. Crocodiles, the largest 
about twenty-five feet long, are seen a 
little below Diospolis Parva. They are 
supposed not to go further down the river 
than Girgeh, but abound between that place 
and Syene. The Nile is said by Herodo- 
tus to have flowed, previous to the time of 
Menes, on the side of Libya. This prince, 
by constructing a mound 100 stadia from 
Memphis towards the south, diverted its 
course ; and the ancient bed may be traced 
across the desert, passing west of the Lakes 
of Natroun. Pococke makes the word 
Nile to be a contraction of Nahal, " The 
River," by way of eminence, while Ab- 
dollatif derives it from Nal, " to give, to 
be liberal." The water of the Nile bears 
the same rank among waters that cham- 
pagne does among wines. 

Ninus, I., son of Belus, and king of As- 
syria, about b. c. 2048. He signalised him- 
self by extensive conquests, reducing under 
his sway the Babylonians, Armenians, 
Medes, Bactrians, Indi, and, in a word, 
the whole of Upper and Lower Asia. Even 
Egypt felt his sway. In his expedition 
against the Bactrians he met with the fa- 
mous Semiramis, with whom he united 
himself in marriage. After completing his 
conquests, Ninus, according to the Greek 
writers, erected for his capital the cele- 
brated city of Nineveh, and on his death 
was succeeded by Semiramis, who reared 
a tomb of vast dimensions over his grave. 
Much of what is stated respecting this 
monarch is either purely fabulous, or else 
various legends respecting different con- 
querors are made to unite in one. — II. 
The capital of the Assyrian empire, called by 
the Greeks and Romans Ninus (N?vos), but 
in Scripture Nineveh, and in the Septuagint 
version, NiVein or Niueut, situated in the plain 
of Aturia, on the Tigris. Herodotus and 
other profane writers ascribe its fovindation 
to Ninus, son of Belus, and first monarch 
of the Assyrian empire ; but, according to 
the Bible, " As^hur (the grandson of Cush) 



402 



NIN 



NIS 



went forth out of the land of Shinar, and 
builded Nineveh." Its history is lost in 
the obscurity of succeeding ages ; but it 
was no doubt a very large city nine cen- 
turies before the Christian sera, for at that 
period Jonah descrihed it as " an exceed- 
ing great city of three days' journey." 
Strabo says that it was larger even than 
Babylon ; the circuit of which he esti- 
mated at 385 stadia; and, according to 
Diodorus Siculus, it was of an oblong 
shape, 150 stadia in length and 90 in 
breadth ; that is, above 54 m. in circuit. 
Very little dependence can, however, be 
placed on these statements ; and it is at the 
same time admitted that the walls included 
a large extent of well-cultivated gardens 
and pasture grounds. Nineveh was the 
residence of the Assyrian kings, and a city 
of great commercial importance. It was 
besieged and taken by Arbaces the Mede 
in the eighth century b. c, but appears 
to have been regarded as the capital of the 
Assyrian empire down to 612 b. c, nearly 
three centuries after Jonah's prophecy of her 
destruction, when it fell, after a protracted 
siege, into the hands of Ahasuerus, or Cy- 
axaras, king of Media. The spoil was taken 
to Ecbatana, the citizens were dispersed in 
villages, and the Assyrian empire, which 
for four centuries had been the glory of 
the Eastern world, gave way to that of 
the Medes and Persians. It seems certain, 
however, either that the city had not been 
wholly destroyed, or, which is most pro- 
bable, that a new and inferior city had, at 
a subsequent period, grown out of the 
ruins of the more ancient city ; and the 
latter, no doubt, is that referred to by Ta- 
citus and Ammianus Marcellinus. 

Ninyas, son of Ninus and Semiramis, 
whom he succeeded on the throne of As- 
syria, when she voluntarily abdicated the 
crown. His reign is remarkable for its 
luxury and extravagance. 

Niobe, in classical mythology, daugh- 
ter of Tantalus, and one of the Pleiades, 
married to Amphion, king of Thebes. 
Proud of her numerous and flourishing 
offspring, she provoked the anger of Apollo 
and Diana, who slew them all : she was 
herself changed by Jupiter into a rock 
in Phrygia, from which a rivulet, fed by 
her tears, continually pours. The subject 
of Niobe and her children was a great fa- 
vourite with the poets of antiquity. Be- 
sides the beautiful story in Ovid, there are 
numerous epigrams in the Greek Anthology, 
which appear to be descriptive either of 
the group of figures to which we refer be- 
low, or to some similar group. This fable 
has also afforded a subject for art, and 



particularly for the sculptor of the beau- 
tiful group in the tribune of Florence, 
known by the name of Niobe and her Chil- 
dren. Some antiquaries attribute it to 
Scopas ; Winkelman inclines to believe it 
the workmanship of Praxiteles. It is beau- 
tifully characterised by Hazlitt, in his 
" Treatise on Art," in the Ency. Britannica. 
The myth of Niobe has been explained by 
Volker and others in a physical sense. 
According to these writers, the name Niobe 
denotes Youth or Newness. She is the 
daughter of the Flourishing-one (Tantalus), 
and the mother of the Green-one (Chloris). 
In her, then, we may view the young, ver- 
dant, fruitful earth, the bride of the sun 
( Amphion), beneath the influence of whose 
fecundating beams she pours forth vegeta- 
tion with lavish profusion. The revolution 
of the year, however, denoted by Apollo 
and Diana (other forms of the sun and 
moon), withers up and destroys her pro- 
geny ; she weeps and stiffens to stone (the 
torrents and frosts of winter) ; but Chloris, 
the Green-one, remains, and spring clothes 
the earth anew with its smiling verdure. — 
II. A daughter of Phoroneus, king of Pe- 
loponnesus and Laodice. She was beloved 
by Jupiter, and gave birth to a son called 
Argus, who gave his name to Argia or 
Argolis, a country of Peloponnesus. 

Niphates, a range of mountains in Ar- 
menia, forming part of the chain of Taurus, 
south-east of the Arsissa Palus or Lake 
Van. Their summits were covered with 
snow during the whole year, and to this 
circumstance the name Niphates is sup- 
posed to allude (NicpdtTTjs, quasi vicperuiSTjs, 
" snowy"). There was also a river of the 
same name rising in this mountain chain. 

Nireus, son of Charops and Aglaia, and 
king of Naxos. He was one of the Grecian 
chiefs during the Trojan war, and was 
celebrated for his beauty. 

NisiEA, L, a city and district of Upper 
Asia, near the sources of the river Ochus. 
now the Margab, situate between Parthiene 
and Hyrcania, and generally considered to 
have been the chief city of Parthiene. The 
famous Nisaean horses are thought to have 
come from this quarter. — II. The harbour 
of Megara, situate on the Saronic Gulf, 
and connected with the main city by long 
walls. The citadel was also called by the 
same name, and stood on the road between 
Megara and the port. It was a place of 
considerable strength. 

Nisibis, a large and populous city of 
Mesopotamia, about two days' journey from 
the Tigris, in the midst of a pleasant and 
fertile plain at the foot of Mons Masius, 
and on the river Mygdonius. The name 



NTS 



NOC 



403 



was changed by the Macedonians into An- 
tiochia Mygdonica, but this new appellation 
ceased with the Macedonian sway, and the 
old name of Nisibis was resumed. Nisibis 
was taken and plundered by Lucullus ; but 
the Parthians subsequently became masters 
of it, and held it until the time of Trajan, 
who took it from them. At a later period, 
it became a strong bulwark of the Roman 
empire in this quarter against the attacks 
of the Persians; but after the death of 
Julian, it was ceded to Sapor, king of 
Persia, by Jovian, and remained henceforth 
for the Persians what it had thus far been 
to the Romans, a strong frontier town. 
The latter could never regain possession of 
it. — The modern Nisibin or Nissabin, 
which occupies the site of the ancient city, 
is little better than a mere village. 

Nisus, I., a son of Hyrtaeus, born on 
Mount Ida, near Troy. He came to Italy 
with iEneas, and was united by ties of the 
closest attachment to Euryalus, son of O- 
pheltes. During the prosecution of the war 
with Turnus, Nisus, to whom the defence 
of one of the entrances of the camp was 
intrusted, determined to sally forth in 
search of tidings of iEneas. Euryalus ac- 
companied him in this perilous undertaking. 
Fortune at first seconded their efforts, but 
they were at length surprised by a Latin 
detachment. Euryalus was cut down by 
Volscens ; the latter was as immediately 
despatched by the avenging hand of Nisus ; 
who, however, overpowered by numbers, 
soon shared the fate of his friend. — II. A 
king of Megara. In the war waged by 
Minos, king of Crete, against the Athe- 
nians, on account of the death of Andro- 
geus (see Androgeus), Megara was be- 
sieged, and it was taken through the 
treachery of Scylla, the daughter of Nisus. 
This prince had a golden or purple lock of 
hair growing on his head ; and as long as 
it remained uncut, so long was his life to 
last. Scylla, having seen Minos, fell in 
love with him, and resolving to give him 
the victory, cut off her father's precious 
lock as he slept, when he immediately died, 
and the town was then taken by the Cre- 
tans. Minos, however, instead of rewarding 
the maiden, disgusted with her unnatural 
treachery, tied her by the feet to the stern 
of his vessel, and thus dragged her along 
until she was drowned. Another legend 
adds, that Nisus was changed into the bird 
called the Sea-eagle (aXideros), and Scylla 
into that named Ciris (tcelpLs), and that the 
father continually pursues the daughter to 
punish her for her crime. According to 
jEschylus, Minos bribed Scylla with a 
golden collar. 



Nisyros, an island in the iEgean, 
one of the Sporades, about sixty stadia 
north of Telos, with a town of the same 
name. Mythologists pretended that this 
island had been separated from Cos by 
Neptune, in order that he might hurl it 
against the giant Polyboetes. Herodotus 
informs us that the Nisyrians were subject 
at one time to Artemisia, qtieen of Caria. 
The modern name is Nisari. 

Nitetis, daughter of Apries, king of 
Egypt, married by his successor Amasis 
to Cambyses. 

Nitxobriges, a people of Gaul, of Celtic 
origin, but who settled among the Aqui- 
tani. Their chief city was Nitiobrigum 
or Agennum, on the Garumna, now Agen, 
and their territory answers to VAgennois, 
in the Departement de Lot et Garonne. 

Nitocris, I., a queen of Babylon, gene- 
rally supposed to have been the wife of 
Nebuchodonosor or Nebuchadnezzar, and 
grandmother, consequently, to Labynetus 
or Nabonedus, who is called in Scripture 
Belshatzar or Beltzasar. In order to 
render her territories more secure from the 
Medes, and to make the approach to her 
capital by the Euphrates as difficult as 
possible, she sank a number of canals, by 
which the river became so complicated by 
numerous windings, that it touched three 

times at Ardericca, an Assyrian village 

II. An Egyptian queen whom the people 
raised to the throne after they had put her 
brother to death. Having constructed a 
large subterranean apartment, and having 
invited to an entertainment in it those 
individuals who had been most concerned 
in her brother's murder, she let in the river 
by a secret passage, and drowned them all. 
She then destroyed herself. Heeren takes 
this Nitocris for a queen of ^Ethiopian 
origin; no instance of a reigning queen 
being found among the pure Egyptian 
dynasties. 

Nitria, a city of Egypt, west of the 
Canopic branch of the Nile, in the desert 
near the lakes, which afforded nitre. It 
gave its name to the Nitriotic Nome. 

Nivaria, I., also called Convallis, one 
of the Fortunata? Insula?, off the western 
coast of Mauritania Tingitana. It is now 
the island of Teneriffe. The name Nivaria 
has reference to the snows which cover the 
summits of the island for a great part of 
the year. — II. A city of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, in the territory of the Vaccaei, 
and north of Cauca. 

Nocmon, a Trojan killed by Turnus. 

Noctiluca, a surname of Diana, as in- 
dicating the goddess that shines during 
the night season. The epithet would also 



404 



NOL 



NOR 



appear to have reference to her temple on 
the Palatine Hill being adorned with 
lights during the same period. 

Nola, one of the most ancient and im- 
portant cities of Magna Grsecia, situated 
in Campania, north-east of Neapolis. It 
is said by Pliny and Silius Italicus to 
have been founded by a colony from Chal- 
cis ; but Velleius Paterculus states that 
Nola was founded, along with Capua, by 
the Tuscans ; and the many tine Etruscan 
vases that have been found here seem to 
corroborate this statement. It was be- 
sieged by Hannibal soon after the battle of 
Cannas ; but Marcellus, who had thrown 
himself into the town, having made an un- 
expected assault upon the Carthaginian 
army, Hannibal withdrew from the siege. 
It is, however, principally celebrated in 
ancient history from its having been the 
place where Marcus Agrippa, the faithful 
friend and successful general of Augustus, 
breathed his last, b. c. 12 ; and where Au- 
gustus himself expired, a. d. 14, in the 
seventy-fifth year of his age. But, with 
the exception of its vases, it has now but 
few remains of antiquity. In the days of 
its prosperity it had two marble amphi- 
theatres ; of which, however, nothing now 
remains but the brick walls, the marble 
having been taken away to be employed in 
the construction of modern edifices. Bells 
were first invented there in the fifth cen- 
tury ; hence they have been called Nolce or 
Cu?npance, in Latin. The inventor, St. 
Paulinus, bishop of the place, died a.d. 431. 

Nomades, ( Gr. vo/mades ; from vojxos, 
pasture,) tribes of men without fixed ha- 
bitation. The nomades of classical times 
were generally tribes devoted to pastoral 
pursuits ; for the ancients knew of no 
races of savages subsisting wholly by the 
chase. The principal nomadic tribes of 
antiquity were those of southern Rus- 
sia and the interior of Asia, from whom 
sprung, in the decline of the Roman em- 
pire, many of the tribes which overran 
western Europe ; and, at a later era, those 
which conquered empires in western and 
southern Asia. 

Nomentanus, an epithet applied to L. 
Cassius, from his being a native of No- 
mentum, mentioned by Horace as marked 
by luxury and dissipation. 

No me nt u si, Lamentana, a town of Italy 
in the territory of the Sabines, not far from 
the Allia, built by a colony from Alba. 
It was conquered by the Romans with 
several other towns, a. u. c. 417, and ad- 
mitted to the participation of the privileges 
granted to Latin municipal cities. Its 
territory was long celebrated for the pro- 



duce of its vineyards. The road from 
Rome to Nomentum passed through the 
Porta Viminalis, and was called the Via 
Nomentana. 

Nonacris, an ancient city of Arcadia, 
not far from the sources of the Ladon. It 
was chiefly celebrated for the rivulet of 
Stryx, which fell drop by drop from a pre-r 
cipitous rock above the town, and whose 
water possessed the property of dissolving 
metals and other hard substances exposed 
to their action. The epithet Nonacrius is 
sometimes used by the poets in the sense 
of' Arcadian." Thus, Ovid employs it in 
speaking of Evander, as being an Arcadian 
by birth, and gives the name Nonacrina to the 
Arcadian heroines, Atalanta, Callisto, &c. 

Nonius Marcellus, a Peripatetic phi- 
losopher, critic, and grammarian, was born 
at Tibur, Tivoli, in the fourth century, 
and was the author of a work entitled 
" Doctrina de Proprietate Sermonum," 
which has reached our times. 

Nonnus Panopolita, a Greek poet, and 
native of Panopolis in Egypt, in the fifth 
century, and whose poetical work entitled 
" Dionysiaca," and a poetical paraphrase 
of the Gospel of St. John, are still extant. 

Norba, I., Norma, a town of Latium, 
north-east of Antium, mentioned among 
the early Latin cities by Pliny. It was 
early colonised by the Romans as an ad- 
vantageous station to check the inroads of 
the Volsci ; but at a later period, it es- 
poused the cause of Marius, and being be- 
sieged by Lepidus, one of Svlla's generals, 
was opened to him by treachery ; the un- 
daunted inhabitants choosing rather to pe- 
rish by their own hands than fall into the 
hands of their conqueror. — II. A town 
of Apulia, north-west of Egnatia, whose 
site is supposed to answer nearly to that 
of Conversant). — III. Caesarea, called also 
Colonia Norbensis or Caesariana, a city in 
the north-western part of Lusitania. The 
ruins of this place are in the vicinity of 
the modern Alcantara. 

Norbanus, C, a native of Norba, of a 
distinguished family, and a conspicuous 
leader on the side of Marius, when his 
native city fell into the possession of Le- 
pidus, one of Sylla's generals. 

Noreia, the chief city of Noricum, be- 
sieged in the time of J. Caasar by the Boii, 
and subsequently destroyed by the Romans. 

Noric^; Alpes, a branch of the Alps, 
extending from the source of the Amisus, 
Ems, as far as Hungary, and which sepa- 
rated the province of Noricum into two 
parts. They were inhabited by various 
Celtic tribes, of whom the Taurisci and 
the Norici were the chief. 



NOR 



NUM 



405 



Noricum, a province of the Roman em- 
pire, bounded on the north by the Danube, 
on the west by Vindelicia and Rhastia, on 
the east by Pannonia, and on the south by 
Illyricum and Gallia Cisalpina. During the 
later period of the Roman empire, Mount 
Cetius and part of the river Murius, Mur, 
appear to have formed the boundaries, and 
Noricum would thus correspond to the 
modern Siyria, Carinthia, and Salzburg, 
and to part of Austria and Bavaria. No- 
ricum was conquered by Augustus ; and 
in the reign of Dioclesian was divided 
into two provinces, Noricum Ripense and 
Noricum Mediterraneum, which were se- 
parated from each other by the Alpes 
Norica?. (See Noricje Alpes.) Noricum 
was inhabited by numerous tribes of whom 
scarcely any thing is known ; its chief 
towns were, Noreia, Juvanum, Boiodu- 
rum, and Ovilia. The iron drawn from 
Noricum was esteemed excellent ; hence 
Noricus ensis was used to express the good- 
ness of a sword. 

NortIa, or Nersia, a name given to the 
goddess of Fortune among the Etrurians. 

Nothus, I., a son of Deucalion. — II. 
Surname of Darius Ochus, king of Persia, 
from his illegitimacy. 

Notium, the harbour of Colophon in 
Asia Minor, after the destruction of which 
city by Lysimachus it became a flourish- 
ing town. 

Notus, south-wind, called also Auster, 
generally spoken of as a stormy wind. 

Nova r i a, Novara, a town of Cisalpine 
Gaul, north-east of Vercelke, and west of 
Mediolanum, Milan. 

Novesium, Neuss, a town of the Ubii, 
west of the Rhine, near Cologne. 

Noviodunum, I., a city of the Bituriges 
Cubi, in Gallia Aquitanica, whose site cor- 
responds to Nouan-le-Fuztlier. — II. A 
city of Gallia Lugdunensis, on the Liger, 
or Loire, corresponding to the modern 
Nevers. — III. Soissons, a city of the Sues- 
sones, in Gallia Belgica. It was more com- 
monly called Augusta Suessonum or Sues- 
sionum. 

Noviomagus, or Neomagus, or Novro- 
magum, I., a city of the Batavi, Nimvegen, 
— II. The capital of the Lexubii or Lix- 
ovii, in Gallia Lugdunensis, corresponding 
either to the modern Caen or Lisieux. — 
III. Augusta Nemetum, Spires, the capital 
of the Nemethes. — IV. A city of the Bitu- 
riges Vivisci, in Gallia Aquitanica, cor- 
responding either to Castillon, not far from 
the mouth of the Gironde, or Castelnau de 
Medoc. — V. A city of Britain, the capital of 
Regni, the remains of which may be traced 
at ifoodcote, near Croydon. 



Novius Priscus, I., banished from Rome 
by Nero, on suspicion that he was acces- 
sory to Piso's conspiracy. — II. Attempted 
to assassinate Claudius. — III. Two bro- 
thers obscurely born, distinguished in the 
age of Horace for their officiousness. 

Novum Comum. See Comum. 

Nox, one of the most ancient deities, 
daughter of Chaos. From her union with 
her brother Erebus, she gave birth to the 
Day and the Light. She was also the mother 
of the Parcas, Hesperides, Dreams, Discord, 
Death, Momus, Fraud, &e. She was called 
by some of the poets the mother of all 
things, of gods as well as of men, and was 
therefore worshipped with great solemnity. 
A black sheep and a cock, the latter as 
announcing the approach of day, were sa- 
crificed to her. Night was represented 
under various forms : as riding in a chariot 
preceded by the constellations, with wings, 
to denote the rapidity of her course ; as 
traversing the firmament seated in her car, 
and covered with a black veil studded with 
stars. She has often been confounded with 
Diana, or the Moon : and her statue was 
placed in the temple of that goddess at 
Ephesus. 

Nuceria, L, Luzzara, a town of Cisal- 
pine Gaul, north of Brixellum. — II. Nocera, 
a city of Umbria on the Flaminian Way, 
some distance north of Spoletium. It is 
noticed by Strabo for its manufacture of 
wooden vessels. — III. Nocera de Pagani, a 
town of Campania, about twelve miles 
south of Nola, called Alfaterna to distin- 
guish it from the other places of the same 
name. It was founded by the Pelasgi 
Sanastes, and besieged by Hannibal after 
his unsuccessful attack on Nola, and sacked 
and burned, but restored and colonised in 
the reign of Nero. 

Nuithones, a people of Germany, whose 
territory appears to have corresponded to 
the south-eastern part of Mecklenburg. 

Numa Pompilius, I., second king of 
Rome, was born at Cures, a town of the 
Sabines. At the death of Romulus, the 
Romans selected him to be their king ; but 
Numa refused, and was only at last pre- 
vailed on to accept the royalty, when he 
was assured by the auspices that his elec- 
tion would be acceptable to the gods. He 
applied himself to tame the ferocity of 
his subjects, inculcate a reverence for the 
deity, and quell dissensions by dividing all 
the citizens into different classes. He 
established different orders of priests, abo- 
lished the worshipping of images, and en- 
couraged the report that he was divinely 
instructed by the Nymph Egeria, whose 
name he used to give sanction to the laws 



406 



NUM 



NUM 



and institutions he had introduced. Dur- I 
ing his reign the ancile or sacred shield 
dropped from heaven. He dedicated a > 
temple to Janus, which, during his whole 
reign, remained shut, as a mark of peace 
and tranquillity at Rome, and died after a I 
reign of forty-three "years, b. c. 672. He 
married Tatia, daughter of Tatius, king \ 
of the Sabines, and left behind one daugh- I 
ter, Pompilia, who married Numa Marcius 
and became the mother of Ancus Martius, ] 
fourth king of Rome. The reign of Numa ! 
belongs to a period when it is difficult to 
separate truth from fiction. According to 
Niebuhr, and the writers who adopt his 
views of Roman history, the reign of Numa 
is considered, in its political aspect, only as 
a representation of the union between the 
Sabines and the original inhabitants of 
Rome, or, in other words, between the 
tribes of the Titienses and the Ramnes. — 
II. Marcius, son of Marcius Sabinus, son- 
in-law of Numa Pompilius, and father of 
Ancus Martius. He was made governor 
of Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and after- 
wards high-priest by Numa. — III. One 
of the Rutulian chiefs killed by Nisus and 
Euryalus. 

Numantia, Soria, a celebrated city of 
the Celtiberi in Spain, near the source of 
the Durius, Douro, said to have been the 
capital of the Arevaci. It was situated on 
a steep hill of moderate size, and, though 
it possessed no walls, was rendered all but 
impregnable by nature. It was twenty- 
four stadia in circumference. Numantia 
is memorable in history for the war which 
it carried on against the Romans for four- 
teen years, to the great annoyance of the 
latter, whose generals, Q,. Pompeius, M. 
Popellus, Mancinus, iEmilius, Lepidus, 
and Piso, were successively repulsed A 
treaty was then entered into between them; 
but the Romans having gained their im- 
mediate purposes, sent Scipio Africanus, 
who had destroyed Carthage, to wage a 
war of extermination against the Numan- 
tines. Scipio, who knew the bravery of 
those he had to contend with, did not 
attempt to carry the city by storm; but 
having surrounded it by strong lines of 
circumvallation, left famine to effect its re- 
duction. But notwithstanding their inferior 
numbers, the Numantines made the most 
astonishing efforts to break through and 
destroy the works of the Romans ; but 
having been repulsed, they were reduced 
to the most dreadful extremities. It is 
uncertain how the final catastrophe of this 
noble city was consummated ; whether, as 
Florus affirms, the Numantines set it on 
fire and perished in the flames, or whether, 



as Appian states, having surrendered the 
small remnant of its inhabitants that were 
found alive were sold as slaves. The con- 
queror obtained the surname of Numan- 

tinus. 

Numenia. See Neomenia. 

Numbnius, I., a Greek philosopher of 
the Platonic school, born at Apamea in 
Syria, about the beginning of the third 
century of our era, and regarded as an 
oracle of wisdom. Eusebius has preserved 
a few fragments of his writings. — II. A 
Greek rhetorician, who flourished in the 
time of the Antonines, and wrote two 
works, printed in the Aldine Rhetorical 
Collection. — III. An epigrammatic poet, 
a native of Tarsus. 

Numerianus, M. Aurelius, I., a son of 
the emperor Carus, whom he accompanied 
into the East with the title of Caesar, and 
at his death succeeded him on the throne 
conjointly with his brother Carinus, a, t>. 
284. Eight months after his father's death 
he was murdered by his father-in-law, 
Arrius Aper, who accompanied him in an 
expedition. The virtues of Numerianus 
are mentioned by most of his biographers. 
His manners were mild and affable ; and 
he was celebrated among his contempora- 
ries for eloquence and poetic talent. — II. 
A friend of the emperor Severus. 

NumIcia Via, a Roman road traversing 
the northern part of Samnium. It com- 
municated with the Valerian, Latin, and 
Appian Ways, and, after crossing through 
part of Apulia, joined the Via Aquilia 
in Lucania. 

Numiciu% or Numicus, Rio Torlo, a 
small river of Latium, near Lavinium, in 
which the dead body of -Eneas was found, 
and in which Anna, Dido's sister, drowned 
herself 

NumIda, Plotius, a friend of Horace, 
who had returned, after a long absence, 
from Spain, where he had been serving 
under Augustus in the Cantabrian war. 
The poet addresses one of his odes to him, 
and bids his friends celebrate in due form 
so joyous an event. 

Numidia, a country of Africa, cor- 
responding to Algiers and Biledulgerid, 
bounded on the east by Africa Propria, 
on the .north by the Mediterranean, on the 
south by Gastulia, and on the west by 
Mauritania. The inhabitants were called 
Nomades, afterwards Numidce. The Nu- 
midians were excellent warriors, and rode 
without saddles or bridles, hence called 
infrceni. Numidia was occupied by the 
Massyli towards Africa Propria in the 
eastern part, and Massa?syli towards Mau- 
ritania in the western. The Romans first 



NUM 



NY3 



407 



became acquainted with this country during 
the second Punic war ; and after remain- 
ing in alliance with the latter more than 
a century, it was reduced by Caesar on the 
death of'.Juba, b. c. 46, to a Roman pro- 
vince. The chief cities of Numidia were 
Cirta, Hippo Regius, and Zama. In the 
time of Claudius, the western part was 
added to Mauritania under the title of 
Mauritania Cassariensis, Morocco. 

Numttor, I. (See Amulius.) — II. A 
son of Phorcus, who fought with Turnus 
against JEneas. 

NundinAj a goddess whom the Romans 
invoked when they named their children 
the ninth day after birth, Nona dies. 

NuNDiNiE. See Fere^e. 

Nursia, Norcia, a city of the Sabines, 
at the foot of the central chain of the 
Apennines, near the source of the Var. 
Nursia was also the name of an Etrurian 
gjddess. See Nortia. 

Nycteis, I., a daughter of Nycteus, and 
mother of Labdacus. — II. A patronymic 
of Antiope, daughter of Nycteus, mother 
of Amphion and Zethus by Jupiter. 

NyctelIus, a surname of Bacchus, be- 
cause his orgies were celebrated in the 
night (vv£). The words latex Nyctelius 
hence signify " wine." 

Nvctel's, I., a son of Hyrieus and Clo- 
nia. — II. A son of Chthonius. — III. A 
son of Neptune by Celene, daughter of 
Atlas, king of Lesbos or Thebes, and father 
of Nyctimene and. Antiope by Polyxo or 
Aroalthaea, a nymph of Crete. See Ax- 
tiope and Nyctimene. 

Nyctimene, a daughter of Nyeteas, 
changed into an owl by Minerva. 

Nyctimus, son of Lycaon, king of Ar- 
cadia, who died without issue, and left his 
kingdom to his nephew Areas, son of 
Callisto. 

Nymph^e, certain female deities with 
which the imagination of the Greeks peo- 
pled all the regions of earth and Water, 
and divided them into various orders, ac- 
cording to the place of their abode. Thus, 
1. the Mountain-Nymphs, or Oreades 
('OpeiaSe?), haunted the mountains ; 2. the 
Dale- Nymphs, or Napaue (Na-rrcucu), the 
valleys ; 3. the Mead- Nymphs, or Leimo- 
niades (Aeuta-i'idSes), the meadows ; 4. the 
Water- Nymphs, or Naiades (NcudSes), the 
rivers, brooks, and springs ; 5. the Lake- 
Nvmphs, or Limniades (Ai,uz/id5es), the lakes 
and pools. There are also, 6. the Tree- 
Nymphs, or Hamadryades ('AfxaSpvddes), 
who were born and died with the trees ; 
7. the Wood- Nymphs, or Dryadcs (Apu- 
d5e?), who presided over the forests ge- 
nerally ; and 8. the Fruit-tree Nymphs, or 



Flock- Nymphs (Meiiades, Mr)\id8es), who 
watched over gardens or flocks of sheep.— 
The Nymphs occur in various relations to 
gods and men. The charge of rearing 
various deities and heroes was committed 
to them : they were, for instance, the nurses 
of Bacchus, Pan, and even Jupiter himself, 
and they also brought up Aristaeus and 
jEneas. They were, moreover, the attend- 
ants of the goddesses ; they waited on Juno 
and Venus, and hi huntress attire they 
pursued the deer over the mountains in 
company with Diana. The Sea-Nymphs 
also formed a numerous class, under the 
appellation of Oceanides and Nereides. 

Nymfhjsum, L, a place in the territory 
of Apollonia, in Illyricum, remarkable for 
a mine of asphaltus, of which several 
ancient writers have given a description. 
There was a Roman encampment here for 
some time during the Macedonian war. — 
II. A promontory of Athos, on the Sin- 
gitic Gulf, now Cape S. Georgia. — III. 
A city in the Tauric Chersonese, on the 
route from Theodosia to Panticapasum, 
and having a good port on the Euxine. 
The ruins may still be traced in the vicinity 
of the modern Vosfor. 

Nyjiph^us. a river of Armenia Major, 
which formed the boundary between the 
Roman and Persian empires. It ran from 
north to south, entered the town of Mar- 
tyropolis, and discharged itself into the 
Tigris south-east of Amida. 

Nymphtdius, a favourite of Nero raised 
to the consular dignity. He afterwards 
disputed the empire with Galba, and was 
slain by the soldiers. 

Nvmphoeorus, a native of Syracuse, 
whose era is uncertain. He wrote a work 
on the " Navigation along the coasts of 
Asia," and another on the " Wonders in 
Sicily and Sardinia." 

Nvmpholeptes, or Nymphomanes, "pos- 
sessed by the Nymphs ; " a name given to 
the inhabitants of Mt. Cithaeron, who 
believed that they were inspired by the 
Nymphs. 

Nysa, I. , according to the Greek writers 
a city of India, on a mountain named 
Meros, whose inhabitants were said to be 
descended from a colony planted there by 
Bacchus in his Indian expedition. Hence 
the etymology given by them to the name 
Alopvctos (the Greek appellation of Bac- 
chus), namely, the god (Afs), from Nysa; 
and hence, too, the analogy that was found 
between the name of the mountain (Mripos) 
and the Greek term for a thigh (/J.7]p6s), 
which was supposed to be connected with 
the legend of Bacchus's concealment in 
the thigh of Jove, and his double birth. — ■ 



408 



NYS 



OCE 



II. A city of Arabia Felix, where Osiris was 
nurtured, situated between Phoenicia and 
the Nile. — III. Nous Shehr, a city of Cap- 
padocia, on the Halys, between Parnassus 
and Osianas. — IV. (See Pythopolis.) — V. 
A place in Euboea, where the vine was 
said to put forth leaves and bear fruit the 
same day. 

Nys^us, a surname of Bacchus, as the 
god of Nysa. See Nysa. 

Nysiades. a name given to the nymphs 
of Nysa, to whose care Jupiter intrusted 
the education of his son Bacchus. 

Nyssa, a sister of Mithridates the 
Great. 



O. 

Oarus, Wardan or Uzen, a river of 
Sarmatia, falling into the Palus Maeotis. 

Oasis, the name given to those fertile 
spots, watered by springs and covered with 
verdure, which are scattered about the 
great sandy deserts of Africa. The most 
noted are situated in the Libyan deserts. 
The oases of Egypt are nothing more than 
valleys or depressions of the lofty plain 
which forms the extensive table-land of 
Eastern Africa. They bear, in many 
respects, a similarity to a portion of the 
valley of Egypt, being surrounded by 
steep cliffs of limestone at some distance 
from the cultivated land, which vary in 
height in the different oases, those rising 
from the southern oases being the highest ; 
neither do they present a continuation of 
cultivable soil, all of them being intersected 
by patches of desert. They no doubt owe 
their origin to the springs with which they 
abound, the decay of the vegetation thence 
arising having produced the soil with 
which they are now covered. Their fer- 
tility has been deservedly celebrated ; 
but the glowing eulogiums of travellers 
on their surpassing beauty are probably in 
a great measure to be ascribed to the strik- 
ing contrast they present to the deserts of 
burning sand with which they are sur- 
rounded. It may appear contradictory, 
considering the high opinion the ancients 
entertained of the fertility and beauty of 
the oases, that they should have selected 
them for places of banishment ; but that 
such was the case, at least under the 
Romans, is certain. A law of die Digest, 
lib. 48. tit. 22., refers to this practice ; and 
it has been supposed that the poet Juvenal 
was one of those who suffered a temporary 
banishment (relegatio) to the oases, though 
the evidence of this is by no means clear. 
But the fact of their being selected as 



places of banishment is not in anywise 
inconsistent with the received opinions as 
to their salubrity and fertility. They 
were selected, not because of their being 
naturally noxious or disagreeable, but 
because of their being, as it were, out of 
the world, and from the extreme difficulty 
of escaping from them. The larger oases 
have some fine remnants of antiquity ; the 
most celebrated of which is the temple of 
Jupiter Amnion at Siwah. 

Oaxes, Mylopotamo, one of the largest 
rivers of Crete, named from Oaxes, son of 
Apollo. 

Oaxus, a town of Crete and capital of a 
kingdom, said to have been founded by 
Oaxes, son of Apollo. 

Obringa, Aar, a river of Germany, 
forming the line of separation between 
Germania Superior and Inferior. 

Obsequens, Julius, a Latin writer, 
whose age is uncertain, but who is gene- 
rally supposed to have lived about the 
commencement of the second century of 
our era. His work " On Prodigies " part 
of which is still extant, contains an 
account of all the presages observed at 
Rome from a. u. c. 453 to a. u. c. 742. 

Ocean ides ('.Q/ceaviSes), the Ocean- 
Nymphs, daughters of Oceanus and 
Tethys, and sisters of the rivers. Mytho- 
logists make them three thousand in num- 
ber. From their pretended names, as 
given by some of the ancient writers, they 
appear to be only personifications of the 
various qualities and appearances of water. 

OcFANus,the god of the stream Oceanus, 
and the offspring of Coelus and Terra, 
or Heaven and Earth. He espoused his 
sister Tethys, and their children were the 
rivers of the earth, and the three thousand 
Oceanides or Nymphs of Ocean. Homer 
speaks of him and Tethys as the origin 
of the gods. In the " Prometheus Bound," 
Oceanus comes borne through' the air 
on a hippo-grifF, to console and advise the 
lofty-minded sufferer ; and from the ac- 
count he gives of his journey, it is manifest 
that he came from the West. But besides 
being the name of a deity, the term Oce- 
anus ('Q.Keav6s) is used by Homer to sig- 
nify an immense stream, which, according 
to the rude ideas of that early age, circu- 
lated around the terraqueous plain, and 
from which the different seas ran out in 
the manner of bays. This opinion, which 
is also that of Eratosthenes, was prevalent 
even in the time of Herodotus. 

Ocellus, surnamed Lucanus, from his 
having been a native of Lucania, a Pytha- 
gorean philosopher, who lived about b. c. 
4S0, and wrote many philosophical works, 



OCE 



OCT 



409 



of which, however, only one, " On the 
Nature of the Universe," has reached our 
times. Nothing is known of his personal 
history. 

Ocftrii, L, FormoseUe, a city in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, in the territory of 
the Vettones. — IT. A city of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, in the territory of the Gal- 
laici — III. Avigliana, a city of Gallia 
Cisalpina, among the Cottian Alps, not 
far from Turin. 

Ochcs. I., a surname given to Arta- 
xerxes III. and Darius II., kings of Persia. 
Its meaning is said to be equivalent to 
Nothus or illegitimate. — II. Dehaseh, a 
river of India or Bactriana, falling into the 
Oxus. 

Ockus, 1., a son of the Tiber and of i 
Manto, who assisted JEneas against Tur- 
nus, and built the town called Mantua 
after his mother's name. Some suppose 
that he is the same as Bianor. — II. The 
name of a man who was as remarkable for 
industry, as his wife was for profusion. 
She always lavished away whatever the 
labours of her husband had earned. He is 
represented as twisting a cord, which an 
ass standing by eats up as soon as he 
makes it. whence the Cord of Ocnus is 
applied to " labour which meets no return, 
and is totally lost." 

Ocricvlum. Otricoli, a town of Umbria, 
below the junction of the Nar and Tiber, 
being the first city of Umbria which 
voluntarily submitted to Rome. Ocricu- 
lum suffered severely during the social 
war : but in Strabo's time it was still a 
city of note. Numerous remains of an- 
tiquity have been extracted from its 
ruins. 

Octavia, L, daughter of Caius Octa- 
vius and Accia, was sister of the emperor 
Augustus, and celebrated for her beauty 
and virtues. She was first married to Mar- 
cus Marcellus. after whose death she be- 
came the wife of Mare Antony, as a means 
of healing existing differences between the 
latter and Octavius. After her marriage she 
followed Antony to Athens, where she passed 
the winter with him, b. c. 39 ; but he 
soon afterwards abandoned her for Cleo- 
patra ; and when she attempted to with- 
draw him from this amour by going to meet 
him at Leucopolis, she was totally banished 
from his presence, an affront highly re- 
sented by Augustus, who resolved to 
revenge her cause by arms. On the over- 
throw and death of Antony, Octavia gave I 
herself up to complete retirement. Her son 
Marcellus, the issue of her first marriage, 
was united to Julia, the daughter of Au- 
gustus, and intended by the emperor as 



his successor, but his early death frustrated 
this design, and plunged his mother and 
friends in the deepest affliction. (See 
ViRGiLics.) Octavia, in fact, never re- 
covered from the loss of her son. His 
death continually preyed upon her mind, 
and she at last ended her days in deep 
melancholy, about b. c. 1 2. She had two 
daughters by Antony, Antonia Major and 
Autonia Minor. — II. A daughter of 
Claudius by Messalina, and sister of Bri- 
tannicus. While still quite young she 
was affianced to Lucius Silanus, the grand- 
son of Augustus ; but Agrippina, availing 
herself of her influence over Claudius, 
broke off the match, and gave Octavia to 
her own son Nero, then in his sixteenth 
year. Nero, on ascending the throne, 
repudiated Octavia on the ground of ste- 
rility, but, in reality, that he might unite 
himself to Poppaea ; and the latter, dread- 
ing the presence of one who was still 
young and beautiful, accused Octavia of 
criminal intercourse with a slave, and 
procured her banishment to Campania. 
The murmurs of the people, however, 
compelled Nero to recall her from exile, 
and her return was hailed by the popu- 
lace with every demonstration of joy. 
But the emperor, at the instance of 
Poppa?a, revoked the order, and caused 
the infamous Anicetus, the author of his 
mother's murder, to come forward and 
testify falsely to his criminality with Oc- 
tavia. The unhappy princess, upon this, 
was banished to the isle of Pandataria, 
and soon after put to death. 

Octaviaxus, the name of Octavius 
(afterwards Augustus), which he assumed 
on his adoption into the Julian family, in 
accordance with the Roman custom in 
such cases. Usage, however, though 
erroneous, has given the preference to the 
name Octavius over that of Octavianus. 

Ocxlvics, a name common to several 
distinguished persons in antiquity, of 
whom the most celebrated were, I., 
Cn. Nepos, a Roman prastor, e. c. 168, 
who brought Perseus, king of Macedonia, 
a prisoner to the consul, Paulus jEmilius, 
and was rewarded with a naval triumph, 
b.c. 165. He was associated with M. 
Torquatus in the consulship ; and three 
years later he was sent to be guardian of 
Ptol. Eupator, the young king of Egypt, 
where he behaved with such arrogance 
that he was assassinated by Lysias, who 
had before been regent of Egypt. — II. 
M., a tribune of the commons, deprived 
of his office by means of Tiberius 
Gracchus. — III. Cn., consul b. c. 8", 
along with Cinna. Being himself at- 

T 



410 



OCT 



ODO 



tached to the party of Sylla, and hav- 
ing the support of the senate, he drove 
his colleague out of the city. Marius, 
however, returned the same year and 
caused Octavius to be put to death. — 

IV. C, the father of Augustus, was 
pra?tor b. c. 61, and distinguished him- 
self by the correctness and justice of 
his decisions. After his prastorship he 
was appointed governor of Macedo- 
nia, and defeated the Bessi and other 
Thracian tribes, for which he received 
from his soldiers the title of Imperator. 
He died at Nola on his return from his 
province. Octavius married Atia or 
Aecia, the niece of Julius Cassar, and had 
by this union Octavius (afterwards Augus- 
tus) and Octavia, the wife of Antony. — 

V. The earlier name of the emperor Au- 
gustus. See Augustus and Octavianus. 
— VI. A poet and historian, intimate with 
Horace. See Sat. i. 10. 82. 

Octodurus, a town of the Veragri, in 
Gallia Narbonensis. It was situate in the 
Vallis Pennina, on the river Dransa or 
Drance, near its junction with the Rhone, 
at a considerable distance above the influx 
of the latter into the Lacus Lemannus or 
Lake of Geneva. It is now Martigni, or 
Martenach. 

Octogesa, Mequhiensa, a town of Spain, 
a little above the mouth of the Iberus. 

Ocypete, " swift-flying," one of the 
Harpies, who infected whatever she 
touched. 

Ocyrrhoe. See Mestalippe. 

Odenatus, a celebrated prince of Pal- 
myra, son of Septimius Airanes, who from 
being a senator in his native city, rose to 
the supreme power. When Valerici had 
been taken prisoner by Sapor, king of 
Persia, Odenatus solicited his release by 
writing a letter to the conqueror, and 
sending him presents ; but the haughty 
monarch ordered the gift to be thrown 
into the Euphrates, and returned an an- 
swer breathing the utmost contempt and 
indignation. The Palmyrian prince, who 
read his fate in the angry message of Sapor, 
immediately took the field, and falling 
upon the enemy, who had already been 
driven across the Euphrates by the Ro- 
man general Balista, gained a decisive ad- 
vantage over their main body. He then 
burst into their camp, seized the treasures 
and the concubines of Sapor, dispersed the 
intimidated soldiers, and in a short time 
restored Carrha?, Nisibis, and all Mesopo- 
tamia to the possession of the Romans. He 
then turned his arms against Quietus, son of 
Macrinus, and a candidate for the empire, 
and overthrew his party in the East. As a 



1 recompence for these important services, and 
his constant attachment to Gallienus, the 
son of Valerian, the senate, with the consent 
of the emperor, conferred on Odenatus the 
title of Augustus, and intrusted him with 
the general command of the East. His 
wife Zenobia also received the title of Au- 
gusta, and his sons Orodes, Herennius, and 
i Timolaus that of Ca?sars. Odenatus sig- 
i nalised his attainment to these honours by 
i new successes. But he fell, soon afterwards, 
' by the hand of domestic treason, in which 
! his queen Zenobia was suspected to have 
had a share. The murderer was his own 
nephew. 

Odessus or Odesopolis, Varna, a city 
on the coast of Moesia inferior, east of 
Marcianopolis, founded by a colony of 

Milesians. 

Odeum, a musical theatre at Athens, 
built by Pericles, and so constructed as to 
imitate the form of Xerxes' tent. This 
building was destroyed by fire at the siege 
of Athens by Sylla ; but was re-erected 
soon after by Ariobarzanes, king of Cap- 
padocia. 

Odinus, a Scandinavian deity, who 
seems, like the Jupiter of the Greeks, to 
have formed the connecting link between 
the ancient and more recent systems of 
their mythology. The conqueror Odin 
appears to have been a chieftain who led 
the Asi (the Goths) from the confines of 
Asia to northern Europe. But, when 
deified by public adoration, the attributes 
of an earlier deity seem to have been 
transferred to him. Odin is the chief of 
the gods ; by his wife Freya he has two 
chief sons, Thor and Balder : the death of 
j the latter (for the Scandinavian gods are 
J not all immortal) furnishes many legends 
| to the northern mythology, and is known 
to English readers by Gray's translation, 
j The Descent of Odin. The more ancient 
| Odin, among the Romans, was regarded 
j as the representative of their god Mer- 
I cury. 

Odoacer, a king of the Heruli, who 
j originally served as a mercenary in the 
! barbarian auxiliary force which the later 
1 emperors of the West had taken into their 
pay for the defence of Italy. These troops 
| having demanded one third of the lands of 
! Italy, to be distributed among them as a 
i reward for their services, Orestes, then at 
I the head of the empire, rejected their de- 
, mand ; whereupon they chose Odoacer 
for their leader. Odoacer took the city 
Ticinum, in which Orestes had shut him- 
self up, by storm, and having captured the 
emperor, led him to Placentia, where 
he was publicly executed, a. d. 475, and 



ODR 



GENE 



411 



banished his son Romulus, surnamed 
Augustulus, to Campania. He now 
proclaimed himself king of Italy ; but 
little is known of the events of his reign 
until the invasion of Theodoric, king of 
the Ostrogoths, who, at the instigation of 
Zeno, emperor of the East, marched from 
the banks of the Danube to dispossess 
Odoacer of his kingdom, and defeated him 
near Aquileia. The war lasted several 
years ; Odoacer made a brave resistance, 
but was compelled by famine to surrender 
Ravenna, a. d. 493, where he had shut 
himself up ; and Theodoric, who at first 
spared his life, caused him to be put to 
death, and proclaimed himself king of 
Italy. 

Odrys^, one of the most numerous and 
warlike of the Thracian tribes, under the 
dominion of whose king Sitalces was esta- 
blished the great empire of the Odrysas, 
situated between the Ionian Gulf and the 
Euxine. 

OdyssEa ('Odvcrcre'ia), L, an epic poem, 
attributed in general to Homer, but, ac- 
cording to some modern hypotheses, not 
by the hand of the author of the Iliad. 
The subject of the poem is the return ot 
Ulysses ('05u<nr€i>s) from Troy to his native 
island, Ithaca. — II. Cabo Marzo, a pro- 
montory of Sicily, near Pachynum. — III. 
A city of Hispania Bastica, north of Ab- 
dera, among the mountains. It was 
founded, according to a fabulous tradition, 
by Ulysses, and was supposed to be iden- 
tical with Olisippo or Lisbon. 

QEa, L, a town in the island of iEgina, 
above twenty stadia from the capital. — II. 
A town in the island of Thera, called also 
Calliste. — III. A city on the coast of 
Africa, between the two Syrtes, and form- 
ing, together with Sebrata and Leptis 
Magna, the district called Tripolis. It was 
founded by a colony consisting of the na- 
tives and certain Sicilians intermingled, 
and though a small place in comparison 
with the neighbouring Leptis, it yet was 
able to sustain a contest with the latter 
about their respective boundaries. Its ruins 
are said to lie four geographical miles 
east of the modern Tripoli (or, as the na- 
tives call it, Tarables). 

GEagrus or CEager, king of Thrace, 
and father of Orpheus by Calliope. From 
him Mt. Hasmus, and also the Hebrus, 
have received the appellation of CEagrius. 

OEax, a son of Nauplius and Clymene, 
and brother of Palamedes. 

GSbalia, I., the ancient name of Laco- 
nia, received from king OEbalus ; hence 
(Ebalius puer is used by the poets as 
equivalent to Laconicus or Spartanus, and 



is applied to Castor and Pollux, Helen, 
and Hyacinthus. — II. A name given to 
Tarentum, because built by a Lacedae- 
monian colony, whose ancestors were go- 
verned by GEbaius. 

QEbalus, I., son of Argalusor Cynorfas, 
king of Laconia. He married Gorgo- 
phone, daughter of Perseus, by whom he 
had Hippocoon, Tyndarus, &c. — II. Son 
of Telon, king of Capreaj, and the Nymph 
Sebethis. 

CEchalia, I., a city of Thessaly, in the 
district of Estiasotis, coupled by Homer 
with Tricca and Ithome. Some, however, 
are of opinion that this QEchalia was iden- 
tical with a cognominal city of Euboea, 
where Eurytus reigned, and which was 
destroyed by Hercules, while others con- 
signed it to Arcadia or Messenia. — II. 
A city of iEtolia, belonging to the tribe of 
Eurytanes. — III. A city of Messenia, 
according to some, the residence of Eury- 
tus. 

CEcleus, a son of Antiphates and Zeu- 
xippe, and husband of Hypermnestra, 
daughter of Thestius, by whom he had 
Iphianira, Polyboea, and Amphiaraiis. He 
was killed by Laomedon, when defending 
the ships of Hercules. 

GEclides, a patronymic of Amphiaraiis, 
son of GEcleus. 

OEdipus, a personage renowned in the 
early or mythological stage of Grecian his- 
tory, the son of Laius and Jocasta. An 
oracle had warned Laius that he should be 
killed by his son : in consequence of which 
he caused the child to be exposed, with 
one of its feet pierced and fastened with a 
thong (his name was accordingly derived 
from the swelling of the foot). The slave 
intrusted with him carried the child to 
Polybus, king of Corinth, and deceived 
Laius with a false report. OEdipus, when 
grown up, slew, in ignorance, his father 
Laius; acquired the sovereignty of Thebes, 
after conquering the Sphinx (see Sphinx), 
and married his mother Jocasta. On be- 
coming acquainted with their fatal destiny, 
Jocasta killed herself, and OEdipus deprived 
himself of sight. Such is the outline of 
the story familiar to us by the noblest 
efforts of the Greek tragedians. The tale of 
OEdipus himself affords the subject of two 
tragedies by Sophocles : the first ( CEdipns 
Tyrannus), the most perfect example of 
dramatic skill which antiquity has left us ; 
the second (^CEdipus at Colonus), perhaps 
the most beautiful of ancient dramatic 
poems. The fate of his offspring is por- 
trayed in several of the remaining dramas 
of the three great tragedians. 

CEneus, a king of Calydon in ZEto^ia, 
t 2 



412 



(ENI 



CENU 



son of Parthaon, or Portheus, and Euryte ; 
and husband of Althaea, daughter of Thes- 
tius, by whom he had Clymenus, Melea- 
ger, Gorge, and Dejanira. After Althaea's 
death, he married Periboea, daughter ot 
Hipponous, by whom he had Tydeus. In 
a general sacrifice, which CEneus made to 
all the gods on reaping the rich produce ot 
his fields, he forgot Diana, who, to revenge 
this neglect, sent a wild boar to lay waste 
the country of Calydonia, which was at last 
killed by Meleager, in a celebrated chace. 
Some time after, Meleager died, and 
CEneus was driven from his kingdom by 
the sons of his brother Agrius. Dio- 
medes, however, his grandson, soon re- 
stored him to his throne ; but his con- 
tinual misfortunes rendered him so melan- 
choly that he left Calydon, and gave his 
crown to his son-in-law Andremon. He 
was afterwards slain by the two sons of 
Agrius, who had fled into the Pelopon- 
nesus. Diomede buried him in Argolis, 
on the spot where the city of CEnoe, called 
after CEneus, was subsequently erected. 
CEneus is said to have been the first that 
received the vine from Bacchus. The god 
taught him how to cultivate it, and the 
juice of the grape is called after his name 
(oivos, wine). 

CEniad^e, a town of Acarnania, near the 
mouth of the Achelous, founded by Alc- 
ma?on after the murder of his mother, the 
whole province being named after his son 
Acarnan. It was held successively by the 
Messenians and iEtolians ; the latter of 
whom expelled the inhabitants under cir- 
cumstances of great cruelty, and, with a 
few brief interruptions, retained it till the 
general subjugation of Greece to the Roman 
empire. The precise site of this ancient 
city has not been ascertained. 

CEnIdes, a patronymic of Meleager, son 
of CEneus. 

CEnoe, I., a town, and demus or bo- 
rough, of Attica, classed under the tribe 
iEantis. It formed part of the Tetrapolis. 
The site of this town still retains its name. 
II. Another borough of Attica, on the 
confines of Boeotia, near Eleutherae. — III. 
A small Corinthian fortress, near the pro- 
montory of Olmiae, taken on one occasion 
by Agesilaus. — IV. A maritime city of 
Elis, supposed by some to be the same 
with Ephyre. — V. Enoa, a town of Ar- 
golis, between Argos and Mantinea, on the 
Arcadian frontier, said to have been founded 
by Diomede, and named after his grand- 
father CEneus. 

(Enomaus, a son of Mars by Sterope, 
daughter of Atlas, king of Pisa in Elis, 
and father of Hippodamia by Evarete, 



daughter of Acrisius, or Eurythoa, daugh- 
ter of Danaus. See Pelops. 

(En one, a nymph of Mt. Ida, daughter 
of the Cebrenus in Phrygia, and wife of 
Paris, who subsequently carried off Helen. 
Having learned the art of prophecy from 
Rhea, she warned her husband not to sail 
in quest of Helen ; but finding her remon- 
strances unheeded, she enjoined him, should 
he ever be wounded, to apply to her for 
relief, since she alone had power to heal 
him. Accordingly, when Paris was subse- 
quently wounded by the arrows of Philoc- 
tetes, he repaired to CEnone, who, how- 
ever, offended at his desertion of her, re- 
fused to aid him, and he died on his return 
to Ilium. Repenting of her cruelty, 
CEnone hastened to his relief ; but finding 
him a corpse, she hanged herself through 
grief. 

(Enopia, one of the ancient names of 
the island JEgina. 

CEnopion, a son of Theseus, or, accord- 
ing to others, of Bacchus and Ariadne. 
He married Helice, by whom he had a 
daughter called Hero, or Merope, of whom 
the giant Orion became enamoured ; but, 
unwilling to give his daughter to such a 
lover, he evaded his applications, and at 
last put out his eyes, when he was intoxi- 
cated. 

CEnotri, the inhabitants of CEnotria. 

CEnotria, a name derived from the an- 
cient race of the CEnotri, and in early use 
among the Greeks to designate a portion 
of the south-eastern coast of Italy. The 
name is derived by some from olvos, wine, 
or the wine-land, from the number of vines 
the early Greeks found growing there 
when they first became acquainted with 
the region. With the poets of a later age 
it is a general appellation for all Italy. 
The CEnotri appear to have been spread 
over a large portion of Southern Italy, 
and may be regarded as the last scion pro- 
pagated in a southerly direction. 

CEnotrides, two small islands off the 
coast of Lucania, a little above the pro- 
montory of Palinurus, and facing the 
city of Velia. 

CEnotrtjs, a son of Lycaon, who was 
fabled to have passed with a body of fol- 
lowers from Arcadia into Southern Italy, 
and to have given the name of CEnotria to 
that part of the country where he settled. 
(For a different origin of the term, see 
CEnotria.) 

CEntjs, I., Tchelesena, a town of La- 
conia, situated on a cognominal river flow- 
ing near Sellasia. — II. Or iEnus, a river 
of Germany, separating Noricum from 
Vindelicia, and falling into the Danube 



(EON 



413 



at Borodunum, Passau. It is now the 
Inn. 

CEnus^e, I., Spermadori, small islands in 
the iEgean Sea, between Chios and the 
mainland. — II. Sapiluza and Cabrera, two 
small islands on the coast of the Pelopon- 
nesus, near Messenia. 

CEokus, L, son of Licymnius, killed at 
Sparta, whither he had accompanied Her- 
cules, who burned the body, and conveyed 
the ashes to his father. — II. A small river 
of Laconia. 

CEroe, an island of Bceotia, formed by 
the Asopus. 

(Eta, a celebrated chain of mountains 
between Thessaly and Macedonia, extend- 
ing westward into the country of the Do- 
rians, and still farther into iEtolia, while 
to the south it was connected with the 
mountains of Locris, and those of Bceotia. 
Its modern name is Katavothra. Sopho- 
cles represents jove as thundering on the 
lofty crags of (Eta. Its highest summit 
was Callidromus, on which were two 
castles, named Tichius and Rhoduntia, 
which were successfully defended by the 
iEtolians against the Romans. 

CEtylus, Tylus, or Bityla, mtulo, a 
town of Laconia, so called from an Argive 
hero of that name, and noticed by Homer 
among the towns subject to Menelaus. 
Pausanias observed here a temple of Sera- 
pis, and a statue of Apollo Carneius in the 
forum. 

Ofellus, a character drawn in one of 
the satires of Horace, whose plain good 
sense is agreeably contrasted with the ex- 
travagance and folly of the great. 

Oglasa, Monte Cristo, a small island off 
the coast of Etruria, famed for its wine. 

Ogyges, or Ogygus ("1271/7775 or "^71/- 
70s), is said to have been the first king of 
Athens and of Thebes, son of Terra, or, as 
some suppose, of Neptune, and husband of 
Thebe, daughter of Jupiter. In his reign, 
B. c. 1764, Attica was inundated with a de- 
luge, which, in commemoration of Ogyges, 
has been called the Ogygean Deiuge. 
According to some writers, it was owing 
to the overflowing of one of the rivers of 
the country. In the reign of Ogyges, the 
planet Venus changed her colour, diameter, 
figure, and course. The name, origin, and 
history of Ogyges have formed some of 
the most fruitful topics of disquisition 
among the learned ; but notwithstanding 
the ingenuity of many of their propositions, 
the whole question is involved in an appa- 
rently impenetrable veil of obscurity. 

Ogygia, an ancient name of Bceotia, from 
Ogyges, who reigned there. It was also ap- 
plied to one of the gates of Thebes in Bceotia. 



Ogyris, an island in the Indian Ocean. 

Oileus, a king of the Locrians, son of 
Odcedocus and Agrianome, and husband 
of Eriope, by whom he had Ajax, called 
Oileus from his father, to distinguish him 
from Ajax, son of Telamon. He was one 
of the Argonauts. 

Olchinium or Olciniitm, now Didcigno, 
a town of Dalmatia, on the Adriatic. 

Olearos. See Antiparos. 

Olbia, I., a city of Bithynia, in the 
eastern angle of the Sinus Olbianus, and 
probably the same with Astacus. — IL A 
city on the coast of Pamphylia, west of 
Attalea. — III. or Athenopolis, a town on 
the coast of Gaul, founded by Massilia, 
and supposed to have been the same with 
Telo Martius, or Toulon. — IV. A town 
on the eastern coast of Sardinia, some 
traces of which still remain on the shores 
of the bay of Volpe. — V. or Borysthenis, 
called also Olbiopolis and Miletopolis, a 
city of European Sarmatia, at the mouth 
of the Borysthenes, or, according to some, 
a short distance from the sea. It was 
colonized by the Milesians, and is at the 
present day, Kudak. 

Olen (\QAV)j the name of one of the 
earliest bards mentioned in the history of 
Greek poetry. The period when he lived 
is uncertain ; but it is generally believed 
that he was long prior to Orpheus. He 
came originally from the country of the 
Hyperboreans, and appears to have settled 
in Lycia, whence he proceeded to Delos, 
and introduced the worship of Apollo and 
Diana, whose birth, in the country of the 
Hyperboreans, he celebrated in his hymns. 
Many ancient hymns, attributed to Olen, 
were preserved at Delos, and are mentioned 
by Herodotus. 

Olenus, I., an ancient city of iEtolia, 
in the vicinity of Pleuron, mentioned by 
Homer, and destroyed by the iEtolians. 
The goat Amalthaea is called Olenia by the 
poets, because nurtured in the vicinity of 
Olenus. — II. One of the most ancient 
cities of Achaia, situate on the western 
coast, at the mouth of the Peyrus. In 
Strabo's time it was deserted, the inhabit- 
ants having retired to the adjacent villages. 
— III. A son of Vulcan, who married 
Letha;a, a beautiful woman. His wife 
was vain enough to prefer herself to the 
goddesses, for which she and her husband 
were changed into stones. — IV. A famous 
soothsayer of Etruria. 

Olisippo, Lisbon, a city of Lusitania, at 
the mouth of the Tagus, near the Atlantic 
Ocean. It was the only municipium in 
this section of the country, and, as such, 
had the appellation of Felicitas Julia. It 
t 3 



414 



OLL 



OLY 



was very probably of Roman origin, and 
the story of its having been founded by 
Ulysses is a mere fable, arising out of an 
accidental coincidence of name. 

Ollius, L, Oglio, a river which rises in the 
Alps, and after forming in its course the 
Lake Sebinus, now Lago cTIseo, falls into 
the Po. — II. Q,., father of Poppasa, de- 
stroyed -on account of his intimacy with 
Sejanus. 

Olympia, the greatest of the national 
festivals of Greece, celebrated once every 
four years at Olympia, or Pisa, in Elis, in 
honour of Olympian Jupiter. Their in- 
stitution is variously attributed to Jupiter, 
Pelops, and Hercules ; but it appears that 
they had fallen into disuse for some time, 
till they were revived by Iphitus, b. c. 776. 
From this period it is that the Olympiads 
are reckoned. Like the other public fes- 
tivals, the Olympian games might be at- 
tended by all who bore the Hellenic name ; 
and such was their universal celebrity that 
spectators quaternially crowded to witness 
them, not only from all parts of Greece 
itself, but from every Grecian colony in 
Europe, Asia, and Africa. In these games, 
none were allowed to contend but those 
who could prove that they were freemen 
of genuine Hellenic origin, and unstained 
by crime or immorality. The superin- 
tendence of these games belonged some- 
times to the Pisans, but for the most part 
to the Eleans, by whom the Pisans were 
destroyed. On one occasion, in the 104th 
Olympiad, the management was forcibly 
seized on by the Arcadians. The contests 
at these games consisted in the athletic 
exercises, and also in those of music and 
poetry. The orators were crowned with 
garlands of wild olive. The place where 
these renowned games were celebrated is a 
plain, now called Anti-Lalla, opposite the 
little town of Lalla. They commenced a 
little after the summer solstice, on the 
fourteenth of the Attic month Hecatom- 
baeon. — II. A name given to the aggre- 
gate of temples, altars, and other structures 
on the banks of the Alpheus in Elis, in 
the immediate vicinity of the spot where 
the Olympic games were celebrated. The 
main feature in the picture was the sacred 
grove Altis, planted, as legends told, by 
Hercules, and which he dedicated to Ju- 
piter. Throughout this grove were scat- 
tered in rich profusion the most splendid 
monuments of architectural, sculptural, 
and pictorial skill. The site was already 
celebrated as the seat of an oracle ; but it 
was not until the Eleans had conquered 
the Pisatas, and destroyed their city, that 
a temple was erected to the god with the 



spoils of the vanquished. This temple of 
the Olympian Jove was of Doric archi- 
tecture, with a peristyle. It was sixty- 
eight feet in height from the ground to 
the pediment, ninety-five in width, and 
two hundred and thirty in length, and 
was considered one of the wonders of the 
world. 

Olympias, I., a certain space of time, 
which elapsed between the celebration of 
the Olympic Games, after the expiration 
of four complete years, whence some have 
said that they were observed every fifth 
year. They became a celebrated era 
among the Greeks, who computed their 
time by them. This custom of reckoning 
time was introduced the year in which 
Corcebus obtained the prize. It fell ex- 
actly b. c. 776, in the year of the Julian 
period 3938, a. u. c. 23. The games were ex- 
hibited at the time of the full moon, next 
after the summer solstice. (See Olympia. ) 
The computation by Olympiads ceased, 
as some suppose, after the 364th, a. d. 440 ; 
to the Olympiads history is much indebted. 
Before this method of computing time was 
observed, every page of profane history 
is mostly fabulous, obscure, or contradic- 
tory. — II. Daughter of Neoptolemus, 
king of Epirus, and wife of Philip, king 
of Macedon, by whom she had Alexander 
the Great. Her haughtiness, and, more 
probably, her infidelity, obliged Philip to re- 
pudiate her, and marry Cleopatra, niece of 
king Attalus ; but Alexander showed his 
disapprobation of his father's measures by 
retiring from the court to his mother. 
The murder of Philip, which happened 
not long after, has been attributed by 
some to her intrigues, though with no 
great degree of probability. Alexander, 
after his accession to the throne, treated 
her with great respect, but did not allow 
her to take part in the government. At a 
subsequent period, after the death of An- 
tipater, Polysperchon, in order to confirm 
his power, having recalled Olympias from 
Epirus, whither she had fled, and confided 
to her the guardianship of the young son 
of Alexander, she seized the government 
of Macedonia, and cruelly put to death 
Aridaeus with his wife Eurydice, as also 
Nicanor , brother of Cassander, with one hun- 
dred leading men of Macedon, inimical to 
her interest. Such barbarities did not long 
remain unpunished. Cassander having 
besieged her in Pydna, obliged her to 
surrender after an obstinate siege, and she 
was at last massacred by those whom she 
had cruelly deprived of their children, 
about b. c. 316. 

OLyMPioDORUs, a name common to many 



OLY 



OMP 



415 



individuals, of whom the most worthy of 
notice are the following: — I., an Alex- 
andrian philosopher, who lived about the 
year 430 b. c, and celebrated for his 
knowledge of the Aristotelian doctrines, 
and was the master of Proclus, who at- 
tended his school before he was twenty 
years of age. This philosopher is not 
to be confounded with a Platonist of the 
same name who wrote a commentary upon 
Plato. He is also to be distinguished 
from a Peripatetic of a still later age, who 
wrote a commentary on the Meteorology 
of Aristotle. — II. A native of Thebes in 
Egypt, who flourished in the beginning 
of the fifth century of our era, and con- 
tinued the history of Eunapius from 407 
to 425 a. d. Only a fragment of his 
writings has been preserved by Photius. 

Olympics, I., a surname of Jupiter at 
Olympia, where the god had a temple and 
statue, considered one of the wonders of 
the world. See Olympia II. — II. See 
Nemesiaxus. — III. A favourite at the 
court of Honorius, and the cause of Sti- 
licho's death. 

Olympus, a celebrated mountain on the 
coast of Thessaly, forming the limit, when 
regarded as an entire range, between the 
latter country and Macedonia. The highest 
summit in the chain was supposed to touch 
the heavens with its top, hence the poets 
placed the residence of the gods there, and 
made it the court of Jupiter. The 
modern name of Olympus with the Greeks 
is Elimbo, and with the Turks, Semavat 
Evi. — II. A range of mountains in the 
south-western angle of Bithynia, the loftiest 
of which rose above Prusa, being one 
of the highest summits in Asia Minor. 
The lower parts, and the plains at the foot, 
especially on the western side, had from 
the earliest period been occupied by the 
Mysians, whence it was generally denomi- 
nated the Mysian Olympus. The Turks 
call it Anadoli Dagh. — III. A mountain 
range of Lycia, on the eastern coast, above 
the Sacrum Promontorium, with a city of 
the same name. — IV. A city of Lycia, 
situated on Mt. Olympus, and ranked 
among the six communities of Lycia. Its 
situation was so elevated that it com- 
manded a view of Pamphylia, and Pisidia. 
— V. Monte Santa- Croce, a mountain on 
the eastern coast of Cyprus, just below the 
promontory Dinaretum. This mountain 
had on it a temple sacred to Venus Acra?a, 
from which women were excluded. 

Olynthus, a celebrated town and re- 
public of Macedonia, in the district Chal- 
cidice, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf, 
founded by the Chalcidians and Eretrians 



I of Eubcea. When Xerxes invaded Greece. 
! Olynthus was in the possession of the Bot- 
tiaci, from whom it was taken by Arta- 
bazus, and conferred on the Chalcidians. 
It soon afterwards fell into the possession 
' of the Athenians, but asserted its inde- 
| pendence at the outbreak of the Pelopon- 
I nesian war, and rose into great importance 
as the centre of a powerful confederacy, 
; which, onlv with the exception of a short 
| interruption from the Lacedaemonians, re- 
mained in full force till the city, after some 
I desperate struggles, finally surrendered 
to Philip, king of Macedon, b. c. 347, who 
sold the inhabitants into slavery. 

Olyras, a river near Thermopylae, which 
attempted to extinguish the funeral pile on 
which Hercules was consumed. 

Ombos, now Koum- Ombo, a city of Egypt, 
a little north of Syene. Between the in- 
habitants of this place and Tentyra, con- 
stant hostilities prevailed, the former ador- 
ing, the latter killing, the crocodile. A 
horrible instance of religious fury which 
took place in consequence of their discord 
forms the subject of the fifteenth Satire of 
Juvenal. 

Omole or Homole, a mountain of 
Thessaly. Some festivals, called Homoleia, 
were celebrated in Bceotia, in honour of 
Jupiter Homoleius. 

Omphale, a queen of Lydia, daughter 
of Iardanus, and wife of Tmolus, who, at 
his death, left her mistress of his kingdom. 
After the murder of Iphitus, Hercules, 
having fallen into a malady, and being told 
by the oracle at Delphi that he could not 
be restored to health, unless he allowed 
himself to be sold as a slave for the space 
of three years, and gave the purchase- 
money to Eurytus as a compensation for 
the loss of his son, was conducted by Mer- 
cury to Lydia, and there sold to Omphale. 
During the period of his slavery with this 
j queen, he assumed female attire, sat by her 
side spinning with her women, and from 
' time to time received chastisement at the 
i hand of Omphale, who, arrayed in his lion- 
; skin, and armed with his club, playfully 
; struck him with her sandal for his awk- 
ward way of holding the distaff. He be- 
came by Omphale the father of Age- 
laus, from whom, it is said, sprung the 
j race of Crcesus ; though others assert that 
h the Heraclida? of Lydia claimed descent 
from Hercules and a female slave of 
| Iardanus. The myth of Hercules and 
' Omphale is astronomical. The hero in 
this legend represents the Sun-god, 
I who has descended to the 6/j.cpa\6s, or 
i " navel " of the world, amid the signs of 
( the southern hemisphere, where he re- 
I T 4 



416 



ONC 



OPH 



mains for a season shorn of his strength. 
Hence the Lydian custom of solemnising 
the festival of the star of day by an ex- 
change of attire on the part of the two 
sexes ; and hence the fable of the Grecian 
writers, that Hercules had assumed, during 
his servitude with Omphale, the garb of a 
female. 

Onc^um, a town of Arcadia, on the 
banks of the river Ladon, famed for a 
temple of Ceres, for the legend connected 
with which the reader may consult Pausa- 
nias, 8, 25, 4. 

Onchesmites, also written Anchesites 
and Anchesmites, a wind which blows from 
Onchesmus, a harbour of Epirus, towards 
Italy. 

Onchesmus, a maritime town of Epirus, 
opposite the western extremity of Corcyra, 
whose real name was said to be Anchisae 
Portus, derived from Anchises, the father 
of JEneas. 

Onchestus, I., Fatrassi, a river of Thes- 
saly, rising near Cynoscephala?, and fall- 
ing into the Sinus Pelasgicus. Some au- 
thors have confounded it with the Ono- 
chonus. See Onochonus. — II. A city 
of Bceotia, north-west of Thebes, and 
south of the Lake Copais ; so called from 
Onchestus, a son of Neptune, whose temple 
and grove are often celebrated by the an- 
cient poets. 

Onesicritus, a Cynic philosopher of 
iEgina, who accompanied Alexander into 
Asia, and officiated as pilot to the prin- 
cipal vessel in the fleet of Nearchus. He 
wrote an absurd and false history of Alex- 
ander's expedition. 

Onesimus, a Macedonian nobleman, 
who was treated with great kindness by 
the Roman emperors. He wrote a life of 
Probus and Carus. 

Onion, a city of Egypt, south-west of 
Heroopolis, celebrated for a temple of the 
Jews, which was built b. c. 173, by Onias, 
when a fugitive from Jerusalem, to the 
priesthood of which he had a rightful 
claim, and remained till after the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, when it was destroyed 
by Vespasian. 

Onochonus, a river of Thessaly falling 
into the Peneus, whose waters were dried 
up by the army of Xerxes. 

Onomacritus, a Greek poet in the time 
of the Pisistratidae, who is said to have 
written the hymns of initiation ascribed to 
Orpheus, and also to have so interpolated 
the poems of Musaeus as to render it dif- 
ficult to distinguish the false from the 
real. 

Onomarchus, I., a Phocian, son of Eu- 
thycrates, and brother of Philomelus, whom 



he succeeded as general of his countrymen, 
in the sacred war. He was defeated and 
slain in Thessaly by Philip of Macedon. — 
II. A person to whose care Antigonus en- 
trusted the keeping of Eumenes. 

Onophas, I., one of the seven Persians 
who conspired against Smerdis. — II. An 
officer in the expedition of Xerxes against 
Greece, 

Onosander, a Greek author and Pla- 
tonic philosopher, who probably lived about 
the middle of the first century, and was 
the author of a work " On the Duties of a 
General." 

Onythes, a friend of JEneas, killed by 
Turnus. 

Onuphis, a bull of immense size, wor- 
shipped by the Egyptians. 

Opheltes, son of Lycurgus, king of 
Nemea. When the army of Adrastus 
marched to Nemea, on its way to Thebes, 
Hypsipile, the Lemnian princess, whom her 
countrywomen had sold into slavery when 
they found that she had saved her father, 
was nurse to the infant Opheltes. She 
undertook to guide the new-comers to a 
spring, and, for that purpose, left the child 
lying on the grass, where a serpent found 
and killed it. The Argive leaders slew 
the serpent and buried the child. Am- 
phiaraus, the famous soothsayer and war- 
rior, augured ill-luck from this event, and 
called the child Archemorus (Fate-be- 
ginner), as indicative of the evils that were 
to befall the chieftains. His other name, 
Opheltes, is derived, according to the my- 
thologists, from bcpis, as he died by the bite 
of a serpent. Adrastus and the other chiefs 
then celebrated funeral games in his 
honour, which were the commencement of 
what were afterwards called the Nemean 
games. 

Ophis, I., Of, a small river of 'Asia 
Minor, forming part of the eastern bound- 
ary of Pontus. It rises in the mountains 
of the Tzani, and falls into the Euxine 
south-west of Rhizzaeum. — II. A river in 
Arcadia, running by Mantinea, and falling 
into the Alpheus. 

Ophias, a patronymic given to Combe, as 
daughter of Ophius, an unknown person. 

Ophiusa, or Ophiussa, a name given 
to many places in ancient geography, 
and referring to their having been, at 
one time or other, more or less infested 
by serpents (o<pis). The most worthy of 
notice are the following : — I. An island 
in the Mediterranean, off the coast of 
Spain, and forming one of the Pityusae, ot 
Pine islands. By the Romans it was ge- 
nerally called Colubraria, a translation of 
the Greek name, and is now styled las 



OPI 



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417 



Columbretes, or Mont Colibre. Strabo and 
Ptolemy confound it with Formontera. — 
II. Palanca, also called Tyra, a city of 
European Scythia, on the left bank of the 
Tyras. — III. The earlier name of the 
island of Tenos. — IV. One of the earlier 
names of the island of Rhodes. 

Opici, the ancient inhabitants of Cam- 
pania. According to Festus, Opicus and 
Oscus are precisely equivalent, being the 
appellations of one and the same people. 
See Osci. 

Opima Spolia, spoils taken by a Roman 
general from a general of the enemy whom 
he had slain. They were dedicated to, and 
suspended in the temple of, Jupiter Fere- 
trius. These spoils were obtained only 
thrice before the fall of the republic. The 
first by Romulus, who slew Acron, king of 
the Caminenses; the next by A. Cornelius 
Cossus, who slew Lars Tolumnius, king of 
the Veientes, a. u. c. 318; and the third 
by M. Claudius Marcellus, who slew Viri- 
domarus, a king of the Gauls, a. u. c. 530. 

Opimius, L. Nepos, was consul 121 b. c. 
He made himself conspicuous by his in- 
veterate hostility to Caius Gracchus, and 
was the leader in the affray which termin- 
ated in the death of the latter. Being 
afterwards convicted of having received a 
bribe from Jugurtha, he was banished, and 
ended his days in great poverty and wretch- 
edness at Dyrrachium. During his con- 
sulship, the heat of the summer was so 
great as to produce an extraordinary fertility 
and excellence in all the fruits of the earth 
throughout Italy ; hence the Opimian wine 
became famous to a late period. 

Opis, a town on the Tigris west of 
Artemita, and probably identical with 
Antiochia, mentioned by Pliny, vi. 27. 

Opitergium, Oderso, a city of Venetia 
in Northern Italy, on the right bank of 
the Plavis. The Montes Opitergini are 
in the neighbourhood. 

Oppia lex, a law enacted by C. Oppius, 
tribune of the commons, a.u.c. 540, which 
ordained that no woman should wear above 
half an ounce of gold, have party-coloured 
garments, or ride in a carriage in any city 
or town, unless to celebrate some sacred 
festivals. It was abrogated eighteen years 
afterwards on the urgent entreaties of the 
Roman ladies. 

Oppidius, a rich old man introduced by 
Horace, as wisely dividing his possessions 
between his two sons, and warning them 
against follies and extravagance. 

Oppianus, an eminent Greek gram- 
marian and poet, son of Agesilaus and Ze- 
nodota, was born at Coracus or Anazarba 
in Cilicia, about the beginning of the third 



century of our era. He received an ex- 
cellent education under the superinten- 
dance of his father, who was banished by 
Severus for a supposed act of discourtesy. 
Having composed a poem on fishing, 
he presented it to the emperor's son Cara- 
calla, who was so pleased with it that he 
not only procured the repeal of the sen- 
tence of his father's banishment, but also 
made him a present of a piece of gold for 
each verse that it contained. He died of 
the plague shortly after his return to his 
native country, in his thirtieth year ; leav- 
ing behind him three poems " On Hawk- 
ing, Hunting, and Fishing," the two last 
of which are still extant. 

Oppius, C, friend of Julius Ca?sar, who 
wrote lives of Scipio Africanus and Pom- 
pey the Great, and was remarkable for his 
hostility to the latter. 

Ops, called also Tellus, the goddess of 
the earth, and identical with the Rhea of 
the Greeks though frequently confounded 
with Cybele and Vesta, &c. (See Rhea.) 
Another form of her name was Opis. The 
appellation Ops or Opis is plainly con- 
nected with opes, "wealth," of which the 
earth is the bestower ; and her festival, 
the Opalia, was on the same day with the 
original Saturnalia. 

Opus (gen. Opuntis~), one of the most 
ancient cities of Greece, the capital of the 
Locri Opuntii, whose territory lay north 
of Bceotia. It is celebrated by Pindar 
as the domain of Deucalion and Pyrrha, 
and by Homer, as the birth-place of 
Patroclus. It furnished seven ships to 
the Greek fleet at Artemisium, but was 
subsequently conquered by Myronides, the 
Athenian general. In the war between 
Antigonus and Cassander, Opus, having 
favoured the latter, was besieged by 
Ptolemy, a general in the service of An- 
tigonus. It afterwards fell into the pos- 
session of Attalus, king of Pergamus, who 
was again driven out by Philip, son of 
Demetrius. The position of this town has 
not been precisely determined by the re- 
searches of modern travellers. 

Optimus Maximus, epithets given to 
Jupiter to denote his greatness and omni- 
potence ; usually expressed by O. M. 

Oraculum, the name primarily given to 
the response delivered by the ancient hea- 
then divinities to those who consulted them 
respecting the future, but afterwards ap- 
plied both to the place where responses 
were given, as well as to the divinities 
from whom the responses were supposed 
to proceed. Of all the modes of divina- 
tion, that by consulting the oracle was the 
most popular. In other cases, as the in- 
t 5 



418 



ORA 



one 



terpretation of events depended on man 
alone, there might be mistake or decep- 
tion ; but in the oracle, when the deity 
was believed to pronounce either in his 
own voice or in that of a consecrated 
agent, it was supposed there could be none. 
Hence oracles obtained such credit and ce- 
lebrity in antiquity, but more especially 
among the Greeks, that they were resorted 
to on every occasion of doubt and emer- 
gency, both by princes and states, as well 
as by private individuals. The general 
characteristics of oracles were ambiguity, 
obscurity, and convertibility ; so that one 
answer would agree with several various 
and sometimes directly opposite events. 
Thus, when Croesus was on the point of 
invading the Medes, he consulted the ora- 
cle of Delphi as to the success of the en- 
terprise, and received for answer, that by 
passing the river Halys he would ruin a 
great empire. But whether it was his own 
empire or that of his enemies that was des- 
tined to be ruined was not intimated ; and, 
in either case, the oracle could not fail to 
be right. The answer of the oracle to 
Pyrrhus is another well-known instance of 
this sort of ambiguity, — 

Aio, te, iEaci;la, Romanos vincere posse, — 

as it might either be interpreted in favour 
of or against Pyrrhus. This ambiguity 
and equivocation was not, however, the 
worst feature that characterised the oracles 
of antiquity. They were at once ambigu - 
ous and venal. A rich or a powerful in- 
dividual seldom found much difficulty in 
obtaining a response favourable to his pro- 
jects, how unjust or objectionable soever. 
Such, for instance, were unquestionably 
the motives that dictated the favourable 
responses of the Pythia at Delphi to Philip 
of Macedon, which drew from Demosthenes 
the famous declaration, that the goddess 
Philippised. But such and so powerful is 
the influence of superstition, that this sys- 
tem of fraud and imposture maintained a 
lengthened ascendency, and the interested 
responses of the oracles frequently sufficed 
to excite bloody wars, and to spread de- 
solation through extensive states. The 
first oracles had their origin in the East, 
at a period to which the monuments of 
profane history do not ascend. The most 
ancient oracle is supposed to be that of 
Meroe ; to which were afterwards added 
those of Thebes and Ammon, in all of 
which cities the worship of Jupiter Am- 
mon prevailed. From the Egyptians the 
use of oracles, along with the knowledge 
of many arts and sciences, passed to the 
Greeks, who soon surpassed every other 



| nation both in the number and celebrity of 
J their oracles. It has been affirmed that no 
fewer than 300 oracles were established in 
different parts of Greece ; but of those the 
oracles of Jupiter at Dodona, of Apollo at 
Delphi, and of Trophonius near Lebadeia 
(see these articles), may be mentioned as 
having enjoyed the highest reputation. 
The oracles of antiquity had many leading 
features in common ; but there were also 
several peculiarities about them, of which 
the variety of modes in which the oracular 
responses were delivered is one of the most 
striking. At Delphi responses were de- 
livered by the Pythia, at Ammon by the 
priests, and at Dodona they issued from 
the hollow of an oak. Sometimes the 
response was communicated by letter ; 
sometimes the desired information could 
only be obtained by casting lots ; and some- 
times the divinities chose to announce their 
will by dreams, visions, and preternatural 
voices. It has been frequently asserted 
that the oracles ceased to give responses 
after the birth of Christ ; but it appears 
from edicts of the emperors Theodosius, 
Gratian, and Valentinian, that they ex- 
isted and were occasionally consulted down 
to a. d. 328, at which period they entirely 
ceased. 

Orbilius Pupillus, a grammarian of 
Beneventum, and the first instructor of the 
poet Horace. In early life he had served as 
a soldier, but came to Rome in his fiftieth 
year, in the consulship of Cicero, where he 
acquired more fame than profit. Orbilius 
reached nearly his 100th year. A statue 
was erected to him at Beneventum. 

Orcades, islands to the north of Britain, 
answering to the modern Orkney and Shet- 
land isles, supposed to have been first dis- 
covered by the fleet of Germanisus when 
driven in this direction by a storm; but 
afterwards made more known to the Ro- 
mans by Agricola, who circumnavigated 
the northern coast of that country. 

Orchamus. See Leucothoe. 

Orchomenos, or Orchomenum, I., a 
city west of the Lake Copais, in Boeotia, 
celebrated for its opulence and power 
in the earliest period of Grecian history. 
It was originally the chief city of the 
Minyans, at that time in possession of 
greater part of Boeotia; but about sixty 
years after the Trojan war they were ex- 
pelled by the iEolian Boeotians who 
came from Thessaly and added Orcho- 
menos and its territory to Boeotia. It 
subsequently attained the first rank in 
the confederacy of the Boeotians ; but after 
the peace of Antalcidas, b. c. 387, it ad- 
mitted a Spartan garrison, and b. c. 368, it 



ORG 



ORE 



419 



was attacked by the Thebans and destroyed, 
and the inhabitants put to the sword or 
sold into slavery. It was again rebuilt, 
but never regained its former importance. 
It was famous for a magnificent building 
erected for the treasury of the city, and for 
a temple in honour of the Graces, to whose 
worship the city was devotedly attached. 
The ruins of these and other edifices of this 
ancient city are still to be seen near the 
village of Scripou. — II. A city of Ar- 
cadia, north of Mantinea, said to have been 
founded by Orchomenus, son of Lycaon, 
long previously to the Trojan war. It 
was taken by the Athenians and Argives in 
the Peloponnesian war ; some years after- 
wards it fell into the hands of Gassander, 
but again regained its independence, and 
joined the Achaean league. The village 
of Kalpaki is built on the ruins of Orcho- 
menos. — III. A town of Thessaly, with 
a river of the same name, on the confines 
of Macedonia. — IV. A son of Lycaon, 
king of Arcadia, who gave his name to a 

city of Arcadia V. A son of Minyas, 

king of Bceotia, who gave the name of Or- 
chomenians to his subjects. He died with- 
out issue, and the crown devolved on Cly- 
menus, son of Presto. 

Orcus, the god of the lower world, in 
the old Latin religion, corresponding to 
the Hades or Pluto of the Greeks. The 
word is sometimes used poetically for " th« 
lower regions." 

Ordovices, a people of Britain, occu- 
pying the northern portion of Wales, and 
the isle of Anglesey. Mediomanium their 
capital was probably situated at Maywood 
or Meifad, in Montgomeryshire. 

Oreades, or Orestiades, nymphs of the 
mountains, so called from the Greek opos, 
a mountain, who generally attended upon 
Diana, and accompanied her in hunting. 

Orestje, a people of Epirus, the south- 
east of the Lyncestae, originally independ- 
ent of the Macedonian kings, but afterwards 
annexed to their dominions. At a later 
period, having revolted under the protec- 
tion of a Roman force, they were declared 
free on the conclusion of peace between 
Philip and the Romans. Orestia, called 
also Argos Oresticum, their chief town, 
whose foundation was ascribed to Orestes, 
was the birth-place of Ptolemy, the son of 
Lagus. 

Orestes, son of Agamemnon and Cly- 
temnestra. On the assassination of Aga- 
memnon, Orestes, then quite young, was 
saved from his father's fate by his sister 
Electra, who had him removed to the 
court of their uncle Strophius, king of 
Phocis. There he formed an intimate , 



friendship with Pylades, the son of Stro- 
phius, and with him concerted the means, 
which he successfully adopted, of avenging 
his father's death, by slaying his mother 
and iEgisthus. (See Clytemnestra, and 
jEgisthus.) After the murder of Cly- 
temnestra, the Furies drove Orestes into 
insanity ; and when the oracle at Delphi 
was consulted respecting the duration of 
his malady, in answer was given that 
Orestes would not be restored until he 
went to the Tauric Chersonese, and brought 
away from that quarter the statue of Diana 
to Argos. It was the custom in Taurica 
to sacrifice all strangers to this goddess, 
and Orestes and Pylades, having made the 
journey together, and having both been 
taken captive, were brought as victims to 
the altar of Diana. Iphigenia, the sister 
of Orestes, who had been carried off by 
Diana from Aulis when on the point of 
being immolated (see Aulis, and Iphige- 
nia), was the priestess of the goddess among 
the Tauri. Perceiving the strangers- to be 
Greeks, she offered to spare the life of one 
of them, provided he would carry a letter 
from her to Greece. This occasioned a 
memorable contest of friendship between 
them, which should sacrifice himself for 
the other, and it ended in Pylades' yield- 
ing to Orestes, and agreeing to be the bearer 
of the letter. The letter being intended 
for Orestes, a discovery was the conse- 
quence. Iphigenia, thereupon, on learning 
the object of their visit, contrived to aid 
them in carrying off the statue of Diana, 
and all three arrived safe in Greece. Ores- 
tes reigned many years in Mycenas, and 
became the husband of Hermione, after 
having slain Neoptolemus. (See Her- 
mione, and Pyrrhus I.) — Such is the or- 
dinary form of the legend of Orestes ; but 
the tragic writers introduced many varia- 
tions. — II. A general sent as ambassador 
by Attila, king of the Huns, to Theodo- 
sius ; and whose son Augustulus was the 
last sovereign of the western empire. 

Oresteum, Orestheum, or Orestha- 
sium, a town of Arcadia, south-east of 
Megalopolis, in the district of Oresthis. 
Allusion is made to it by Euripides. 
Orestes is said to have died here. 

Orestia. See Orest^e. 

Orestias, the primitive name of Adria- 
nopolis, in Thrace, derived from the circum- 
stance of Orestes having purified himself 
on this spot after the murder of his mo- 
ther. 

ORESTiDiE, the descendants or subjects 
of Orestes, son of Agamemnon, who, when 
driven from the Peloponnesus by the He- 
raclidag, settled in a country which from 
t 6 



420 



ORE 



ORI 



them was called Orestida, south-west of 
Macedonia. 

Orestilla Livia, called also Cornelia 
Orestina, a Roman lady, who, when on the 
eve of her marriage with C. Calpurnius 
Fiso, was carried off by Caligula, who 
married her himself, but a few days after- 
wards repudiated her, and subsequently 
condemned her to exile. 

O&etaxi, a people of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, whose territory is supposed to 
have corresponded to the eastern part of 
Estremadura, the middle section of La 
Mancha, the eastern extremity of Jaen, and 
the northern extremity of Grenada. Their 
capital was Oretum, Oreto. 

Ore us, an ancient city north-east of 
Euboea, founded by an Athenian colony. 
Its primitive name was Histiaea, and it re- 
tained this appellation until, having endea- 
voured to shake off the galling yoke of 
Athens, after the close of the Persian war, 
it met with a cruel punishment at the 
hands of that power. Like the other chief 
towns of Euboea, Chalcis and Carystus, it 
enjoyed an independent government, and 
underwent a similar fate. Its ruins are 
still visible. 

Orgia. See Diowsia. 

Orgetorix, a nobleman of the Helvetii, 
who was the most conspicuous for rank 
and riches among his countrymen. He 
attempted to possess himself of the chief 
power in his native state, and was, in con- 
sequence, summoned to trial. His retain- 
ers, however, having assembled in great 
numbers, prevented the case from being 
heard ; but he died not long after, hav- 
ing fallen, as was supposed, by his own 
hands. 

OribasiVs, an eminent physician, and 
the intimate friend of the Emperor Julian, 
was born either at Sardis in Lydia, or at 
Pergamus, in Mysia. After enjoying the 
advantages of a good education, he became 
a pupil of Zeno, a physician of Cyprus, 
and soon became so famous in the practice 
of his profession, as to induce Julian, upon 
being raised to the rank of Caesar, to take 
him with him into Gaul as his physician, 
a. d. 355. It has been insinuated that 
Julian was in some degree indebted to 
Oribasius for his throne ; but nothing cer- 
tain can be averred respecting this subject. 
When Julian succeeded to the empire, 
a. d. S61, he raised Oribasius to the rank 
of quaestor of Constantinople, and after- 
wards sent him to consult the oracle at 
Delphi, whence he brought back the cele- 
brated answer, that the oracles had ceased 
to utter predictions. He accompanied the 
emperor in his expedition against Persia, 



and was present at his death. He after- 
wards fell into disgrace, which he bore 
with great fortitude ; but was subsequently 
recalled with honour, and died about a. d. 
400. Of his numerous writings, three are 
still extant, of which one is an abridgment 
of the writings of Galen. 

Oriccm or Oricus, a port of Illyrieum, 
or, according to some writers, of Epirus, 
founded it is supposed by the Eubceans 
after their return from Troy. It is chiefly 
known in history as a haven frequented by 
the Romans in their communication with 
Greece, being very conveniently situated 
for that purpose from its proximity to 
Hydruntum and Brundisium. During 
the second Punic war, it was taken 
by Philip, king of Macedonia, but was 
t afterwards recovered by the praetor Vale- 
rius Laevinus, who put Philip to the rout, 
and established winter-quarters at Oricum. 
It was subsequently occupied by Caesar, 
soon after his landing on this coast ; and 
Horace, Propertius, and Lucan speak of 
it as a well-known port in their time. 
It was famous for its turpentine. The 
name of Ericho is still attached to the spot 
on which the town stood. 

Orieks, the name given to all the most 
eastern parts of the world, such as Parthia, 
India, Assyria, &c. 

Origexes, commonly called, by English 
writers, Origen, a distinguished father of the 
church, born at Alexandria a. d. 184, cele- 
brated for modesty, learning, and sublimity 
of genius. He was surnamed Adamantinus, 
either from his indefatigable application to 
study, or the firmness which which he en- 
dured the persecutions to which his pro- 
fession of Christianity exposed him. He 
died at Tyre, in his seventieth year, a. d. 
254, soon after his release from prison, 
in which he had been subjected to great 
tortures. Many of his most important 
works are still extant. 

OrIox, a celebrated giant, whose origin 
has been related under the word Htrieus. 
When Orion grew up, he went to the 
island of Chios, where he became ena- 
moured of Merope, the daughter of QZno- 
pion, and sought her in marriage ; but his 
conduct towards the young lady so in- 
censed her father, that having made Orion 
drunk, he blinded him and cast him on the 
sea-shore. Orion contrived to reach Lem- 
nos, and came to the forge of Vulcan, who, 
taking pity on him, gave him Kedalion 
( Guardian'), one of his men, to be his guide 
to the abode of the Sun. Placing Keda- 
lion on his shoulder, Orion proceeded to 
the East ; and there meeting the Sun-god, 
was restored to vision by his beams. His 



ORI 



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421 



death is variously related. Some say that 
Diana slew him with her arrows for having 
attempted to offer violence either to her- 
self or to Opis, one of her Hyperborean 
maids ; others, again, allege that it was 
for presuming to challenge the goddess at 
the discus. It has been said that Di- 
ana loved Orion, and was about to marry 
him. Her brother, highly displeased, 
often chid her, but to no purpose ; and at 
length, observing one day Orion wading 
through the sea with his head just above 
the waters, he pointed it out to his sister, 
and maintained that she could not hit that 
black object on the sea. The archer-god- 
dess discharged a shaft ; the waves rolled 
the dead body of Orion to the land ; and, 
bewailing her fatal error with many tears, 
Diana placed him among the stars. Orion 
is not mentioned in the Iliad; but the 
Odyssey says that rosy-fingered Aurora 
took him, and that Diana slew him with 
her gentle darts in Ortygia. The con- 
stellation of Orion, which represents a man 
of gigantic stature wielding a sword, is 
mentioned as early as the time of Homer 
and Hesiod. Orion had two daughters, 
Menippe and Metioche, who, when the 
oracle had declared that Boeotia should 
not be delivered from a dreadful pestilence 
before two of Jupiter's descendants were 
immolated on the altars, voluntarily sacri- 
ficed themselves for the good of their 
country. Their bodies were burned by 
the Thebans ; but from their ashes sprung 
two stars, which Jupiter placed in the 
heavens in the form of a crown. 

Orithyia, daughter of Erechtheus, king 
of Athens, by Praxithea. She was carried 
away by Boreas, king of Thrace, by whom 
shehadCalais, Chione, Cleopatra, and Zetes. 

Ormenium, Goritza, an ancient city of 
Thessaly, in the district of Magnesia, near 
the Sinus Pelasgicus, and north-east of 
Demetrias, to whose rise and prosperity it 
greatly contributed. 

Orne^:, a city on the confines of Ar- 
golis, north-west of Nemea, on or near a 
cognominal river, founded by Orneus, son 
of Erechtheus, and held in subjection by 
the sovereigns of Mycenas as early as the 
time of the Trojan war. Orneas was de- 
stroyed by the Argives in the sixteenth 
year of the Peloponnesian war, after it had 
been abandoned by its inhabitants. 

Ornithias, a wind blowing from the 
north in the spring, so called from the 
appearance of birds, opviOes. 

Ornitus, a friend of iEneas, killed by 
Camilla in the Rutulian wars. 

Orodes, I., a prince of Parthia, who 
murdered his brother Mithridates, and, 



having ascended his throne, defeated 
Crassus the Roman triumvir, and followed 
the interest of Cassius and Brutus at Phi- 
lippi. When old and infirm, his thirty 
children disputed, in his presence, their 
right to the succession : whereupon Phra- 
ates, the eldest, having obtained the crown 
from his father^, strangled him to hasten 
him out of the world, about b. c. 37. 
Orodes reigned about fifty years. — II. 
One of the friends of iEneas in Italy, 
killed by Mezentius. 

Orcetes or Orontes, a Persian governor 
of Sardis, notorious for his cruel murder 
of Polycrates. He was put to death, 
b.c. 521, by order of Darius Hystaspis, 
for having destroyed Mitrobates, governor 
of Daschylium, and his son Cranapes, and 
for having put to death a royal messenger. 

Oromasdes, in Persian mythology the 
principle of Good, created by the will 
of the great eternal spirit Zeruane Akhe- 
rene, simultaneously with Ahriman, the 
principle of Evil, with whom he is in 
perpetual conflict. Oromasdes is the 
creator of the earth, sun, moon, and 
stars, to which he originally assigned each 
its proper place, and whose various move- 
ments he continues to regulate. According 
to the Persian sages, the world, which is 
to last 12,000 years, during which the war 
between the Good and Evil Principle is to 
go on increasing, is at length to be con- 
sumed, the Evil Principle exterminated, 
and a new world created in its room, over 
which Oromasdes is to reign as the sole 
and supreme monarch. The great apostle 
of the Persians, Zoroaster, was the prophet 
of Oromasdes, and there is an old pro- 
phecy extant that after the lapse of ages a 
descendant of Zoroaster shall be sent by 
Oromasdes to redeem the world. 

Oromedon, I., a lofty mountain in the 
island of Cos. — II. A giant, mentioned 
by Propertius. 

Orontes, I., a river of Syria, rising on 
the eastern side of Mt. Libanus, and, after 
pursuing a northerly course, falling into 
the Mediterranean about six leagues below 
Antiochia. It was called Orontes, ac- 
cording to Strabo, from the person who 
first built a bridge over it, its previous 
name having been Typhon, which it was 
fabled to have derived from a dragon, 
which, struck with a thunderbolt, sought 
a place of concealment by breaking through 
the surface of the earth, from which aper- 
ture the river broke forth, so that it pur- 
sued a part of its course at first under 
ground. — II. A king of the Lycians during 
the Trojan war, who followed iEneas, and 
perished in a shipwreck. 



422 



ORO 



OUT 



Orophernes, a person who seized the 
kingdom of Cappadocia, and died b. c. 154. 

Oropus, L, Ropo, a city on the confines of 
Bceotia and Attica, not far from the mouth 
of the Asopus, long the object of eager 
contest between the Boeotians and the 
Athenians. During the Peloponnesian 
war it was occupied by the Athenians ; 
but, towards the close of that contest, it 
was surprised by the Boeotians, who re- 
tained possession of it till the over- 
throw of Thebes, when it was once more 
ceded to the Athenians by Alexander. 
— II. A city of Macedonia, mentioned by 
Stephanus, but otherwise unknown. — III. 
A city in the island of Eubcea. 

Orosius, Paulus, a presbyter of the 
Spanish church, and a native of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, who flourished about the 
beginning of the fifth century, under Ar- 
cadius and Honorius, and composed a 
History in seven books, from the creation 
of the world to his own time, which is still 
extant. 

Orospeda. See Ortospeda. 

Orpheus, a celebrated mythic bard, said 
to have been a son of Apollo or (Eagrus, 
king of Thrace, and the Muse Calliope. 
Together with his brother Linus he was 
regarded as having introduced the arts of 
civilised life among wild and untutored 
hordes, and by the power of song to 
have charmed savage beasts, and to have 
awakened even inanimate nature into life 
and rapture. Orpheus was one of the Ar- 
gonauts : and after that famous expedition 
he retired into Thrace, where he married 
the Nymph Eurydice, who subsequently 
died from the bite of a serpent as she was 
flying from Aristteus. Disconsolate at 
his loss, Orpheus resolved to recover her, 
or perish in the attempt. . With his lyre 
in his hand he entered the infernal regions. 
The king of hell was charmed with the 
melody of his strains, the wheel of Ixion 
stopped, the stone of Sisyphus stood still, 
Tantalus forgot his perpetual thirst, and 
even the Furies relented. Pluto and Pro- 
serpine consented to restore Eurydice, pro- 
vided he forbore looking behind till he 
had come to the extreme borders of hell. 
The conditions were accepted; Orpheus 
was already in sight of the upper regions 
of the air, when he forgot his promises, 
and turned back to look at his long-lost 
Eurydice, when she instantly vanished 
from his eyes. He then retired from the 
society of man, and was soon after torn to 
pieces by the Thracian women, whom he 
had offended by his coldness. They threw 
his head into the Hebrus, which still ar- 
ticulated the words Eurydice, Eurydice! 



as it was carried down the stream into the 
iEgean sea. After death he received 
divine honours ; the Muses gave an ho- 
nourable burial to his remains, and his 
lyre became one of the constellations in 
the heavens. Moderns have imagined that 
his name is a general mythic designation 
for the earliest bards, who came with their 
art from Thrace to Greece. Whether any 
fragments of poetry, either of the real 
Orpheus or of this supposed school, ex- 
isted in Grecian classical ages, has been 
doubted. What passed as the poetry of 
Orpheus in the time of Aristotle seems to 
have been decidedly supposititious, as much 
so as the poems which we possess under 
the same name, some of which are thought 
to be as recent as the fourth century after 
Christ. According to modern theories, 
the Orphic poetry of ancient times con- 
tained the whole body of Grecian esote- 
rical religion and import of the Mysteries. 
The death of Linus, the brother of Orpheus, 
was also tragical ; for while instructing 
Hercules in music, he was struck dead 
by a blow which his pupil in a moment 
of passion dealt him with his lyre. 
Apollo is said to have deeply bewailed the 
loss of his son ; hence JElinon (cX Aivos, 
woe is me for Linus,) was used for a dirge 
in general. 

Ortalus, M., a grandson of Hortensius, 
induced to marry at the special request of 
Augustus. 

Orthia, a surname of Diana at Sparta, 
at whose altar boys were scourged during 
the festival called Diamastigosis. The 
young sufferers were called Bomonicse. 
See Bomonicse and Diana. 

Orthrus or Orthos, a dog with two 
heads, which guarded the oxen of Geryon. 
It sprung from the union of Echidna and 
Typhon, and was destroyed by Hercules. 

Ortospeda or Orospeda Mons, a chain 
of mountains in Spain, being, properly 
speaking, a continuation of the range of 
Idubeda. 

Ortygia, I., a grove near Ephesus, 
watered by the little river Cenchrius, 
and filled with shrines, and adorned with 
statues by the hand of Scopas and other 
eminent sculptors. — II. An island in the 
bay of Syracuse, forming one of the five 
quarters of that city, and first settled by a 
colony under Archias, which afterwards 
extended to Acradina on the mainland of 
Sicily. Ortygia was famed for containing 
the celebrated fount of Arethusa. — III. 
One of the early names of the island of 
Delos, so called either because the island 
was famous for quails (oprv}-), or because 
Latona found refuge there from the ven- 



ORT 



OSI 



geance of Juno under the form of a quail. 
See Delos. 

Ortygius, a Rutulian killed by iEneas. 

Orus. See Horus. 

Osca, Huesca, a town of Hispania Bae- 
tica, in the territory of the Turdetani. 

Oschophoria, a festival observed by 
the Athenians, airh rod (pepeiv rds o<xx as , 
" from carrying boughs hung with grapes," 
called bax ai - For an account of its ori- 
ginal institution, and a detail of its cere- 
monies, see Plutarch in Theseus. 

Osci, a people between Campania and 
the country of the Volsci, who assisted 
Turnus against xEneas. They seem to 
have been identical with the Ausones and 
Aurunci, and to have been the aboriginal 
inhabitants of the southern part of the 
Peninsula, whence sprang the Sabini, 
Apuli, Messapii, Campani, Aurunci, and 
Volsci. The Greek colonists of Magna 
Grsecia being superior to the native tribes 
in refinement and mental cultivation af- 
fected to despise them, and applied to the 
native Italian tribes, including the Romans, 
the epithet Oscan or Opican, as a word 
of contempt, to denote barbarism both in 
language and manners ; and the later 
Roman writers themselves adopted the 
expression in the same sense : " Osce loqui " 
was tantamount to a barbarous way of 
speaking. The Oscan language was the 
parent of the dialects of the native tribes 
from the Tiber to the extremity of the 
Peninsula ; while in the regions north of 
the Tiber the Etrurian predominated. It 
continued to be understood at Rome down 
to a later period of the empire, and the 
FabulcB AtellancE, which were in the Oscan 
tongue, were highly relished by the great 
body of the people. See Opici. 

Osiris, in mythology, one of the chief 
Egyptian divinities, the brother and hus- 
band of Isis, and together with her the 
greatest benefactor of Egypt, into which 
he introduced a knowledge of religion, 
laws, and the arts and sciences. After 
having accomplished great reformations at 
home, he visited the greater part of Eu- 
rope and Asia, where he enlightened the 
minds of men by teaching them the wor- 
ship of the gods and the arts of civilisa- 
tion ; but on his return he found his own 
subjects excited to rebellion by his brother 
Typhon, by whose hand he was ultimately 
assassinated. Both ancient and modern 
writers have differed considerably respect- 
ing the powers and attributes of Osiris. 
His principal office, as an Egyptian deity, 
was to judge the dead, and to rule over 
that kingdom into which the souls of the 
good were admitted to eternal felicity. 



The characters of Osiris, like those of Isis, 
who was thence called Myrionymus, or 
" with 10,000 names," were numerous. 
He was that attribute of the deity which 
signified the divine goodness ; and in his 
most mysterious and sacred office, as an 
avatar, or manifestation of the divinity on 
earth, he was superior to any even of the 
Egyptian gods ; for, as Herodotus ob- 
serves, though all the Egyptians did not 
worship the same gods with equal rever- 
ence, the adoration paid to Osiris and Isis 
was universal. He was styled " the Ma- 
nifester of Good ; " and to this title he 
had an undisputed right, for he appeared 
on earth to benefit mankind; and after 
having performed the duties he had come 
to fulfil, and fallen a sacrifice to Typhon, 
the evil principle (which was at length 
overcome by his influence after his leaving 
the world), he " rose again to a new life, 
and became the judge of mankind in a 
future state." Other titles of Osiris were, 
" President of the West," " Lord of the 
East," " Lord of Lords," " Eternal Ruler," 
" King of the Gods," &c. These, with 
many others, are commonly found in the 
hieroglyphic legends accompanying bis 
figure ; and the Papyri frequently present 
a list of forty-nine names of Osiris in the 
funeral rituals. Osiris has been identified 
with many of the Grecian divinities ; but 
more especially with Jupiter, Pluto, and 
with Bacchus, on account of his reputed 
conquest of India. Osiris was particu- 
larly worshipped at Philse and Abydus : 
so sacred was the former that no one 
was permitted to visit it without express 
permission ; and the latter was regarded 
with such veneration that persons living 
at a distance from it sought, and with 
difficulty obtained, permission to possess a 
sepulchre within its necropolis. The wor- 
ship of Osiris was at a later period in- 
troduced into Rome ; but the prurient 
imagination of the Romans soon converted 
the rites and mysteries of this deity into a 
means for practising the most unbounded 
licentiousness, which at length reached 
such a height that his worship was pro- 
hibited by law. Osiris was venerated 
under the form of the sacred bulls Apis 
and Mnevis ; or as a human figure with 
a bull's head, distinguished by the name 
Apis- Osiris. He is usually represented 
as clad in pure white ; and his usual at- 
tributes are the high cap of Upper Egypt, 
a crosier, a flagellum, and sometimes a 
spotted skin, an emblem supposed to con- 
nect him with the Grecian Bacchus. 

Osisjiii, a people of Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis Tertia, on the coast of the Mare Bri- 



424 . OSR 



OTH 



tannicum, whose country answers to Leon 
and Treguier, or Basse Bretagne. 

Oskhoene, a district in the north-west 
of Mesopotamia. See Mesopotamia. 

Ossa, L, a celebrated mountain, or, 
more correctly, mountain-range of Thes- 
saly, extending from the right bank of the 
Peneus along the Magnesian coast to the 
chain of Pelion. It was supposed that 
Ossa and Olympus were once united, but 
that an earthquake had rent them asun- 
der, forming the vale of Tempe. (See 
Temfe. ) Ossa was one of the mountains 
which the giants, in their war with the 
gods, piled upon Olympus in order to 
ascend to the heavens. The modern name 
is Kissovo, or Kissabos. — II. A small 
town of Macedonia, in the territory of 
Bisaltia, situated on the river Bisaltes, 
falling into the Strymon. 

Ostia, a celebrated town and harbour, 
at the mouth of the Tiber, in Italy. 
It was the sea-port of Rome ; and was 
founded by Ancus Martius in that view, 
who is also said to have constructed the 
salt-works in its vicinity. In the course 
of time Ostia rose, with the rise of 
Rome, to be a place of great wealth, 
population, and importance. It was 
taken by Marius, who appears to have 
treated it with great severity. But it 
soon recovered from this disaster, and con- 
tinued to engross the whole trade of 
Rome carried on by sea. But its port 
had never been good ; and, owing to the 
gradual accumulation of the mud and 
other deposits brought down by the river, it 
ultimately became inaccessible to ships of 
considerable burthen, who were obliged to 
anchor on the coast in an exposed and 
hazardous situation. Many efforts were 
made at different periods to obviate these 
inconveniences, but apparently without 
much success ; and at length the em- 
peror Claudius constructed a new arti- 
ficial port at the mouth of the north or 
right arm of the Tiber, by means of 
moles projecting into the sea. Ostia still 
retains its ancient name, but all traces of its 
former importance have disappeared. 

Ostorius Scapula, a governor of Bri- 
tain in the reign of Claudius, who defeated 
and took prisoner the famous Caractacus. 
He died a. d. 55. 

Ostracismus, a form of condemnation 
at Athens, by which persons who from 
their wealth or influence were consi- 
dered dangerous to the state were ba- 
nished for ten years, with leave to enjoy 
their estates and return after that pe- 
riod. It was not inflicted as a punish- 
ment, but merely as a precautionary 



measure to preserve the democracy. The 
process in this condemnation was as fol- 
lows : — The people being assembled, each 
man wrote the name of the person he 
wished to banish on a shell (ocrpaKou, 
whence the name oar pataa juos), and de- 
livered it to the archons, who counted the 
numbers. Only one individual could be 
subjected to the ostracism at the same 
meeting, and 6000 hostile votes were ne- 
cessary to the infliction of this condemn- 
ation. Hence if 6000 votes and upwards 
were recorded against one or more indi- 
viduals, the one was banished against whom 
the greatest number of votes had been 
given. The ostracism of the Athenians 
was equivalent to the petalism of the Sy- 
racusans. 

Ostkogoth^e, or Eastern Goths, a di- 
vision of the great Gothic nation, who 
settled in Pannonia in the fifth century of 
our era, whence they extended their domi- 
nion over Noricum, Rhaetia, Illyricum, and 
finally Italy, under the reign of Theodoric, 
to whose dynasty they have given name. 

Osymandyas, a king of Egypt, the same 
with Ameproph or Phamenoph. Some 
maintain that he caused the celebrated 
statue of Memnon to be erected to his own 
honour. (See Memnon.) In this view Ja- 
blonski makes Osymandyas equivalent in 
meaning to dans vocem, "voice-emitting." 

Otanes, one of the seven Persians who 
conspired against Smerdis. Through him 
the usurpation was first discovered, and he 
was afterwards appointed by Darius over 
the sea-coast of Asia Minor, and took 
Byzantium. 

Otho, M. Salvius, I., a Roman em- 
peror, descended from the ancient kings of 
Etruria, was born a. d. 31. He was a 
great favourite of Nero, who raised him 
to the highest offices of the state, but the 
emperor's love for Poppaea, whom Otho had 
seduced from her first husband, induced 
him to grant him the government of Lusi- 
tania, where he remained for ten years ; 
but he afterwards took an active part in op- 
. position to Nero, and in placing Galba on 
the throne, a. d. 68. "When Galba, however, 
had refused to adopt him as his successor, 
Otho formed a conspiracy among the guards, 
who proclaimed him emperor, and put the 
former to death after a reign of only seven 
months. Otho commenced his reign by 
ingratiating himself with the soldiery, and 
was readily acknowledged by the senate and 
Roman people, but he was scarcely seated 
on the throne before the legions of Germany 
revolted under Vitellius. He obtained 
three victories over his enemies, but in 
a general engagement near Brixellum, 



OfH 



425 



his forces were defeated, and when all 
hopes of success had vanished, he stabbed 
himself, after a reign of three months, 
April 20, a. d. 69. — II. Roscius, a 
tribune of the people, who, in Cicero's 
consulship, made a regulation to permit 
the Roman knights at public spectacles 
to have the fourteen first rows behind 
the seats of the senators. ■ — III. Lucius, 
the father of the emperor Otho, advanced 
to the highest offices by the emperor Ti- 
berius, whom he is said closely to have 
resembled. 

Othryades, I., one of the 300 Spar- 
tans, who fought against 300 Argives, 
when those two nations disputed their re- 
spective right to Thyrea. Two Argives, 
Alcenor and Chromius, and Othryades 
alone survived the battle. The latter 
being ashamed to return to Sparta, killed 
himself at Thyrea. — II. A patronymic 
given to Pantheus, a Trojan priest of 
Apollo, from his father Othryas. 

Othrys, a mountain range of Thessaly, 
branching out of Tymphrestus, one of the 
highest points- in the chain of Pindus, and 
greatly celebrated by the poets of antiquity. 
At present it is known by the different 
names of Hellovo, Varibovo, and Goura. 

Otus and Ephialtes, sons of Neptune. 
See Aloidje. 

OvidTus Naso, P. a celebrated Roman 
poet, born at Sulmo, b. c. 43, the year in 
which the consuls Hirtius and Pansa were 
cut off, in which the second triumvirate 
was formed, and in which Cicero perished. 
His father was of an equestrian family. 
He himself was the second son, his elder 
brother being exactly twelve months his 
senior. They were both brought up at 
Rome ; their education was superintended 
by the most distinguished masters ; and 
at the usual period each assumed the 
manly gown. The elder, a youth of great 
promise, devoted himself with zeal to 
the study of eloquence ; but he was cut 
off in his twenty-first year. Ovid re- 
paired to Athens for the purpose of finish- 
ing his studies : at this or some sub- 
sequent period he visited Asia in the 
train of Macer, and on his return home 
passed nearly a year in Sicily. From a 
very early period he had displayed a de- 
cided taste for poetical composition. He 
soon manifested a rooted aversion to the 
jarring contentions of the forum ; and not- 
withstanding the remonstrances of his 
father, gradually abandoned public life, 
and devoted himself exclusively to the cul- 
tivation of the muses. When a very young 
man he exercised the functions of trium- 
vir, decemvir, centumvir, and judicial ar- 



biter; but he never attempted to rise to 
any of the higher offices of state, which 
would have entitled him to the rank and 
privileges of a senator. Virgil, Horace, 
Tibullus, and Propertius were his friends, 
and Augustus was a liberal patron to him ; 
but he at length fell under the displeasure 
of the emperor, who, for some cause never 
explained, banisfted him from Rome, and 
sent him to live among the Getae, or 
Goths, on the Euxine. It is probable 
that the political intrigues of the empress 
Livia and her son Tiberius contributed 
to the removal of the poet ; while the 
licentiousness of his writings, and the ir- 
regularities of his life, afforded plausible 
pretexts for the infliction of this punish- 
ment. He in vain solicited his recall to 
Rome, and died at Tomos, a. d. 17, in the 
tenth year of his banishment. Ovid was 
married three times. His first wife, whom 
he married while still almost a boy, he de- 
scribes as unworthy of his affection. His 
second was of blameless character; but 
from her also he was soon divorced. His 
third wife was of the noble Fabian family : 
to her he was deeply attached ; and she 
remained fond and true to the last, sup- 
porting him by her faithful affection during 
the misfortunes which darkened the close 
of his life. He left an only daughter, called 
Perilla, who was married twice, and be- 
came the mother of two children. His 
chief works consist of " De Arte Amandi ;" 
" Heroic Epistles ; " the " Fasti," and 
" Metamorphoses." 

OxjLe, called by Homer Thoas, small 
pointed islands, near the Echinades, off the 
coast of Acarnania. This group is now 
commonly known by the name of Curzo- 
lari, but the most considerable among them 
retains the appellation of Oxia. 

Oxus, Amoo or Jihon, a large river of 
Bactriana, rising in the north-eastern ex- 
tremity of that country, or, rather, in the 
south-eastern part of Great Bukharia, and 
flowing for the greater part of its course 
in a north-west direction. It receives nu- 
merous tributaries, and falls, after a course 
of 1200 miles, into the Sea of Aral The 
Oxus, regarded by some critics as the 
Araxes mentioned by Herodotus as flow- 
ing through the territories of the Massa- 
getas, was supposed by Strabo and Ptolemy 
to fall into the Caspian ; and the traces of 
a valley, nearly resembling the dry bed of 
a river, have induced some modern geo- 
graphers to adopt the opinion that in the 
course of ages the Oxus formed for itself 
a new channel, running into the Aral Sea. 
But, however confused our information 
respecting this river, it undoubtedly form- 



426 



OXY 



Pi£A 



ed the boundary line between the more 
civilised and settled nations of W. Asia 
and the wandering hordes of Tartary. 
The Oxus was the northern limit of the 
territories subdued by Cyrus and Alex- 
ander, and it seems to have been used at 
a very early period as a channel for com- 
mercial intercourse between India and the 
countries bordering on the Caspine and 
Euxine. The Ochus is mentioned by 
Strabo as one of its principal affluents ; but 
his account is inconsistent, and unworthy 
of credit. 

Oxydrac^e, a nation of India, supposed 
to have inhabited the district now called 
Outsch, near the confluence of the Acesines 
and Indus. 

Oxyrynchus, Belcnese, a city of Egypt, 
on the canal of Moeris ; from o^vpvyxos, " a 
pike," which was an object of worship to 
the Egyptians. 

OzoLiE. See Locri. 



P. 

Pacatianus, Titus Julius, a Roman 
general, who proclaimed himself emperor 
in Gaul at the latter part of Philip's reign ; 
but was soon after defeated and put to 
death, a. d. 249. 

Pachinus, or Pachynus, Passaro, a 
promontory of Sicily, with a small har- 
bour of the same name. It is one of the 
three promontories that give to Sicily its 
triangular figure, the other two being Pe- 
lorus and Lilybasum. 

Pacorus, I., the eldest of the sons of 
Orodes, king of Parthia, by whom he was 
sent after the defeat of Crassus to invade 
Syria, having Osaces, a veteran com- 
mander, associated with him. The Par- 
thians were driven back, however, by Cains 
Cassius, and Osaces was slain. After the 
battle of Philippi, Pacorus, in conjunc- 
tion with Labienus, invaded Syria, which 
he reduced under the Parthian sway ; 
thence he passed into Judaea, and placed 
on the throne Antigonus, son of Hyrca- 
nus ; but the Roman power having been 
re-established in Syria by the efforts of 
Ventidius, Pacorus again crossed the Eu- 
phrates, but was defeated and slain by the 
Roman commander. His death was deep- 
ly lamented by Orodes, who for several 
days refused all nourishment. — II. a Son 
of Vonones II., king of Parthia, who 
received from his brother Vologeses the 
country of Media as an independent king- 
dom. His dominions were ravaged by 
the Alani, who compelled him to take 
shelter for some time in the mountains. 



Pactolus, Bagouly, a celebratea river 
of Lydia, rising on Mt. Tmolus, and fall- 
ing into the Hermus after it has watered 
the city of Sardes. It was famous for its 
golden sands, which were fabled to have 
been produced by Midas having bathed in 
its waters. 

Pactyas, a Lydian, entrusted with the 
treasures of Croesus at Sardes. The im- 
mense riches he could command enabled 
him to collect a large army, with which he 
laid siege to the citadel of Sardes ; but the 
arrival of one of the Persian generals soon 
put him to flight, and he was afterwards 
delivered into the hands of Cyrus. 

Pacuvius, M., a native of Brundu- 
sium, son of the sister of the poet Ennius, 
born b. c. 219. He distinguished him- 
self by his skill in painting, and, together 
with Attius, was regarded as the imme- 
diate successor of Ennius in tragic com- 
position. With one exception, all his 
plays were translated from the Greek ; 
and even in the Augustan age they were 
spoken of with great enthusiasm. In his 
old age he retired to Tarentum, where he 
died about b. c. 140. 

Padus, To, the largest river of Italy, 
anciently called Eridanus. (See Erida- 
nus.) It rises in Mons Vesulus, Monte 
Viso, near the sources of the Druentia, 
Durance, flows in an easterly direction for 
500 miles, and discharges its waters into 
the Adriatic, thirty miles south of Portus 
Venetus, Venice. During its long course 
it receives a great number of tributaries, 
its channel being the final receptacle of 
almost every stream that rises on the 
eastern and southern declivities of the 
Alps, and the northern declivity of the 
Apennines. The mouths of the Po were 
anciently reckoned seven in number, the 
principal of which were called Padusa, 
Caprasias Ostium, Sagis, and Carbonaria. 
The Fossa? Philistinas is the Po grande. The 
Po is famous for the death of Phaethon, 
who fell into it when struck down from 
heaven by the thunderbolts of Jupiter. 

Padusa, called also Eridanus and Spi- 
neticum Ostium, the southernmost branch 
of the river Padus, from which a canal 
was cut by Augustus to Ravenna. Vir- 
gil speaks of the swans along its 
banks. 

P^ean, an appellation given to Apollo, 
who under this name was either considered 
as a destroying (ira'm, to smite') or as a 
protecting and healing deity, who frees 
the mind from care and sorrow (irava, 
to cause to cease). Homer and Hesiod 
speak of Pceeon (Ylaii]wv) as a separate 
individual, and the physician of Olympus ; 



P^M 



PAL 



42? 



but this division appears to be merely 
poetical, 'without any reference to actual 
worship. From very early times the 
song in the Pythian temple, appointed to 
be sung in honour of Apollo, was called 
by his name, and in the course of time it 
came to be applied to the singers also. It 
was also the name of the Grecian war- 
song. 

Pjbhant, a people of Belgic Gaul, sup- 
posed to have occupied the western dis- 
trict of Luxemburg. 

P^eoxes, a powerful people, who in- 
habited the north of 3Iacedonia in the 
vicinity of Mt. Rhodope and the banks of 
the Strymon, divided into numerous tribes, 
of whom the Pelagones and Agriones 
were the chief. Their chief town was 
Pelagonia. 

P-fflONiA, a country of Macedonia, named 
from Pa?on, son of Endyrnion. See Ph- 
ones. 

P^eoxides, a name given to the daugh- 
ters of Pierus, because their mother was 
a native of Paeonia. 

P^estanus Sinus, Gulf of Salerno, a gulf 
on the lower coast of Italy, which extended 
from the Siren's Cape to the Promontory 
of Posidium. Its ancient appellation was 
derived from the city of Pactum. 

P^estu3i, a celebrated city of Lucania, 
in Lower Italy, below the river Silarus, 
near the coast of Sinus Pcestanus, or Gulf 
of Salerno. Its Greek appellation was 
Posidonia, so called in honour of Nep- 
tune (IlocreiSdJv). The origin of this once 
flourishing city has afforded matter of 
much discussion to antiquaries, who have 
ascribed it to the Dorians, Phoenicians, 
and Tyrrhenian Pelasgi ; but in all pro- 
bability it was founded by a colony of Sy- 
barites, about b. c. 540. Paestum became 
a Roman colony a. u. c. 480 ; but being 
situated on an unfrequented coast, and 
having no trade of its own, it never rose 
into importance under the Roman sway, and 
it is only noticed by subsequent writers 
for the celebrity of its roses, which blos- 
somed twice a year. The ruins of Pa?s- 
stum form at the present day the admira- 
tion and wonder of all who have visited 
them. 

P^etus, C^ecina, the husband of Arria. 
See Arria. 

Pagas^;, or Pagasa, a maritime town 
of Thessaly, on the Sinus Pagasams, close 
to the mouth of the Onchestus. It was 
the port of Iolchos, and afterwards of Phe- 
rae; and is remarkable in Grecian story 
for being the point whence the Argo set 
sail on her voyage to Colchis. Apollo 
was the tutelary deity of this city. 



Pagas^us Sinus, Gulf of Volo, a gulf 
of Thessaly, on the coast of Magnesia, 
which derived its name from the city Pa- 
gasae. 

Pal^mon or Palemon, I. See Me- 
licerta. — II. A Roman grammarian in 
the age of Tiberius, and the preceptor of 
Quintilian, who made himself ridiculov* 
by arrogance and luxury. 

Pal^paphos. See Pafhos. 

Pal^ephatus, I., a town in the north- 
west of Thessaly, plundered by Philip 
in his retreat through Thessaly, after his 
defeat on the banks of the Aous. — II. An 
early Athenian epic poet, several of whose 
productions are mentioned by Suidas. Hie 
period when he lived is uncertain. — III. 
A native either of Paros or Priene, who 
lived about b. c. 409, and wrote a work in 
five books, entitled *A7ncrra, Incredible 
Things. — IV. A native of xVbydos, 
thence called Abydenus, and a great friend 
of Aristotle, who wrote several historical 
works. 

Pal^epolis. See Neapolis. 

Pal^ste, a small harbour of Epirus, 
near Oricus, where Caesar first landed from 
Brundisium in order to carry on the war 
against Pompey in Illyria. 

Pal^estina, a district of Asia, named 
from the Philistaei or Philistines, who in- 
habited the coast. As it was the promised 
inheritance of the seed of Abraham, and 
scene of the birth, sufferings, and death of 
our Redeemer, we are accustomed to 
designate it the Holy Land. It was 
bounded on the north by Phoenicia and 
Ccelesyria, east by Arabia Deserta, south 
by Arabia Petras, west by the Mediter- 
ranean, called in Scripture Great Sea. 
Palestine was differently divided at dif- 
ferent times ; anciently into twelve tribes ; 
afterwards into the two kingdoms of Judah 
and Israel ; and lastly, under the Romans, 
into different districts, Galilcea, Samaria, 
Judcra, and the Begio trails Jordanem, or the 
country on the east of Jordan. 

Pal^tyrus, the ancient town of Tyre. 
See Tyrus. 

Palamedes, son of Xauplius, king of 
Euboea, by Clymene. He was educated 
by Chiron ; and was the prince deputed by 
the Greek chieftains to induce Ulysses to 
join in the war against Troy. The stratagem 
by which he exposed the pretended insanity 
of the Ithacan king produced an irreconcil- 
able enmity between them. Palamedes sub- 
sequently preferred an accusation against 
Ulysses of negligence in procuring sup- 
plies ; and Ulysses, burning for revenge, 
bribed one of the servants of Palamedes 
to conceal a large sum of money in his 



428 



PAL 



PAL 



master's tent, and counterfeited a letter to 
him. from Priam expressive of thanks 
for the stratagem which Palamedes was 
alleged to have made in favour of the 
Trojans, and informing him that he had 
caused the reward to be deposited in his 
tent. The tent being searched, the money 
was discovered, and Palamedes was stoned 
to death by the Greeks for his supposed 
treachery, in spite of his most earnest pro- 
testations of innocence. But another ac- 
count of his death is given by Pausanias. 
Palamedes was a learned man as well as a 
soldier. According to some, he is said 
to have completed the alphabet of Cadmus 
by adding the four letters 6, |, x> 0> during 
the Trojan war. He is also celebrated 
in fable as the inventor of weights and 
measures ; of the games of chess and 
backgammon ; as having regulated the 
year by the sun, and the twelve months 
by the moon ; and as having introduced 
the mode of forming troops into battalions, 
placing sentinels round a camp, and using 
a watchword. 

Palantia, Palencia, a city of the Vac- 
caei, in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Palantium, a town of Arcadia, whence 
Evander came into Italy. 

Palatinus Mons, the largest of the 
seven hills on which Rome was built. 
On it Romulus laid the first foundation 
of the capital of Italy, and it formed 
the residence of the Caesars from the time 
of Augustus to the decline of the em- 
pire. It was almost entirely covered 
with the Palace of Augustus ; the temple 
of Jupiter Stator, said to have been built 
by Romulus ; and the temple of Apollo, 
with the library attached to it. Of all 
these nothing remains but the substruc- 
tures. 

Pales, the Italian goddess presiding 
over cattle, who was worshipped with great 
solemnity. Her festivals, called Palilia, 
were celebrated on the 21st of April, the 
day upon which, according to tradition, 
the foundations of Rome were laid by 
Romulus — the dies natalis urbis of Rome 
— as a great rustic holiday. On this day 
the shepherds purified their flocks by mak- 
ing them pass round a great fire made of 
laurel, pine, and olive branches, sprinkled 
with sulphur. An offering of wine, milk, 
and millet was then placed on the altar of 
the goddess, who was entreated to bless 
the earth and the flocks with fecundity, 
and to avert injury from them both. The 
term palilia is frequently written parilia in 
the ancient MSS. ; but no doubt can be 
entertained as to the correctness of the 
former. 



Palfurius Sura. See Sura. 

Palibothra, a large city of India ; 
supposed now to be Patna, or Allahabad. 

Palici, in Grecian Mythology, twin 
divinities, worshipped in Sicily, and es- 
pecially in the neighbourhood of Etna ; 
sons, according to some, of Jupiter and 
Thalia, the daughter of Vulcan ; accord- 
ing to others, of Vulcan and iEtna, daugh- 
ter of Ocean. Their heads appear on coins 
of Catania. Their name is said to be de- 
rived from returning (iraAiv iiceo-dai) out 
of the earth, under which their mother had 
borne them. 

Palilia. See Pales. 

Palinurus, L, a celebrated Trojan, the 
son of Jasius, and a skilful pilot of the 
ship of iEneas. When the fleet was off 
the coast of Capreae, he fell into the sea 
in his sleep, but remained floating for three 
days, and at last came safe to the sea-shore 
near Velia, where the inhabitants mur- 
dered him to obtain his clothes. iEneas, 
when he visited the infernal regions, as- 
sured Palinurus that though his bones 
were deprived of a funeral, yet the place 
where his body was exposed should be 
adorned with a monument. This even- 
tually took place ; for when the Lucani 
were afflicted by a pestilence, they were 
told by the oracle that in order to be re- 
lieved from it they must appease the manes 
of Palinurus. A tomb was accordingly 
erected to his memory, and a neighbouring 
promontory called after his name. — II. 
Capo di Palinuro, a promontory of Italy, 
on the western coast of Lucania, just above 
the Laiis Sinus. Tradition ascribed its 
name to Palinurus, the pilot of IEneas. 

Paliscorum, or Palicorum Stagnum, 
a sulphureous pool in Sicily, near which 
the deities called the Palici sprang into 
existence. See Palici. 

Palladium, a celebrated statue of Mi- \ 
nerva, on the preservation of which de- 
pended the safety of the city of Troy. The I 
traditions respecting it were innumerable. 
It was said to have fallen from heaven 
during the reign of Ilus, in answer to his 
petition that Jupiter would give him some 
intimation of his favour. But however 
discordant ancient authors may be about 
this statue, it is universally agreed that on 
its preservation depended the safety of 
Troy. This fatality being known to the 
Greeks during the Trojan war, Ulysses 
and Diomedes, by the advice and aid of 
Helenus, son of Priam, climbed secrecy 
by night over the ramparts of Troy, and 
carried it off. Diomedes retained posses- 
sion of the Palladium; but having en- 
dured many hardships after the fall of 



PAL 



PAL 



429 



Troy, and being told by the oracle that 
his troubles would never cease until he 
had consigned the Palladium to its lawful 
owners, he placed it in the hands of iEneas, 
who transmitted it to his descendants. 
Other accounts state that the true Palla- 
dium was not carried away by the Greeks, 
but was conveyed to Italy by iEneas, and 
afterwards preserved in the temple of 
Vesta. 

Palladius, I., a sophist, a native of 
Methone, who lived in the time of Con- 
stantine the Great, and wrote Disser- 
tations or Declamatory Essays, and a 
work on the Roman festivals. — II. An 
eastern prelate and ecclesiastical writer, a 
native of Galatia, born about a. d. 368, 
and made bishop of Hellenopolis in Bi- 
thynia. He was ordained by Chrysostom, 
on whose banishment he fell under perse- 
cution, and being obliged to withdraw 
from his see, retired to Italy, and took 
refuge at Rome. Some time after, ven- 
turing to return to the East, he was ba- 
nished to Syene ; but having regained his 
liberty, he resigned the see of Helleno- 
polis, and was appointed to the bishopric 
of Alexandria. He is thought to have 
died a, d. 431. He wrote the " Lausiac 
History " about the year 421, which con- 
tains the lives of persons who were at that 
time eminent for their extraordinary au- 
sterities in Egypt and Palestine III. 

A physician of Alexandria, distinguished 
from other individuals of the same name 
by the appellation of 'larpoaocpiar^s, a 
title which he is supposed to have gained 
by having been a professor of medicine at 
Alexandria. His age is very uncertain. 
Several of his works are still extant. 

Pallanteum, an ancient town of Italy, 
in the territory of the Sabines, said to 
have been founded by the Arcadian Pe- 
lasgi united with the aborigines. From 
it, according to some, the Palatine Mount 
at Rome is said to have derived its name. 

Pallantias, I., a name of Aurora, as 
being related to the giant Pallas. — II. 
An appellation given to the Tritonis Palus 
in Libya, because Minerva (Pallas) was 
fabled by some to have been first seen on 
its banks. 

Pallantid^e, the fifty sons of Pallas 
the brother of iEgeus, and next heirs to 
the latter if Theseus had not been ac- 
knowledged as his son. They had recourse 
to arms in order to enforce their claim to 
the sovereignty, but were defeated by 
Theseus. 

Pallas (gen. -adis), an appellation 
given to the goddess Minerva (ITaAAas 
'Adrfvu). The ordinary derivation makes 



the goddess to have obtained this name 
from having slain the Titan, or giant, 
Pallas ; but it is more probably derived 
from 7rdAAeiv, to brandish. See Minerva. 

Pallas (gen. -a?itis), I. , a son of Pan- 
dion, who became the father of Clytus, 
Butes, and the " fifth Minerva," accord- 
ing to Ciceros' enumeration. He was 
killed by his daughter. — II. One of the 
Titans, or of the giants said to have been 
killed by Minerva. He was the son of 
Creus, grandson of Ccelus and Terra, and 
cousin of Aurora. — III. King of Arcadia, 
the grandfather or great-grandfather of 
King Evander. — IV. The son of Evan- 
der, according to Virgil, or as others 
say, of Hercules and Dyme, the daugh- 
ter of Evander. He followed iEneas 
to the war against Turnus, by whose 
hand he fell, after having distinguished 
himself by his valour. The belt which 
Turnus tore from the body of the young 
prince, and wore as a trophy of his vic- 
tory, was the immediate cause of his 
own death ; for, being vanquished by 
iEneas in single combat, he had almost 
persuaded the victor to spare his life, when 
the sight of Pallas' belt rekindled the 
wrath of iEneas, who indignantly slew the 
destroyer of his youthful friend. 

Pallene, one of the three peninsulas 
of Chalcidice, in Macedonia, situated be- 
tween the Sinus Thermaicus or Gulf of 
Salonica, and the Sinus Toronaicus or 
Gulf of Cassandria. It was said to have 
borne the name of Phlegra, and to have 
witnessed the conflict betwen the gods 
and the earth-born Titans. 

Palm aria, a small island in the Tyr- 
rhenian Sea, off the coasts of Latium and 
Campania, and south of the promontory 
of Circeii. It is now Pahnaruola. 

Palmyra, a celebrated city of Asia, 
situate in an oasis of the Syrian desert, 
nearly half way between the Orontes and 
Euphrates, and about 140 miles east- 
north-east of Damascus. Its oriental name 
was Tadmor, which, according to Jose- 
phus, signifies the same as Palmyra, " the 
place of palm-trees." The fertility of 
the oasis round Palmyra made it a suit- 
able situation for a small town ; but its 
position in other respects was still more 
advantageous, from its being the resting 
place of the caravans between the Persian 
Gulf and the great cities on the Eu- 
phrates and Tigris, and Aleppo, Damascus, 
and the ports of the Mediterranean. Pal- 
myra thus became a principal emporium 
of the commerce between the Eastern and 
Western worlds ; and to this, no doubt, is 
to be ascribed the wealth and importance 



430 



PAM 



PAN 



to which she early attained. Being situ- 
ated between the empires of Rome and 
Parthia, it was an object of great import- 
ance with the Palmyrenians to preserve 
a strict neutrality, and to keep on good 
terms with them both. But after the 
victories of Trajan bad established the un- 
questionable preponderance of the Roman 
arms, Palmyra became a dependency of 
Rome, and attained to the rank of a 
colony. It was during that peaceful pe- 
riod, if we judge from a few remaining 
inscriptions, that the Palmyrenians con- 
structed those temples, palaces, and porti- 
coes of Grecian architecture, whose ruins, 
scattered over an extent of several miles, 
have deserved the curiosity of travel- 
lers. Palmyra was in the zenith of its 
splendour under Zenobia, who resisted for 
a time the Roman power in the time of 
Aurelian ; but the latter at last made him- 
self master of it, caused all the inhabitants 
to be destroyed, and the city to be razed to 
the ground. The ruins of Palmyra com- 
prise the fragments of two or three temples, 
several gateways (one of which is more 
perfect than the rest), colonnades, sepul- 
chres, &c. With respect to the antiquity 
of these ruins, it is difficult to form a con- 
jecture : the tombs are evidently the oldest; 
but even these do not date as far back as 
the Christian sera. The other buildings 
are considerably more recent, and most of 
the fine extensive edifices appear to have 
been constructed during the three cen- 
turies ending with the reign of Diocletian. 

PamIsos, I., Fanari, a river of Thes- 
saly, falling into the Peneus, east of 
Tricca. — II. Major, Pimatza, a river of 
Messenia, falling into the Sinus Messe- 
niacus at its head, celebrated for the purity 
of its waters, and the abundance of its 
fish. — III. A torrent of Messenia, falling 
into Sinus Messeniacus near the Leuctrum, 
and forming part of the ancient boundary 
between Laconia and Messenia. 

Pamphila, a native of Egypt, 01, ac- 
cording to others, of Epidaurus in Argolis, 
who lived in the age of Nero, and wrote 
several works in Greek, the contents of 
which were chiefly historical. Her hus- 
band's name was Socratidas. 

Pamphilus, I., an Alexandrian gram- 
marian, pupil of Aristarchus, and the 
author of a large lexicon, in ninety-one or 
ninety-five books, and other works enu- 
merated by Athenaaus. — II. A celebrated 
painter, born at Amphipolis, about b. c. 
380. He studied his art under Eupom- 
pus of Sicyon, where he succeeded in 
establishing the school which his master 
had founded, and was the teacher of 



Apelles. — III. A bishop of Cassarea in 
Palestine, and the intimate friend of Eu- 
sebius, who, in memory of him, appended 
" Pamphili" (i. e. the friend of Pamphi- 
lus) to his own name. (See Eusebius. ) 
He is said to have been born at Berytus, 
and educated by Pierius. He spent the 
greater part of his life at Cassarea, where 
he suffered martyrdom a. d. 309. 

Pamphos, a Greek poet, supposed to 
have lived before the age of Hesiod, and 
to have been a disciple of Linus. 

Pamphylia, a province of Asia Minor, 
anciently called Mopsopia, bounded on the 
south by the Mediterranean, called the 
Pamphylian Sea, west by Lycia, north by 
Pisidia, and east by Cilicia. The name 
is said to be derived from iras and <pv\7i, 
because many tribes of Greeks settled 
here under Amphdochus and Calchas 
after the destruction of Troy. Pamphylia 
possesses but little interest in an his- 
torical point of view. It became subject 
in turn to Croesus, the Persian monarchs, 
Alexander, the Ptolemies, Antiochus, and 
the Romans. The latter, however, had 
considerable difficulty in extirpating the 
pirates, who swarmed along the whole of 
the southern coast of Asia Minor. Its 
chief towns were Olbia, Attalia, Perge, 
and Aspendus. 

Pan, the chief rural divinity of the 
Greeks, who presided over flocks and 
herds. He was said by some to be the 
son of Mercury ; and his birth-place was 
Arcadia, to which province his worship 
seems to have been confined in early times. 
The introduction of his worship into the 
other Grecian states is thus accounted for. 
When Philippides, an Athenian courtier, 
was traversing Mount Parthenius, above 
Tegea, a short time before the battle of 
Marathon, he was encountered by Pan, 
who commanded him to ask the Athenians 
why they paid no respect to a divinity 
who had ever been friendly to them, and 
was still ready to promote their welfare ; 
and in consequence of this remonstrance 
the Athenians, after the defeat of the Per- 
sians, dedicated a temple to this divinity 
beneath the Acropolis, and propitiated his 
favour by annual sacrifices and torch races. 
He was represented with the head and 
breast of an elderly man, while his lower 
parts were like the hind quarters of a 
goat, whose horns he likewise bore on his 
forehead. His emblems were the shep- 
herd's crook and pipe of seven reeds, his 
own invention. The name Pan is derived 
probably from the Greek iraeiv, to tend 
flocks, which, as being the most general 
mode of life in primitive times, has led to 



PAN 



PAN 



431 



the belief that this god was a symbol of 
Universal Nature ; an idea to which Milton 
alludes in the beautiful lines, — 

. while Universal Pan, 

Knit with the Graces and the Hours in dance, 
Led on the eternal spring. 

Panacea, daughter of iEsculapius, a 
goddess who presided over health ; from 
ivav, and d/ceo^at, " an universal remedy," 
"one capable of curing all diseases." 

Panjetius, a Greek philosopher, a na- 
tive of Rhodes, who studied at Athens 
under Diogenes the Stoic, and came to 
Rome about b. c. 1 40, where he instructed 
Scipio iEmilianus, the younger Laslius, 
and Polybius. After a time he again re- 
turned to Athens, where he became the 
leader of the Stoic School, and where he 
died at a very advanced age. None of his 
works have reached our times. 

Panathenjea, the greatest of the Athe- 
nian festivals, celebrated in honour of 
Minerva (Athena) as the guardian deity 
of the city. It is said to have been insti- 
tuted by Erichthonius, who originally 
called it Athencea (^A6r]uaia), and to have 
obtained the name of Panathencea in the 
time of Theseus, in consequence of his 
uniting into one state the different inde- 
pendent communities into which Attica 
had been previously divided. There were 
two Athenian festivals which had the 
name of Panatheneea ; one of which was 
called the Great Panathencea (MeyaKa 
Tla.uadr l vaia.'), and the other the Less (Ml- 
Kpd), or simply Panathenaea. The Great 
Panathenasa was celebrated once every 
five years with great magnificence, and 
attracted spectators from all parts of 
Greece. The Less Panathenasa was ce- 
lebrated every year in the Piraeus. Both 
these festivals were celebrated at the same 
period of the year, and lasted from the 
seventeenth to the twenty- eighth of the 
month Hecatombaeon ; the Lesser Pana- 
thenaea, however, not being held on those 
years in which the Greater were celebrated. 
The exhibitions at these festivals were 
torch races, gymnastic, musical, and po- 
etical contests, with sacrifices and feasts ; 
the chief difference between them being, 
that in the Greater festival the peplus 
(or sacred stole) of Minerva, decorated 
by the hands of chosen virgins with em- 
broidery representing the deeds of heroes 
and patriots, was carried to her temple in 
a magnificent procession, not held at the 
Lesser Panathenaea. This procession formed 
the subject of the bas-reliefs which embel- 
lished the exterior of the Parthenon, ge- 
nerally known by the name of the Pana- 
thenaic frieze, a considerable portion of 



which is now in the British Museum, and 
belongs to the collection called the " Elgin 
Marbles." 

Panchaia, a fabled island in the 
Eastern or Indian Ocean, in whose capital, 
Panara, Euhemerus gave out that he found 
a temple of the Triphylian Jupiter, con- 
taining a column inscribed with the date 
of the births and deaths of many of the 
gods. (See Euhemerus.) Virgil makes 
mention of Panchaia and its " turiferce 
arenas." 

Pandarus, son of Lycaon, and one of 
the chieftains that fought on the side of 
the Trojans in the war with the Greeks. 
He was famed for his skill with the bow ; 
and it was he that broke the truce be- 
tween the Greeks and Trojans by wound- 
ing Menelaus. He was afterwards slain 
by Diomede. — II. See Bitias. — III. 
A native of Crete, punished with death 
for being accessory to the theft of Tan- 
talus. What this theft was is unknown. 
Some suppose that Tantalus stole the am- 
brosia and nectar from the tables of the 
gods, or carried away a dog which watched 
Jupiter's temple in Crete. Pandarus had 
two daughters, Camiro and Clytia. See 
Odyss. 20—26, — IV. Father of Aedon. 
See Aedon. 

Pandataria, Isola Vandotina, an island 
in the Mare Tyrrhenum, in the Sinus 
Puteolanus, on the coast of Italy. It was 
the place of banishment for Julia, the 
daughter of Augustus, and many others. 

Pandia, a festival at Athens, the origin 
and real character of which appear to have 
been a subject of dispute among the an- 
cients themselves ; but it is generally sup- 
posed to have been a festival of Jupiter, 
celebrated by all the Attic tribes, and 
analogous to the Panathenaea. 

Pandion, I., an early king of Athens, 
son of Erichthonius and Pasithea, suc- 
ceeded his father b. c. 1437. He mar- 
ried Xeuxippe, by whom he became father 
of Butes, Erechtheus, Philomela, and 
Procne. Being at war with Labdacus, 
king of Thebes, about the boundaries of 
their respective dominions, he called to 
his aid Tereus, the son of Mars, out of 
Thrace; and having, with his assistance, 
come off victorious in the contest, he gave 
him his daughter Procne in marriage, by 
whom he had a son named Itys. The 
tragic tale of Procne and Philomela is re- 
lated elsewhere. (See Philomela.) Pan- 
dion is said to have died of grief at the 
misfortunes of his family, after a reign of 
forty years. He was succeeded by Erech- 
theus. In his reign Ceres and Bacchus 
are said to have come to Attica — a visit 



432 



PAN 



PAN 



which of course refers merely to improve- 
ments in agriculture which were then in- 
troduced. — II. The second of the name 
was also king of Attica, and succeeded 
Cecrops II., the son of Erechtheus. He 
was expelled hy the Metionida?, and re- 
tired to Megara, where he married Pylia, 
the daughter of King Pylos. This last- 
mentioned monarch being obliged to fly 
for the murder of his brother Bias, re- 
signed Megara to his son-in-law, and, 
retiring to Peloponnesus, built Pylos. 
Pandion had four sons, iEgeus, Pallas, Ni~ 
sus, and Lycus, who conquered and divided 
among them the Attic territory, iEgeus, 
as the eldest, having the supremacy. 

Pandora, I., (Gr. irav, and Soopov, a 
gift,) literally "the all-gifted," in Grecian 
mythology, the name given to the first 
mortal female, according to Hesiod, that 
ever lived. She was formed of clay by 
Vulcan, at the request of Jupiter, and was 
created for the purpose of punishing Pro- 
metheus (see Prometheus) for his nume- 
rous impieties. All the gods vied in 
making her presents : thus, from Venus she 
received beauty ; from the Graces the power 
of captivating ; Mercury taught her elo- 
quence, and Minerva wisdom ; but Jupiter 
gave her a box filled with innumerable 
evils, which she was desired to give to the 
man who married her. She was then con- 
ducted to Prometheus, who, sensible of 
the deceit, would not accept of the present ; 
but his brother Epimetheus, not gifted 
with the same prudence, fell a victim to 
Pandora's charms ; accepted the box, from 
which on its being opened there issued all 
the ills and diseases which have since con- 
tinued to afflict the human race. Hope 
alone remained at the bottom of the box, 
as the only consolation of the troubles of 
mankind. — II. A daughter of Erech- 
theus, king of Athens, and sister of Proto- 
genia, who sacrificed herself for her country 
at the beginning of the Boeotian war. 

Pandosia, I.. Anglona, a city of Lucania, 
on the banks of the Aciris, and not far 
from Heraclea. — II. A maritime city of 
the Bruttii, often confounded with the 
preceding, anciently possessed by the OZno- 
tri, but chiefly known in history as having 
witnessed the defeat and death of Alex- 
ander, king of Epirus. — III. A city of 
Epirus, near the Acheron and the Ache- 
rusian Lake. The antiquities discovered at 
Paramythia probably belong to this an- 
eient city. 

Pandrosos, (all-dewy,) a daughter of 
Cecrops, king of Athens, sister of Aglau- 
ros and Herse, who alone of her sisters had 
not the fatal curiosity to open a basket 



Minerva had intrusted to their care, for 
which a temple was raised to her near that 
of Minerva, and a festival instituted, called 
Pandrosia. 

Pang^sus Moks, Pundkar Dagh, the 
name given to the extremity of one of the 
branches of Mt. Rhodope, which runs along 
the coast from Amphipolis, near the mouth 
of the Strymon, westward. It was cele- 
brated for its mines of gold and silver, 
originally worked by the native tribes, and 
afterwards by a colony from Thasos, who 
founded an establishment called Crenides, 
afterwards Philippi. (See Philippi. ) The 
name of this range often appears in the 
poets. 

Panionium, a spot at the foot of Mt. 
Mycale, near Ephesus in Asia Minor, 
sacred to Neptune of Helice. In this 
place all the states of Ionia assembled to 
consult for their own safety and prosperity, 
celebrate festivals, and offer sacrifice for 
the good of all the nation ; whence nav Ido- 
viov, all Ionia. 

Panius, or Paneus, a mountain of Syr 
ria, forming part of the chain of Libanus. 
At its foot was the town Paneas, after- 
wards Ca?sarea Philippi. 

Pannonia, an extensive province of the 
Roman empire, bounded on the east by 
Upper Mcesia, south by Dalmatia, on the 
west by Mt. Cetius, which separated it 
from Noricum, and on the north and east 
by the Danube ; and corresponding, there- 
fore, to various parts of Austria, Styria, a 
part of Carinthia, that portion of Hungary 
which lies on the southern side of the 
Danube, the greater part of Sclavonia, and 
the portion of Bosnia which lies along the 
Saave. Ptolemy distinguishes between 
Upper and Lower Pannonia, Pannonia 
Superior and Inferior, and separates the 
two divisions by an imaginary line drawn 
from Bregactium to the Savus. In the 
fourth century, the emperor Galerius 
formed out of a part of Lower Pannonia 
the province of Valeria, and then Pannonia 
Superior changed its name to that of Pan- 
nonia Prima, while the part of Pannonia 
Inferior that remained after Valeria was 
taken from it received the appellation of 
Pannonia Secunda. Pannonia became a 
Roman province under Augustus. Its 
chief cities were Carnuntum, Brigantium, 
and Sirmium. 

Panomph^eus, a surname of Jupiter, 
from his being the parent source of omens 
and augury ; nets bfx<pi}. 

Panope or Panopea, I., one of the Ne- 
reides, whom sailors invoked in storms as 
the representative of all her sisters. -~ II. 
See Pakopeus II. 



PAN 



PAP 



433 



Panopes, a famous huntsman among 
the attendants of Acestes, king of Sicily, 
and one of those who engaged in the games 
exhibited by iEneas. 

Panopeus, L, son of Phocus and As- 
terodia, father of Epeus, who made the 
celebrated wooden horse at the siege of 
Troy. He accompanied Amphitryon 
when he made war against the Tele- 
boans. — II. Called also Panope, a town 
of Phocis, between Orchomenos and the 
Cephisus. 

Panopolis, Akhenyn, a city of Egypt in 
the Thebaid, on the eastern bank of the 
Nile, the capital of the Panopolitic Nome, 
and, as its name implies, sacred to the god 
Pan, and at a later period to the sylvan 
deities collectively. The name Panopolis 
is supposed to be merely a translation of 
the Egyptian term Chemmis, by which this 
city was known to the natives. This 
Chemmis, however, must not be con- 
founded with the place of that name men- 
tioned by Herodotus, and by which that 
historian intends evidently to designate 
Coptos. 

Panormus, I., Palermo, a town of Si- 
cily, built by the Phoenicians, on the 
north-west part of the island, with a good 
and capacious harbour (iras opjxos). It sub- 
sequently fell into the hands of the Car- 
thaginians, who made it the capital of their 
Sicilian dominions. Soon after the be- 
ginning of the first Punic war, it passed 
into the hands of the Romans, who esta- 
blished a colony in it, conferred on it va- 
rious privileges, and allowed it to be 
governed by its own laws. It was subse- 
quently ranked among the free cities of 
Sicily. — II. Porto Raphti, a harbour on 
the eastern coast of Attica, south of the 
promontory of Eubcea. — III. Teket, a 
harbour on the coast of Achaia, east of 
Rhium, and opposite Naupactus. — IV. A 
name given to the harbour of Ephesus. — 
V. A harbour in Crete, between Rithymna 
and Cytseum. — VI. A town in the Thra- 
cian Chersonese, between Cardia and 
Ccelos. 

Pansa, C. Vibius, a Roman consul, 
conjointly with A. Hirtius, b.c. 43, the year 
after Caesar's assassination. (See Hirtius.) 
He had previously served in Gaul under 
Caesar, to whom he was much attached, 
and appears to have lived on terms of in- 
timacy with Cicero, though without sharing 
his political sentiments. 

Pantagyas, a small river on the eastern 
coast of Sicily, falling into the sea be- 
tween Megara and Syracuse after a short 
course among cascades. 

Pantaleon, a king of Pisa, who pre- 



sided at the Olympic Games, b. c. 664, 
after excluding the Eleans, who, on that 
account, expunged the Olympiad from the 
Fasti, and called it the second Anolym- 
piad. For the same reason they had called 
the eighth the first Anolympiad, because 
the Pisaeans presided. 

Pantanus Lacus, the Lake of Lesina 
in Apulia, at the mouth of the Frento. 

Panthea. See Abradatas. 

Pantheon, a famous temple at Rome, 
built by M. Agrippa, son-in-law of Au- 
gustus, about b. c. 27, and dedicated to 
Mars, and Jupiter the Avenger, in memory 
of the victory obtained by Augustus over 
Antony and Cleopatra. It is generally 
supposed that it was dedicated to Jupiter 
and all the gods of antiquity (ttus, 6e6s) ; 
but of this there is no proof. Some ima- 
gine that this edifice was only a vestibule 
to the baths of Agrippa, but all ancient 
authors agree in calling it a temple. The 
Pantheon is now commonly called the Ro- 
tunda, from its circular form. It was given 
to Boniface IV. by the emperor Phocas, 
a. d. 609, and dedicated as a Christian 
church to the Virgin and Holy Martyrs ; 
and a. d. 830, Gregory IV, dedicated it 
to all the saints. Though grievously de- 
spoiled, the Pantheon is still the best pre- 
served of all the ancient temples. 

Pantheus, or Panthus, a Trojan, son 
of Othryas, priest of Apollo. He fell in 
the nocturnal combat which took place on 
the fall of Troy. 

Panthoides, a patronymic of Euphor- 
bus, son of Pantheus. (See Eupiiorbus.) 
Pythagoras is sometimes called by that 
name, as he asserted that he was Eu- 
phorbus during the Trojan war. 

Panticapjeum, Kersch, a town of Tau- 
rica Chersonesus, built by the Milesians, 
and capital of the European Bosphorus. 
Mithridates died here. 

Panticapes, Samara, a riyer of Eu- 
ropean Scythia, falling into the Borys- 
thenes. 

Pantilius, a buffoon ridiculed by Ho- 
race. 

Panyasis, an ancient Greek poet and 
uncle of the historian Herodotus, was born 
at Samos or Halicarnassus about b. c. 470. 
He was the author of a Heracleid in four- 
teen books. 

Paphia, I., a surname of Venus, be- 
cause the goddess was worshipped at Pa- 
phos. — II. An ancient name of Cyprus. 

Paphlagonia, Penderachia, a country 
of Asia Minor, bounded on the north by 
the Euxine ; south by Galatia ; west by 
Bithynia, from which the Parthenius sepa- 
rates it ; and east partly by the Euxine, 
v 



434 



PAP 



PAP 



partly by Pontus, from which it is se- 
parated by the Halys. The Paphlagonians 
are said by Homer to have come to the 
assistance of the Trojans, under the com- 
mand of Pylaemenes, from the country of 
the Heneti. Long afterwards they were 
subdued by Croesus. They subsequently 
formed a part of the Persian empire, and 
afterwards underwent the same fate as the 
rest of Asia Minor, being subjected first 
to the Macedonians, and then to the Ro- 
mans, who generously allowed them to 
choose their own kings. Under the early 
Roman emperors it did not form a sepa- 
rate province, but was united to Galatia 
till the time of Constantine, who first erect- 
ed it into a separate province. The prin- 
cipal towns of Paphlagonia were Sinope, 
Amastris, and Pompeiopolis. 

Paphos. Two ancient cities on the south- 
western coast of Cyprus were so called ; 
the one called Palaspaphos, Old Paphos, 
the other Neapaphos, New Paphos, which, 
after the destruction of the former, was re- 
built by Augustus, and thence named Au- 
gusta, about six miles from Palaspaphos, 
on the site occupied by the modern Baffa. 
It was the favourite residence of Venus, 
Diva potens Ct/pri, the place where the sea- 
born goddess first took up her abode, and 
was famous from a very remote epoch for 
its temples appropriated to her worship, 
and for the rites and processions performed 
by her votaries. Hence the epithets Pa- 
phian and Cyprian applied to Venus. 
It is worthy of remark that, according 
to Tacitus, the goddess was not represented 
at Paphos under the human figure, but 
under that of a cone. There were also 
temples and altars where sacrifices • were 
offered to the goddess in New Paphos. 
The office of high priest of the Paphian 
Venus was both lucrative and honourable. 
In proof of this it may be mentioned, that 
when Cato was sent to Cyprus, he repre- 
sented to Ptolemy that if he submitted 
without fighting he should not want either 
for money or honours, for the Roman people 
would make him grand priest of the Pa- 
phian Venus. 

Paphus. See Pygmalion. 

Papias, one of the early Greek Christian 
writers in the Greek language, bishop of 
Hierapolis in Asia at the beginning of 
the second century. He is said to have 
propagated the doctrine of the Millen- 
nium. 

Papinianus, JEmilius, a celebrated Ro- 
man lawyer, born a. d. 1 75. He was a pupil 
of the jurist Q. Cervidius Scasvola, and 
attained high offices under Marcus Aure- 
lius and Septimius Severus, the latter of 



whom at his death recommended his sons 
Caracalla and Geta to his care. The 
former, having murdered his brother Geta, 
commanded Papinianus to compose a dis- 
course in accusation of the deceased ; and 
on his nobly declaring his refusal to comply 
with so dishonourable a demand, saying 
that it was easier to commit a parricide 
than to excuse it, he was put to death, a. r>. 
212, and his body dragged through the 
streets of Rome. His works on different 
points of the Roman law (extracts from 
which are to be found in the Digest) were 
held in the highest estimation. 

Papirii, originally Papisii, the name of 
a patrician and plebeian gens in Rome, 
divided into several families, such as the 
Mugillani, Crassi, Cursores, and Massones; 
the most celebrated members of whose fa- 
milies were, I., L.Papirius Cursor, grandson 
of L. Papirius Cursor, censor in the year 
in which Rome was taken by the Gauls, 
and son of Spurius Papirius Cursor, mili- 
tary tribune b. c. 379. He was master of 
the horse to L. Papirius Crassus, b. c. 339, 
and consul b. c. 325. In the following year, 
being appointed dictator, to carry on the 
war against the Samnites, he selected Q. 
Fabius Maximus for his master of the 
horse, who attacked arid defeated the Sam- 
nites against his orders, and very nearly 
atoned for his disobedience with his life. 
(See Fabius.) He afterwards nominated 
another master of the horse, and on his 
return to the army defeated the Samnites, 
and put an end to the war for the time. 
He was subsequently elected consul five 
times, and, b. c. 309, dictator, to carry on 
the war once more against the Samnites, 
whom he defeated with great slaughter, 
and was honoured with a triumph. — II. 
Carbo. (See Carbo.) — III. One of this 
family, surnamed Prcztextatus, from an ac- 
tion of his whilst he wore the praitexta. 
His father, of the same name, once car- 
ried him to the senate-house, and on 
his mother wishing to know what had 
passed in the senate, Papirius, unwilling to 
betray the secrets of that august as- 
sembly, amused her by saying, that it 
had been considered whether it would be 
more advantageous to give two wives to 
one husband, than two husbands to one 
wife. The mother of Papirius commu- 
nicated the secret to the other Roman 
matrons; and on the morrow they assem- 
bled in the senate, petitioning that one 
woman might have two husbands, rather 
than one husband two wives. The sen- 
ators were astonished at this petition, but 
young Papirius unravelled the mystery ; 
and from that time it was made a law, 



PAP 



PAR 



435 



that no young man should be introduced 
into the senate-house except Papirius. 
This law was observed till the age of 
Augustus. 

Pappus, a celebrated mathematician of 
Alexandria, who lived towards the end of 
the fourth century, and is known by his 
Mathematical Collections, in eight books, 
and bv other works, among which were a 
Commentary on Ptolemys Almagest, a 
work on Geography, a Treatise on Mili- 
tary Engines, a Commentary on Aristarchus 
of Samos, tie. Great part of his Collections 
have come down to us. Pappus has left 
an elegant, though indirect solution, of the 
famous problem of the trisection of a tri- 
angle. 

Par.etac^e (-taciini), a people of Persia, 
occupying the mountain range between 
that country and Media. 

Par^tonium, Al Bareton, a strongly 
fortified maritime city of Egypt on the 
side of Libya, repaired and strengthened 
by Justinian. 

Parcae, the Latin name of the Fates. 
According to Klausen, the original Roman 
Parca (the harsh or avaricious goddess) 
was equivalent to Mors, the goddess of 
death, the third of the Fates. It was not 
until the Augustan age, when the Greek 
and Roman mythology became mingled, 
that the Parcae became plural, and acquired 
their similarity to the Greek Moirai 
Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos. Clotho, 
the youngest of the sisters, presides over 
the moment in which we are born ; La- 
chesis spins out all the events and actions 
of our life ; while Atropos, eldest of the 
three, cuts the thread of existence. The 
power of the Parcae was extensive. Some 
suppose that they were subjected to none 
of the gods but Jupiter, while others main- 
tain that even Jupiter himself was obedient 
to their commands. According to the more 
received opinions, they were the arbiters 
of the life and death of mankind. Their 
worship was established in some cities of 
Greece ; and though mankind were con- 
vinced that they were inexorable, yet they 
were eager to raise to them temples and 
statues. The Parcse were generally re- 
presented as three old women wearing 
chaplets made with wool, and interwoven 
with the flowers of the narcissus, and co- 
vered with a white robe, and fillet of the 
same colour. Some call them the secre- 
taries of heaven and keepers of the archives 
of eternity. 

Paris, I., called also Alexander, a son 
of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba, des- 
tined, even before his birth, to become 
the ruin of his country. (See Hecuba.) 



Paris, exposed at his birth by his pa- 
rents, was educated among shepherds and 
peasants on Mount Ida, gave early proofs 
of courage, and, from his care in pro- 
tecting the flocks from the rapacity of 
wild beasts, obtained the name of Alex- 
ander (defender}. He married CEnone, 
a nymph of Ida, but their conjugal peace 
was soon disturbed. At the marriage of 
Peleus and Thetis, the goddess of Discord, 
not invited to partake of the entertain- 
ment, showed her displeasure by throwing 
into the assembly of the gods, at the cele- 
bration of the nuptials, a golden apple, on 
which were written the words 'H /caAr/ 
XaSsra. " let the most beautiful among you 
take it." Juno, Minerva, and Venus laid 
claim to it ; and Jove being unwilling to 
decide, commanded Mercury to lead the 
three deities to Mount Ida, and to intrust 
the decision of the question to the shepherd 
Alexander, whose judgment was to be de- 
finitive. The goddesses appeared before 
him, urged their respective claims, and 
each, to influence his decision, made him 
an alluring offer of future advantage. 
Juno endeavoured to secure his preference 
by the promise of a kingdom, Minerva by 
the gift of intellectual superiority and mar- 
tial renown, and Venus by offering him 
the fairest woman in the world for his 
wife. To Venus he assigned the prize, and 
brought upon himself, in consequence, the 
unrelenting enmity of her two disappointed 
rivals, which was extended also to his whole 
family and the entire Trojan race. Soon 
after this event, Priam proposed a contest 
among his sons and other princes, and pro- 
mised to reward the conqueror with one of 
the finest bulls of Mount Ida. Persons 
were sent to procure the animal, and it was 
found in the possession of Paris, who re- 
luctantly yielded it up. The shepherd, 
desirous of obtaining again this favourite 
animal, went to Troy, and entered the lists 
of the combatants. Having proved success- 
ful against every competitor, and haviac 
gained an advantage over Hector hirmelf, 
that prince, irritated at seeing himself con- 
quered by an unknown stranger, pursued 
him closely, and Paris must have fallen a 
victim to his brother's resentment had he 
not fled to the altar of Jupiter. This sa- 
cred place of refuge preserved his life ; and 
Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, struck 
with the similarity of the features of Paris 
to those of her brothers, inquired his birth 
and his age. From these circumstances 
she soon discovered that he was her bro- 
ther, and as such introduced him to her 
father and to his children. Priam there- 
upon, forgetful of the alarming predictions 
u 2 



436 



PAR 



PAR 



of iEsacus, acknowledged Paris as his son, 
and all enmity ceased immediately be- 
tween the new-comer and Hector. Not 
long after this, at the instigation of Venus, 
who had not forgotten her promise to him, 
Paris proceeded on his memorable voyage 
to Greece, from which the soothsaying He- 
lenus and Cassandra had in vain endea- 
voured to deter him. The ostensible object 
of the voyage was to procure information 
respecting his father's sister Hesione, who 
had been given in marriage by Hercules 
to his follower Telamon, the monarch of 
Salamis. The real motive, however, which 
prompted the enterprise, was a wish to 
obtain, in the person of Helen, then the 
fairest woman of her time, a fulfilment of 
what Venus had offered him when he was 
deciding the contest of beauty. Arriving 
at Sparta, where Menelaus, the husband of 
Helen, was reigning, he met with an hos- 
pitable reception ; but Menelaus soon after 
having sailed away to Crete, the Trojan 
prince availed himself of his absence, se- 
duced the affections of Helen, and bore her 
away to his native city, together with a 
large portion of the wealth of her husband. 
(See Helena.) Hence ensued the war of 
Troy, which ended in the total destruction 
of that ill-fated city. (See Troja.) Paris, 
though represented in general as effeminate 
and vain of his personal appearance, yet 
distinguished himself .during the siege of 
Troy by wounding Diomede, Machaon, 
Antilochus, and Palamedes, and subse- 
quently by discharging the dart which 
proved fatal to Achilles. Venus took him 
under her special protection, and, in the 
single combat with Menelaus, rescued him 
from the vengeance of the latter. (For the 
circumstances of his death, see GEnone.) — 
II. A celebrated player at Rome in the 
good graces of Nero, who, however, ulti- 
mately put him to death. — III. A pan- 
tomimic actor in the reign of Domitian, 
who at first admitted him into favour, but 
ultimately put him to death for intrigues 
with the empress Domitia. 

ParIsi, a British nation, occupying the 
East Riding of Yorkshire. 

Parish, a people and city of Celtic 
Gaul, now Paris. See Lutetia. 

ParIsus, Muz, a river of Pannonia, fall- 
ing into the Danube. 

Parjum, Camanar, a town of Asia 
Minor, on the Propontis, founded by the 
Milesians and Parians. 

Parma, a city of Italy, south of the 
Po, on a small cognominal river, founded 
by the Etrurians, taken by a tribe of 
Gauls called the Boii, and at last colonised 
by the Romans, a. u. c. 569. It suffered 



greatly in the civil war between Antony 
and Augustus, and was colonised anew by 
the latter, from whom it received the name 
of Julia? Augusta? Colonia. It was much 
celebrated for its wool. It still retains its 
ancient name. 

Parmenides, a celebrated Greek philoso- 
pher of the Eleatic sect, said to have been 
born at Elea about b.c. 519 ; but the period 
when he lived has been much disputed. He 
received his first instructions in philosophy 
from Diochaetes the Pythagorean ; but he 
afterwards became a pupil of Xenophanes, 
the founder of the Eleatic school, in which 
he succeeded him as master. He was the 
instructor and friend of Zeno and Empe- 
docles ; and Socrates, when a boy, is said 
to have heard him lecture in Athens, 
which he visited, in company with Zeno, 
b. c. 454. He left an admirable code of 
laws to his native city ; but of his nu- 
merous writings only a few fragments 
have come down to us. 

Parmenio, a celebrated general in the 
armies of Philip and Alexander. He 
gained a decisive victory over the Illyrians 
about the time of Alexander's birth ; af- 
terwards, on being appointed to the com- 
mand of an Asiatic expedition, took Gry- 
pha?um, and distinguished himself in most 
of Alexander's famous battles, but more 
especially at the Granicus, Issus, and 
Arbela. He was left in Media at the 
head of a large force ; but some time 
afterwards, while Alexander was encamped 
at Artacoana, a conspiracy was discovered 
against his life, in which Philotas, the son 
of Parmenio, was accused of being im- 
plicated. On being put to the torture, 
he confessed that his father Parmenio was 
cognizant of the conspiracy, whereupon 
Philotas was stoned, and a messenger was 
despatched to Medea with secret orders to 
Cleander and other officers who were serv- 
ing under Parmenio to put their com- 
mander to death, b. c. 330. He was 
seventy years of age, and had lost two 
sons in the campaigns of Alexander. 

Parnassus (napvacrcros), I., the name 
of a mountain chain in Phocis, extending 
in a north-easterly direction from the 
country of the Locri Ozolas to Mount 
G3ta, and in a south westerly direction 
through the middle of Phocis till it joins 
Mount Helicon on the borders of Boeotia. 
The name Parnassus, however, was more 
usually restricted to the lofty mountain 
upon which Delphi was situated, now 
called Liakura, and which was famous in 
ancient mythology as the favourite resort 
of Apollo and the Muses, and especially 
sacred to Bacchus. It was anciently called 



PAR 



PAR 



437 



Larnassus, because the ark or larnax of 
Deucalion landed here after the flood ; 
and its latter name was said to be derived 
from Parnassus, the son of Neptune and 
Cleodora. Parnassus is the highest moun- 
tain in Central Greece, and may be seen 
from the Acrocorinthus in Corinth. It had 
two summits, one of which, called Hy- 
ampsea, was sacred to Apollo, and the other 
to Bacchus. Running down the cleft be- 
tween the summits was the famous Cas- 
talian stream ; and higher up the mountain 
the Corycian cave, inhabited by the Muses. 
— II. A son of Neptune, who gave his 
name to the mountain of Phocis, above 
noticed. 

Parnes (gen. -etis), the highest mountain 
of Attica, rising on the northern frontier, 
connected with Pentelicus to the south, 
and towards Boeotia with Cithaeron. It 
was famous for its wines, as well as for a 
statue of Jupiter Parnethius, and an altar 
of Jupiter Semeleus. 

Paropamisus, a province of India, lying 
between the countries which the moderns 
name Khorasan and Cab id, and correspond- 
ing to the tract between Herat and Cabul. 
It was separated from Bactria by a range 
of mountains also called Paropamisus, now 
Hendu Khos, part of the great chain of 
Imaus. 

Paros, Faro, called also Cabarnis, De- 
metrias, Hiria, Hyleassa, Minoa, Pactia, 
and Zacynthus, a celebrated island among 
the Cyclades, according to Pliny, about 
thirty-six miles in circumference, a mea- 
sure which some of the moderns have 
extended to fifty, and even eighty miles. 
According to Thucydides, Paros was ori- 
ginally settled by Phoenicians. It early 
attained to great wealth and considera- 
tion, and established colonies in Thasos 
and other islands. During the first Per- 
sian war it sided with the Persians ; and 
after the defeat of the latter at Marathon, 
the city of Paros was unsuccessfully be- 
sieged by Miltiades. Themistocles, how- 
ever, rendered it tributary to Athens. 
Paros was famous in antiquity for its 
beautiful snow-white marble, whence Vir- 
gil has called the island nivea Paros. The 
finest of the ancient statues, including the 
Venus de Medicis, the Apollo Belvidere, 
and the Antinous, were formed out of this 
material. The quarries were situated about 
four miles from the city of Paros, and remain 
exactly in the state in which they were left 
by the ancients. Dr. Clarke says they had 
been wrought with infinite skill ; and that 
the blocks had been cut out with such pre- 
cision that there was not the smallest waste. 
Paros also produced several distinguished 



individuals, among whom may be specified 
Archilochus, the inventor of Iambics. In 
modern times, the only event of import- 
ance connected with the history of Paros is 
the discovery of the " Parian or Arundelian 
Chronicle," which was procured originally 
by M. de Peirese, a Frenchman, afterwards 
purchased by the Earl of Arundel, and 
given by him to the University of Oxford. 
This is a chronological account of the 
principal events in Grecian, and particu- 
larly in Athenian history, during a period 
of 1318 years, from the reign of Cecrops, 
b. c. 1450, to the archonship of Diognetus, 
b. c. 264. But the chronicle of the last 
ninety years was lost, so that the part now 
remaining ends at the archonship of Dioti- 
mus, b. c. 354. The authenticity of this 
chronicle has been called in question by 
Mr. Robertson, who, in 1788, published a 
Dissertation on the Parian Chronicle. His 
objections, however, have been ably and 
fully discussed, and the authenticity of 
this ancient document has been fully vin- 
dicated by Poison, in his review of Robert- 
son's essay. 

Parkhasii, a people of Arcadia, appa- 
rently on the Laconian frontier ; but the 
extent and position of their territory are 
not precisely determined. Pausanias seems 
to assign the Parrhasii a more western 
situation. Their towns were Lycosura, 
Thocnias, Trapezus, Acacesium, Macarea, 
and Dasea, all of which were west and 
north-west of Megalopolis. The Arcadians 
were sometimes called Parrhasians; Areas 
Parrliasis ; and Carmenta, Evander's mo- 
ther, Parrhasiadea. 

Parrhashjs, I., a celebrated painter, 
son and pupil of Evenor, and a native ot 
Ephesus, but who became eventually a 
citizen of Athens, having been presented 
with the freedom of that city. He was 
contemporary with Zeuxis, and is sup- 
posed to have flourished about b. c. 415. 
He was so vain of his art that he clothed 
himself in purple, wore a crown of gold, 
and called himself king of painters. Pliny, 
who has recorded a list of his works, re- 
lates a trial of skill between Parrhasius 
and Zeuxis, in which the latter allowed 
his grapes to have been surpassed by the 
drapery of the former. This contest, says 
Fuseli, " if not a frolic, was an effort of 
puerile dexterity." — II. A son of Ju- 
piter, or, according to some, of Mars, by 
the Nymph Philonomia. 

Partheni^e and Parthenii. See Pha- 

LANTHUS. 

Parthenium, Felenk Bournon, I., the 
south-western extremity of the Tauric 
Chersonese, so called from Iphigenias 
u 3 



438 



PAR 



PAR 



having been fabled to have offered up 
here her human sacrifices to the Tauric 
Diana. — II. A city of Mysia, in the ter- 
ritory of Troas. 

Parthenius, I., Earthen, a river of 
Paphlagonia, which it separates from Bi- 
thynia, falling into the Euxine sea near 
Sesamum. It was fabled to have derived 
its name either from the virgin Diana, who 
was said to have been born there, or per- 
haps from the purity of its waters. — II. 
Partheni, a mountain in Arcadia, forming 
the limit between that country and Ar- 
golis, where Pan was said to have appeared 
to Phidippides, the Athenian courier, who 
was sent to Sparta to solicit succour against 
the Persians. — III. A river of Elis, east 
of the Harpinates, and, like it, a tributary 
of the Alpheus. On its banks lay the 
town of Epina. — IV. A native of Nicaea, 
in Asia Minor, taken prisoner by Cinna 
in the war with Mithridates, b. c. 81, 
and brought to Rome, where he instructed 
Virgil in Greek, and is said to have gained 
his freedom on account of his learning. 
Of his numerous works, only one remains, 
On Amatory Affections, addressed to Cor- 
nelius Gallus, the elegiac poet. 

Parthenon (TlapQwuv), the mag- 
nificent temple of Minerva in the Acro- 
polis of Athens, so called in honour of the 
virginity of that goddess (from trapOevos, a 
virgin). It was a peripteral octostyle of 
the Doric order, with seventeen columns 
on the sides, each six feet two inches in 
diameter at the base, and thirty-four feet 
in height, elevated on three steps. Its 
height, from the base of the pediments, was 
sixty-five feet, and the dimensions of the 
area 233 feet by 102. The eastern pedi- 
ment was adorned with two groups of 
statues, one of which represented the birth 
of Minerva, the other the contest of Mi- 
nerva with Neptune for the government 
of Athens. On the metopes was sculptured 
the battle of the Centaurs with the Lapi- 
thae ; and the frieze contained a representa- 
tion of the Panathenaic festivals. Ictinus, 
Callicrates, and Carpion were the archi- 
tects of this temple ; Phidias was the artist ; 
and its entire cost has been estimated at 
one and a half million sterling. Of this 
building eight columns of the eastern front 
and several of the lateral colonnades are 
still standing. Of the frontispiece, which 
represented the contest of Neptune and 
Minerva, nothing remains but the head of 
a sea horse and the figures of two women 
without heads. The combat of the Cen- 
taurs and the Lapitha? is in better preser- 
vation ; but of the numerous statues with 
which this temple was enriched, that of 



Adrian alone remains. The Parthenon, 
however, dilapidated as it is, still retains 
an air of inexpressible grandeur and sub- 
limity ; and it forms at once the highest 
point in Athens, and the centre of the 
Acropolis. It is hardly necessary to in- 
form the reader that the chief portion of 
the sculpture of the Parthenon is now placed 
in the British Museum, where it forms, 
with some additions, the collection of the 
Elgin Marbles. 

Parthenop^eus, son of Meleager and 
Atalanta, or, according to some, of Mi- 
lanion and another Atalanta. He was one of 
the seven chiefs who accompanied Adrastus, 
king of Argos, in his expedition against 
Thebes, and was killed by Amphidicus. 

Parthenope, I., one of the Sirens. 
( See Neapolis. ) — II. A daughter of Stym- 
phalus. 

Parthia, a celebrated country of Asia, 
called by the Greeks Parthyasa and Par- 
thiene, originally bounded on the west by 
Media, south by Carmania, north by Hyr- 
cania, east by Aria, &c. ; but what the 
ancients called the Parthian empire was 
of vast extent, bounded on the east by the 
Indus, west by the Tigris, south by the 
Mare Erythraeum, and north by Caucasus. 
The Parthians were the most expert horse- 
men and archers in the world, and were 
famous for their peculiar custom of dis- 
charging arrows while retiring full speed. 
They were originally a tribe of Scy- 
thians, who, being exiled, as their name im- 
plies, from their own country, settled near 
Hyrcania. Arsaces laid the foundation 
of an empire which ultimately extended 
all over Asia, b. c. 250 ; and at one time 
the Parthians disputed the empire of the 
world with the Romans, and could never 
be wholly subdued by that nation, who 
had left no other people unconquered by 
their arms. The last king was Arta- 
banus IV., on whose death, a. r>. 229, his 
territories were annexed to the new king- 
dom of Persia, usually called the dynasty 
of the Sassanida?, under Artaxerxes. See. 
Artaxerxes. 

Parthyene. See Parthia. 
Paryadres, a chain of mountains branch- 
ing off from the range of Caucasus, running 
to the south-west, and separating Cappado- 
cia from Armenia. The highest elevation 
in this range was Mons Argaaus. 

Parysatis, a Persian princess, wife of 
Darius Ochus, by whom she had Artaxer- 
xes Mnemon and Cyrus the younger. She 
was so partial to her younger son, that she 
committed the greatest cruelties to en- 
courage his ambition, and supported him 
in his rebellion against his brother Mne- 



PAS 



PAT 



439 



mon. On the death of Cyrus, she wreaked 
her vengeance, as far as she was able, on 
all who had been instrumental in his fall. 
One of the principal sufferers was the 
eunuch Mesabates, who had cut off the 
head and right hand of Cyrus by order of 
Artaxerxes. She also poisoned Statira, 
the wife of the king. 

Pasargad^e, Passargadjs, or Pasar- 
gad-4, a very ancient city of Persia, and the 
royal residence previous to the founding of 
Persepolis. It stood to the south-east of 
Persepolis, and near the confines of Car- 
mania, on the banks of the Cyrus or Kores, 
and was said to have owed its origin to a 
camp which remained on the spot where 
Cyrus defeated Asiyages, hence the name 
of the city has been explained as signifying 
"the camp of the Persians." It contained 
also the treasury and the famous tomb of 
Cyrus, of which Strabo and Arrian have 
left an account. Mourgaub and Fasa have 
both been said to occupy the site of this 
ancient city. Pasargadae is used by Hero- 
dotus to indicate the noblest Persian tribe. 

Pasiphae, a daughter of the Sun and 
Perseis, wife of Minos, king of Crete, and 
mother of the Minotaur. See Minotaur. 

Pasitigris. See Tigris. 

Passarox, the capital of Epirus, plun- 
dered by the Romans on the termination 
of the war with Perseus, king of Macedon. 

Passienus, I., a Roman, who reduced 
Numidia. — II. Paulus, a Roman knight, 
and nephew of Propertius, who attempted 
lyric poetry with success. — III. Crispus, 
husband of Domitia, and afterwards of 
Agrippiua, Nero's mother. 

Patala. See Pattala. 

Patara (-on/m), a town of Lycia, on 
the eastern side of the mouth of the Xan- 
thus, with a capacious harbour, a temple 
and oracle of Apollo Patareus. The god 
was supposed by some to reside for the 
six winter months at Patara, and the rest 
of the year at Delphi. Numerous ruins 
of this ancient city are still to be seen at 
Patera, which occupies its site. 

PatavTuji, a celebrated and important 
city of Cisalpine Gaul, in the district of 
Venetia, between the Meduaeus Major and 
Minor, said to have been founded by An- 
tenor, soon after the Trojan war. Strabo 
speaks of Patavium as the greatest and 
most flourishing city in the north of Italy. 
Its manufactures of cloth and woollen 
stuffs were renowned throughout Italy, 
and, together with its traffic in various 
commodities, sufficiently attested the great 
wealth and prosperity of its inhabitants. 
The historian Livy was a native of Pata- 
vium, and the alleged patavinity of his 



style has long been a topic for critical dis- 
cussion. "Want of space compels us to 
omit an interesting event in the history of 
Patavium, which the reader will find de- 
tailed at some length in Livy, x. 2. The 
modern Padua (in Italian Padova) occu- 
pies the site of the ancient Patavium. 

Paterculus. See Velleius. 

Patizithes, one of the Persian Magi, 
who raised his brother to the throne be- 
cause he resembled Smerdis, brother of 
Cambyses. 

Patmos, Patmo, a small island of the 
Grecian Archipelago, belonging to the 
Sporades, celebrated in ecclesiastical his- 
tory as the place of St. John's exile during 
Domitian's persecution. The Romans 
generally banished their culprits hither. 

Patr^i:, Patras, a celebrated city of 
Achaia at the opening of the Corinthian 
Gulf, said to have been built on the site 
of three towns, called Aroe, Anthea, and 
Messatis, which had been founded by the 
Ionians when they were in possession of 
the country. Its inhabitants took an active 
part in the Achaian war, and the town suf- 
fered greatly. After the battle of Actium, 
however, it was raised to its former flourish- 
ing condition by Augustus, who made it 
a colony by establishing in it some of his 
veterans. In Strabo's time it was a large 
and populous town ; and in the beginning 
of the second century it was still prosper- 
ous, though remarkable for the dissolute- 
ness of its inhabitants. 

Patroclus, one of the Grecian chiefs 
during the Trojan war, son of Menoetius 
and Sthenele, and grandson of Actor, 
whence he was called Mencetiades and 
Actor. The accidental murder of Clyso- 
nymus, son of Amphidamus, having obliged 
him to fly from Opus, where his father 
reigned, he retired to the court of Peleus, 
king of Phthia, where he contracted an 
intimate friendship with Achilles, the mo- 
narch's son, and afterwards accompanied 
him to Troy. Upon the determination of 
Achilles to retire from the war after his 
quarrel with Agamemnon, Patroclus, im- 
patient at the successes of the Trojans, ob- 
tained permission from his friend to lead 
the Thessalians to the conflict. Achilles 
equipped him in his own armour, except 
giving him the spear called Pelias. The 
stratagem proved completely successful ; 
and from the consternation into which the 
Trojans were thrown at the presence of the 
supposed Achilles, Patroclus was enabled 
to pursue them to the very walls of the 
city. The protecting hand, however, of 
their tutelary god, Apollo, at last prevailed, 
and the brave Greek fell beneath the arm 
1 u 4 



440 



PAU 



PAU 



of Hector, who was powerfully aided by 
the son of Latona. A fierce contest en- 
sued for the body of Patroclus, of which 
Ajax and Menelaus ultimately obtained 
possession. Achilles forgot his resentment 
against Agamemnon, and entered the field, 
to avenge the fall of his friend, and his 
anger was gratified only by the death of 
Hector. The grief of Achilles, and the 
funeral rites performed in honour of Pa- 
troclus, are detailed in the eighteenth and 
twenty-third books of the Iliad. 

Patuxcius. See Janus. 

Paulinus, Pompeius, I., an officer in 
Nero's reign, who had command of the 
German armies, and finished the works on 
the banks of the Rhine which Drusus had 
begun sixty- three years before. — II. Sue- 
tonius. See Suetonius. 

Paulus, Lucius JEjiilius, L, a cele- 
brated Roman commander, elected joint 
consul with M. Livius Salinator, b. c. 219. 
Being sent against Demetrius of Pharos, 
who had induced the Illyrians to revolt 
from their allegiance to Rome, his arms 
were crowned with complete success ; and 
on his return he was honoured with a 
splendid triumph, but was subsequently 
accused of peculation and acquitted. He 
was again raised to the consulship, b. c. 
216, along with Terentius Varro, and after 
using his utmost efforts to check the rash- 
ness of his colleague, who resolved to 
hazard an engagement with Hannibal, he 
took the command of the right wing at 
Carina?, and died on the field of battle. — 
II. Lucius iEmilius, son of the preceding, 
surnamed Macedonicus after his victory 
over Perseus, was born b. c. 229. His 
nrst public employment was that of a com- 
missioner in the settlement of a colony at 
Croton, b. c. 1 94. After passing through 
the subordinate offices of curale asdile, b. c. 
193, and praetor, 191, in which capacity 
he went to Hispania Ulterior, where he 
remained two years, he was elected one of 
the ten commissioners for settling the af- 
fairs of Asia after the submission of Anti- 
ochus the Great, b. c. 182; was elected 
consul, after being thrice rejected, and the 
year following, as proconsul, directed his 
arms against the Ligurians, whom he 
totally subjected. In the year b. c. 168, 
the Roman senate, weary of the protrac- 
tion of the Macedonian war, elected Paulus 
iEmilius, then in his sixtieth year, consul 
a second time ; and after a rapid march 
the Roman general forced Perseus to re- 
tire to Pydna, where the celebrated en- 
gagement was fought that put an end to 
the kingdom of Macedonia. Having 
finally settled the government of Mace- 



donia with ten commissioners fiom Rome, 
he sacked seventy cities of Epirus, and 
having divided the booty amongst his sol- 
diers, he returned to Italy, leading Perseus, 
with his wretched family, to adorn the tri- 
umph of the conqueror. The riches the 
Romans derived from this conquest were 
so immense, that the people were freed 
from all taxes till the consulship of Hirtius 
and Pansa. He was elected to the consul- 
ship b. c. 164, the duties of which he dis- 
charged with great moderation, and died 
four years afterwards universally regretted. 
By Papiria, a lady belonging to one of 
the first families in Rome, he had two sons 
and three daughters. Of the sons, the 
elder had been adopted into the house of 
the Fabii by the celebrated opponent of 
Hannibal, and consequently bore the name 
of Quintus Fabius Maximus, with the ad- 
dition of JEmilianus, to mark his original 
connection with the house of the aEmilii. 
The younger, only seventeen years of age 
at this period, had been adopted by his 
own cousin, the son of Scipio Africanus, 
and was now called by the same name as 
his grandfather by adoption, viz. P. Cor- 
nelius Scipio, with the addition of JEmili- 
anus, as in his brother's case. By the 
marriage of his daughters, again, iEmilius 
became father in-law of Marcus Porcius 
Cato, son of the censor, and of ..Eiius 
Tubero. By a second marriage he had two 
children ; but they both died about the pe- 
riod of his last and greatest triumph. — III. 
Maximus. See Maximus Fabius. — IV. 
iEgineta. See JEgineta. 

Pausanias, L, a Spartan general, who 
greatly signalized himself at the battle 
of Platasa against the Persians. He was 
afterwards placed at the head of the Spar- 
tan armies, and extended his conquests in 
Asia. But becoming dissatisfied with 
his countrymen, whom his haughtiness 
had offended, he offered to betray Greece 
to the Persians, if he received in mar- 
riage, as the reward of his perfidy, the 
daughter of their monarch. His intrigues, 
however, were discovered by means of 
a youth, who when entrusted with let- 
ters refused to go to Persia, on the recol- 
lection that those employed in that office 
before had never returned. The letters were 
given to the ephori of Sparta ; and on his 
perfidy being laid open, Pausanias fled for 
safety to a temple of Minerva ; but his pur- 
suers surrounded the building with heaps 
of stones, the first of which was carried 
thither by his own mother ; and when he 
was on the eve of starvation, he was brought 
forth for execution, b. c. 467. — II. A 
favourite of Philip, king of Macedon, whs 



PAU 



PEG 



441 



accompanied the prince in an expedition 
against the Illyrians, in which he was 
killed. — III. A youth of noble family, 
memorable in history for the murder of 
Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander 
the Great, at whose court he occupied 
a post in the royal guards. The mo- 
tive that impelled him to the deed was, 
that he had suffered an outrage from 
Attalus, one of the courtiers, for which 
Philip had refused to give him satis- 
faction. (See Philippus.) After commit- 
ting the deed, the murderer rushed to- 
wards the gates of the city, where horses 
were waiting for him ; but he was closely 
pursued by some of the great officers of 
the royal body-guard, and despatched. — 
IV. A celebrated traveller and geogra- 
phical writer, a native of Lydia, who flou- 
rished during the reigns of Hadrian and 
the Antonines. He travelled in Greece, 
Macedonia, Asia, Egypt, and even in 
Africa as far as the temple of Jupiter 
Ammon, and afterwards took up his resi- 
dence in Rome, where he published his 
Travels through Greece ('EAAaSos irepirj- 
777<m), in ten books, which have been 
often reprinted. In this work, which is 
written in the Ionic dialect, he gives, with 
great precision, an account of the situation 
of different cities, antiquities, and curi- 
osities of Greece, and he has interwoven 
many valuable mythological traditions in 
his historical account. — The name Pausa- 
nias was common to many other persons of 
antiquity ; but those above given are most 
worthy of notice. 

Pausias, a celebrated painter of Sicyon, 
who, after learning the rudiments of his 
art from his father Brietes, became a 
fellow-pupil of Apelles and Melanthius, 
and was the first who understood how to 
apply colours to wood or ivory by means 
of fire. His pictures obtained great cele- 
brity. 

Pausilypus, a celebrated mountain and 
grotto near Naples, so called from the 
effect its beauty was supposed to produce 
in suspending sorrow and anxiety (iravaoov 
\virr\v}. On this mountain Vedius Pollio 
had a villa, and a pond in which he kept 
lampreys, to which he used to throw such 
slaves as had committed a fault. 

Pavor, an emotion of the mind, which 
received divine honours among the Ro- 
mans. Tullus Hostiliu<?, third king of 
Rome, first built temples, and raised altars, 
to her honour, as also to Pallor, goddess of 
Paleness. 

Pax, an allegorical divinity among the 
ancients. The Athenians raised her a sta- 
tue, representing her as holding Plutus, 



god of wealth, in her lap, to intimate that 
peace gives rise to prosperity and opu- 
lence. She was represented among the 
Romans with the horn of plenty, and 
carrying an olive-branch in her hand. The 
emperor Vespasian built her a celebrated 
temple, which was consumed by fire in the 
reign of Commodus. It was customary 
for men of learning to deposit their writ- 
ings there, as in a place of the greatest 
security. 

Paxos, Paxo, a small island south-west 
of Corcyra, forming one of the Ionian 
Islands. 

Pedasus, I., the mortal one of the three 
steeds which Achilles obtained when he 
sacked the city of Aetion, and which died 
of a wound received from Sarpedon, in the 
contest between the latter and Patroclus. 

— II. A town of the Leleges in Troas, 
sometimes identified with Adramyttium. 

— III. More commonly Pedasum or 
Pedasa, Peitchin, a city of the Leleges 
in Caria, and the capital of a district 
which included no less than eight cities 
within its limits. It was remarkable for 
the singular phenomenon, that whenever 
the inhabitants were threatened with any 
calamity, the chin of the priestess of 
Minerva became furnished with a beard ; 
a prodigy which was reported to have hap- 
pened three times. — IV. The Homeric 
name, according to some, for Methone, in 
Messenia. 

Pedo, Aleinovanus. See Albinovanus. 

Pedum, Zagarolo, an ancient town of 
Latium, in the vicinity of Praeneste, taken 
by storm, and destroyed by Camillus. 
Horace mentions the Regio Pedana in one 
of his Epistles. 

Pegasides, a name given to the Muses, 
from the fountain Hippocrene, which the 
winged steed Pegasus is said to have pro- 
duced with a blow of his hoof. 

Pegasis, a name given to GZnone by 
Ovid, because she was daughter of the 
river (tt7J7?j) Cebren. 

Pegasium Stagnum, a lake near Ephe- 
sus, which arose from the earth when 
Pegasus struck it with his foot. 

Pegasus, I., a winged steed which 
sprang forth from the neck of Medusa 
after her head had been severed by Per- 
seus ; so called because born near the 
sources (inryai) of Ocean. As soon as he 
was born he flew upward, and fixed his 
abode on Mount Helicon, where, with a 
blow of his hoof, he produced the fountain 
Hippocrene. He used, however, to come 
and drink occasionally at the fountain of 
Pirene, on the Acrocorinthus, and it was 
here that Bellerophon caught him prepa- 
u 5 



442 ' PEL 



PEL 



ratory to his enterprise against the Chi- 
mera. After throwing off Bellerophon 
when the latter wished to fly to the hea- 
vens, Pegasus directed his course to the 
skies, and was made a constellation by 
Jupiter. The Muses derived from him, 
among the poets, the appellation of Pega- 
sides ; and from him also the fountain of 
Hippocrene is called Pegasides undce, or 
Pegasis unda. Perseus, according to Ovid, 
was mounted on the horse Pegasus when 
he destroyed the sea-monster to which An- 
dromeda was exposed. — II. A profound 
lawyer and prcefectus urbis in the time of 
Vespasian. 

Pelagonia, L, one of the northern 
divisions of Macedonia, inhabited by a 
branch of the Pa?onians, called the Pela- 
gones. Its chief town was also called Pe- 
lagonia. — II. Tripolis or Tripolitis, a dis- 
trict of Thessaly ; so called from containing 
three principal towns, Azorus, Doliche, 
and Pythium. 

Pelasgi, the name given to that an- 
cient and widely diffused tribe which was 
the common parent of the Greeks and of 
the earliest civilised inhabitants of Italy. 
Most authors agree in representing Arca- 
dia as one of their principal seats, where 
they long remained undisturbed ; but the 
origin of this singular people is lost amid 
the obscurity of fable, and will always re- 
main an enigma. It would be impossible 
within our limits to give even an outline 
of the various theories that have been 
broached upon this subject ; but the reader 
will find in Bishop Thirlwall's Greece an 
admirable resume of all that has been writ- 
ten upon this interesting question, together 
with many ingenious and original views. 
The term Pelasgi is used by the poets for 
the Greeks in general. 

Pelasgicum (UsXaayiKov), a name given 
to the most ancient part of the fortifica- 
tions of the Acropolis at Athens, from its 
having been constructed by the Pelasgi. 

Pelasgiotis, a district of Thessaly, oc- 
cupying the lower valley of the Peneus as 
far as the sea, and originally inhabited by 
the Perrhaebi, a tribe of Pelasgic origin. 

Pelasgus, a son of Jupiter and Niobe, 
who reigned in Sicyon, and gave his name 
to the Pelasgi, the aboriginal inhabitants 
of Peloponnesus. 

Pelethronii, an epithet given to the 
Lapithae, because they dwelt in the vicinity 
of Mount Pelethronium, a branch of Pe- 
lion, in Thessaly. 

Peleus, a king of Thessaly, son of 
jEacus, monarch of JEgina, and the nymph 
Ende'is, the daughter of Chiron. Having 
been accessory, along with Telamon, to 



the death of their stepbrother Phocus, he 
was banished from his native island, but 
found an asylum at the court of Eurytion, 
son of Actor, king of Phthia in Thessaly, 
who purified him from the blood-stain, 
and gave him his daughter Antigone in 
marriage, with the third part of the king- 
dom as a marriage portion. Peleus was 
present with Eurytion at the chase of the 
Calydonian boar ; but having unfortu- 
nately killed his father-in-law with the 
javelin which he had hurled against the 
animal, he was again doomed to be a wan- 
derer. His second benefactor was Acastus, 
king of Iolchos ; but here again he was in- 
volved in trouble, through a false charge 
brought against him by Astydamia, or 
Hippolyte, the wife of Acastus. (See 
Acastus.) To reward the virtue of Pe- 
leus, the gods resolved to give him a 
goddess in marriage, which, after much 
coyness on the part of Thetis, who was 
selected for his bride, was at last consum- 
mated. Their nuptials were celebrated 
with great solemnity on Mount Pelion, 
and were honoured with the presence of 
all the deities of Olympus, the goddess of 
Discord alone excepted (see Discordia), 
who made them each valuable presents. 
The offspring of this union was the cele- 
brated Achilles, whose death caused such 
grief to Peleus, that Thetis, to comfort her 
husband, promised him immortality, and 
ordered him to retire into the grottos of 
the island of Leuce, where he would see 
and converse with the manes of his son. 
Peleus had a daughter, named Polydora, 
by Antigone. 

Peliades, a name given to the daugh- 
ters of Pelias and Anaxibia, daughter of 
Bias, or Philomache, daughter of Am- 
phion, who became unwittingly, through 
the arts of Medea, the slayers of their fa- 
ther. (See Pelias.) Their names were 
Alceste, Hippothoe, Pelopea, and Pisidice. 
After the death of their father the Pe- 
liades fled to the court of Admetus, where 
their brother Acastus pursued them, and 
took their protector prisoner. They died 
in Arcadia. 

Pelias, I., the twin brother of Neleus, 
son of Neptune by Tyro, daughter of Sal- 
moneus, who exposed her offspring in the 
woods as soon as they were born. Their 
lives, however, were preserved by shep- 
herds, one of whom reared the children as 
his own, calling them severally by the 
names Pelias and Neleus. When they 
grew up they recognised their mother, 
who in the meantime had married Cre- 
theus, son of iEolus, king of Iolchos, and 
had become the mother of three children, 



PEL 



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443 



of whom iEson was the eldest. Neleus 
settled in Elis, but Pelias was received 
into the family of his stepfather Cretheus ; 
after whose death he unjustly seized the 
kingdom which belonged to the children 
of the former. Jason, however, son of iEson, 
when arrived at years of maturity, boldly 
demanded the kingdom which Pelias had 
usurped. The latter, anxious for delay, pro- 
mised to resign the crown as soon as Jason 
should bring the Golden Fleece from Col- 
chis. (See Jason.) According to one version, 
j£son was still living when Jason returned, 
and was restored to the vigour of youth 
by the magic arts of Medea ; but another 
story states that during the absence of 
Jason Pelias murdered the father and 
mother of the hero, who, desirous of re- 
venge, entreated Medea to exercise her art 
in his behalf. Accordingly Medea shortly 
afterwards ingratiated herself with the 
daughters of Pelias, and by vaunting her art 
of restoring youth, and proving it by cutting 
up an old ram, and putting the pieces into 
a pot, whence issued a bleating lamb, she 
persuaded them to treat their father in the 
same manner, and then refused to restore 
him to youth. — II. A Trojan chief, 
wounded by Ulysses during the Trojan 
war. He survived the ruin of his country, 
and followed the fortunes of ^neas. 

Pelides, a patronymic of Achilles and 
Pyrrhus, as descended from Peleus. 

Pelioni, an Italian tribe, belonging to 
the Sabine race, situated east and north-east 
of the Marsi. They derive some considera- 
tion in history from the circumstance of 
their chief city, Cornnium, having been se- 
lected by the allies in the Social War as 
the seat of the new empire. 

Pelion, L, a range of mountains on the 
eastern coast of Thessaly. Its principal 
summit rises behind lolchos andOrmenium, 
and was famous for a temple dedicated to 
Jupiter Actaeus. Its sides formed the ancient 
abode of the Centaurs, who were ejected 
by the Lapithae ; but it was more especially 
the haunt of Chiron, whose cave occupied 
the highest point of the mountain. In 
their wars against the gods, the giants, as 
the poets fable, placed Ossa upon Pelion, 
and "rolled upon Ossa the leafy Olym- 
pus," in their daring attempt to scale the 
heavens. The famous spear of Peleus, 
which descended to his son Achilles, and 
which none but the latter and his parent 
could wield, was cut from an ash tree on 
this mountain, and* thence received its 
name of Pelias Arbor. — II. A consider- 
able city of Illyria, on the Macedonian 
border, and commanding a pass leading 
into that country. 



Pella, a city of Macedonia, near the top 
of the Sinus Therma'icus, in the district of 
the Bottiaetis, on the lake through which the 
Lydias flows. It became the capital of the 
kingdom when Odessa was annihilated, ac- 
cording to Ptolemy, and owed its grandeur 
to Philip and to his son Alexander, who 
was born there, and who was hence styled 
PellcEiis Juve7iis by the Latin poets. Under 
the Romans, Pella was made the chief town 
of the third region of Macedon. It was co- 
lonized by Julius Caesar, and under the 
late emperors assumed the title of Col. Jul. 
Pella. The ruins of Pella are still visible 
on the spot called Palatisa or Alaklisi by 
the Turks. 

Pellene, a city of Achaia, south-west of 
Sicyon, situated on a lofty precipitous hill, 
about sixty stadia from the sea. Its name 
was derived either from the Titan Pallas, or 
from Pellen, an Argive, and son of Phorbas. 
The Pellenians were the first of the Achae- 
ans who aided the Lacedaemonians in the 
Peloponnesian war. Pellene was cele- 
brated for its manufacture of woollen 
cloaks, which were given as prizes to the 
riders at the gymnastic games held there 
in honour of Mercury. The ruins of Pel- 
lene are to be seen not far from Tricala. 

Pelopea, or Pelopia, a daughter of 
Thyestes, the brother of Atreus, and mo- 
ther of iEgisthus. See Atreus. • 

Pelopea Mcenia, applied to the cities ot 
Greece, but more particularly to Mycenae, 
where the descendants of Pelops reigned. 

Pelopidas, son of Hippoclus, and de- 
scended from one of the principal families of 
Thebes. He took part in the battle of Man- 
tinea, b. c. 385, and owed his life to Epa- 
minondas, with whom he subsequently con- 
tracted an intimacy which lasted through 
life. No sooner had the interest of Sparta 
prevailed at Thebes, and the friends of li- 
berty been banished from the city, than 
Pelopidas, who was in the number of the 
exiles, resolved to co-operate with his friends 
in Thebes, among whom was Epaminondas, 
to free his country from foreign slavery. 
Leaving Athens, where he had taken re- 
fuge, Pelopidas with eleven associates en- 
tered Thebes, massacred the friends of the 
tyranny, and having freed his country from 
foreign masters, was unanimously placed at 
the head of the government, b. c. 379. Pe- 
lopidas followed up this advantage by seek- 
ing to embroil the Athenians with the 
Lacedaemonians, the latter of whom he de- 
feated at Tegyrae, and some time after- 
wards took part in the celebrated battle of 
Leuctra, under the command of Epami- 
nondas, b. c. 369. Pelopidas was then as- 
sociated with his friend in the Boeotarchy, 
u 6 



444 



PEL 



PEL 



and took an active part in the subsequent 
events that led to the humiliation of Sparta. 
In a war which Thebes afterwards carried 
on against Alexander tyrant of Pheras, 
Pelopidas was appointed commander, and 
his arms were crowned with success ; but 
v e was subsequently surprised by treachery, 
and taken prisoner, and only released by 
the intervention of Epaminondas. He 
afterwards went as ambassador to the court 
of Artaxerxes, who received him with great 
honour ; and on his return was once more 
sent against Alexander king of Phera?, and 
killed, bravely fighting in a celebrated bat- 
tle, in which his troops obtained the vic- 
tory, b. c. 364. It has been justly observed 
that with Pelopidas and Epaminondas the 
glory and independence of the Thebans 
rose and set. 

Peloponnesiacum Bfllum, a celebrated 
war, which continued for twenty-seven 
years, between the Athenians and inhabitants 
of Peloponnesus with their respective allies. 
It began b. c. 431, and ended b. c. 404, 
and is the most famous and interesting of 
all the wars which were carried on between 
the inhabitants of Greece. For a minute 
and circumstantial description of the events 
and revolutions which mutual animosity 
produced, the reader is referred to the 
writings of Thucydides and Xenophon. 

Peloponnesus, that is, according to the 
commonly-received explanation, "the island 
of Pelops" a celebrated peninsula, compre- 
hending the most southern part of Greece, 
its name being said to be derived from 
Pelops, son of Tantalus. The original 
name of the peninsula appears to have 
been Apia ; so called from Apis, a son of 
Apollo, or from Apis, a son of Telchin, 
and descendant of JEgialus, whence it was 
also called JEgialea„ Homer uses the 
term Argos in some cases, as including 
the whole peninsula. Though inferior in 
extent to the northern portion of Greece, 
the Peloponnesus may be looked upon as 
the acropolis of Hellas, both from its posi- 
tion, and the power and celebrity of the 
different people by which it was inhabited. 
In shape it resembles the leaf of a plane 
tree, being indented by numerous bays on 
all sides ; and it is from this circumstance 
that the modern name of Morea is doubt- 
lessly derived, the word signifying a mul- 
berry leaf. The Peloponnesus was scarcely 
200 miles in length, and 140 in breadth, 
and was separated from Continental Greece 
by the Isthmus of Corinth, which, though 
only five miles broad, Demetrius, Cag- 
sar, Nero, and some others, attempted in 
vain to cut, to make a communication 
between the bay of Corinth and the Saro- 



nicus Sinus. The ancient Peloponnesus 
was divided into six provinces ; Messenia, 
Laconia, Elis, Arcadia, Achaia Propria, 
and Argolis, to which some add Sicyon. 
These provinces all bordered on the sea- 
shore, except Arcadia. The Peleponnesus 
was conquered, some time after the Trojan 
war, by the Heraclida;, who were forcibly 
expelled from it ; but they returned at the 
great Doric migration, and gradually made 
themselves masters of the whole peninsula. 
Its ancient history forms part of that of 
Greece generally. After the destruction 
of the Achaean league by the Romans, 
b. c. 146, it was formed with the rest of 
Greece into the Roman province of 
Achaia, and continued either really or 
nominally a portion of that empire for 
more than 1300 years. The inhabitants 
rendered themselves illustrious, like the 
rest of the Greeks, by their genius, fond- 
ness for the fine arts, cultivation of learn- 
ing, and profession of arms. 

Pelops, a celebrated prince, son of Tan- 
talus, king of Phrygia, and Euryanassa, 
or Euprytone, Eurystemista, or Dione. 
At an entertainment given to the gods by 
Tantalus, the latter, in order to try their 
divinity, is said to have killed and dressed 
his son Pelops, and to have served his 
limbs up at table. The gods, however, 
perceived the horrid nature of the banquet, 
and refused to touch the meat, except 
Ceres, who, engrossed by the recent loss of 
her daughter, in a moment of abstraction 
ate one of the shoulders of Pelops. Jupi- 
ter restored him to life, and placed a 
shoulder of ivory instead of that which 
Ceres had devoured. This shoulder had 
an uncommon power, and could heal by 
its very touch every complaint. Some 
time after the kingdom of Tant&his being 
invaded by Tros, king of Troy, on pre- 
tence that he had carried away his son 
Ganymedes, Tantalus was obliged to fly 
with his son Pelops, and seek a shelter in 
Greece. When Pelops had attained to 
manhood, he resolved to seek in marriage 
Hippodamia, the daughter JEnomaiis, 
king of Pisa. An oracle having told this 
prince that he would lose his life through 
his son-in-law, or, as others say, being 
unwilling, on account of her surpassing 
beauty, to part with her, he proclaimed 
that he would give his daughter only to 
the man who should conquer him in the 
chariot-race. The race was run in the 
following manner : GSnomaiis, placing his 
daughter in the chariot with the suitor, 
gave him the start ; he himself followed 
with a spear in his hand, and, if he over- 
took the unhappy lover, he ran him 



PEL 



PEN 



445 



through. Thirteen had already lost their 
lives when Pelops entered the lists ; but 
Neptune, who had always treated Pelops 
with affection, bestowed upon him a golden 
chariot, and horses of winged speed, and 
assured him of success. Pelops then bribed 
My r til us. son of Mercury, the charioteer of 
QEnomaiis, to leave out the linchpins of 
the wheels of his chariot, or, as others say, 
to put in waxen ones instead of iron. In the 
race, therefore, the chariot of (Enomaiis 
having broke down, he fell out and was 
killed, and thus Hippodamia became the 
bride of Pelops. Pelops is said to have 
promised Myrtilus, for his aid, one half of 
his kingdom ; but being unwilling to keep 
his promise, he took an opportunity, as 
they we . driving along a cliff, to throw 
Myrtilus into the sea, where he was 
drowned. To the vengeance of Mercury 
for the death of his sou were ascribed all 
the future woes of the line of Pelops. 
When he had established himself on the 
throne of Pisa, Hippodamia's possession, 
he extended his conquests over the neigh- 
bouring countries ; and from him the pe- 
ninsula, of which he was one of the mo- 
narchs, was named Peloponnesus. Pelops, 
after death, received divine honours. Hip- 
podamia bore to Pelops five sons, Atreus, 
Thyestes, Copreus, Alcathous, and Pit- 
theus ; and two daughters, Nicippe and 
Lysidice, who married Sthenelus and 
Mestor, sons of Perseus. His descendants 
were called Pelopidce. Some suppose that 
Pelops first instituted the Olympic Games 
in honour of Jupiter, and to commemo- 
rate the victory obtained over GEnomaiis. 

Pelorus, Cape Faro, one of the three 
great promontories of Sicily, near the coast 
of Italy ; said to have derived its name 
from Pelorus, pilot of the ship which car- 
ried Hannibal away from Italy. But the 
'name is much older than the days of Han- 
nihai. 

Pelt^e, a town of Phrygia, south-east of 
Cotyaeum. 

Pelusium, Tineh, a town of Egypt, at 
the entrance of one of the mouths of the 
Nile, called from it Pelusian ; about twenty 
stadia from the sea. It derived its name 
from in)\bs, mud, in allusion to its 
being situated in marshes ; and formed the 
key of Egypt on the side of Phoenicia, as 
it was impossible to enter the Egyptian 
territories without passing by Pelusium. 
It produced lentils, and was celebrated 
for linen stuffs. In the reign of Augustus, 
it became the chief city of the newly 
erected province of Augustamnica. 

Pexates, the household gods of the an- 
cient Italians, who presided over families, 



and were worshipped in the interior of 
each dwelling. The term is derived from 
penitus, within. Penates is in fact a ge- 
neric term, comprising in its strict sense 
all the gods worshipped in the interior of 
the house, and consequently including the 
Lares, with whom they are continually 
mentioned in conjunction. The number 
and names of the Penates were indetermi- 
nate. As there were public as well as do- 
mestic Lares, so there were public Penates, 
who exercised a general influence over the 
destinies of the whole Roman people. 
Thus Tacitus relates, that " delubrum 
Vesta? cum Penatibus populi Romani " 
was consumed, along with other very an- 
cient temples, in the great fire during the 
reign of Nero. But the term may, per- 
haps, be considered as belonging to the 
rhetorical style of that author, and to sig- 
nify merely the tutelary god of the repub- 
lic. The subject of the domestic deities of 
the Romans, the Lares and Penates, is in- 
volved in great obscurity, from the con- 
flicting statements of the classic authors 
respecting them. 

Penelope, a celebrated princess of 
Greece, daughter of Icarius, wife of Ulys- 
ses king of Ithaca, and mother of Tele- 
machus. She was obliged to part from 
her husband when the Greeks compelled 
him to go to the Trojan war. Twenty 
years passed away, and Ulysses returned 
not to his home. Meanwhile his palace 
at Ithaca was crowded with numerous 
suitors, aspiring to the hand of the queen. 
Her relations also urged her to abandon 
all thoughts of the probability of her 
husband's return, and not to disregard 
the solicitations of the rival aspirants to 
her favour. Penelope, however, exerted 
every resource which her ingenuity could 
suggest to protract the period of her de- 
cision : among others, she declared that 
she would make choice of one of them as 
soon as she should have completed a web 
that she was weaving (intended as a funeral 
ornament for the aged Laertes); but she 
baffled their expectations by undoing at 
night what she had accomplished during 
the day. This artifice has given rise to 
the proverb of " Penelope's web," or " to 
unweave the web of Penelope" (Penelopes 
telam retexere), applied to whatever labour 
appears to be endless. For three years 
this artifice succeeded ; but, on the begin- 
ning of the fourth, a disclosure was made 
by one of her female attendants ; and the 
faithful and unhappy Penelope, constrained 
at length by the renewed importunities of 
her persecutors, agreed, at their instigation, 
to bestow her hand on him who should 



446 



PEN 



PER 



shoot an arrow from the bow of Ulysses 
through a given number of axe-eyes placed 
in succession. An individual disguised as 
a beggar was the successful archer. This 
was no other than Ulysses, who had just 
returned to Ithaca. The hero then di- 
rected his shafts at the suitors, and slew 
them all. ( See Ulysses. ) The character 
of Penelope has been variously represented ; 
but it is the more popular opinion that 
she is to be considered as a model of con- 
jugal and domestic virtue. 

Peneus, I., Salampria, a river of Thes- 
saly, rising on Mt. Pindus, and falling 
into the Thermaic Gulf, after a wandering 
course between Mt. Ossa and Olympus 
through the plains of Tempe. It derived 
its name from Peneus, son of Oceanus and 
Tethys. Daphne, daughter of the Peneus, 
was changed into a laurel on the banks of 
this river ; a tradition, which is supposed 
to arise from the quantity of laurels near 
the Peneus. — II. Igliaco, a small river of 
Elis, falling into the sea a short distance 
below the promontory of Chelonatas. On 
its banks stood the city of Elis. 

Pennisle Alpes, a part of the chain of 
the Alps, extending from the Great St. 
Bernard to the sources of the Rhone and 
Rhine. 

Pentapolis, L, a town of India, in the 
north-eastern angle of the Sinus Gange- 
ticus, Bay of Bengal. — II. A name given 
to Cyrenaica in Africa, from its five cities, 
Cyrene, Arsinoe, Berenice, Ptolemais or 
Barce, and Apollonia. — III. A part of 
Palestine, containing the five cities, As- 
calon, Azotus, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. — 
IV. A name applied to Doris in Asia 
Minor, after Halicarnassus had been ex- 
cluded from the Doric confederacy. See 
Doris. 

Pentelicus, now called Pendele, and 
sometimes Mendele, a mountain of Attica, 
containing quarries of beautiful marble. 

Penthesilea, a queen of the Amazons, 
daughter of Mars, who came to assist 
Priam in the Trojan war, and fought against 
Achilles, by whom she was slain. The 
hero was so struck with her beauty when 
lie stripped her of her arms, that he shed 
tears for having sacrificed her to his fury, 
and wished the Greeks to erect a tomb to 
her memory. Thersites having ridiculed 
this partiality of the hero, was instantly 
killed by Achilles. The death of Ther- 
sites so offended Diomedes, that he dragged 
the body of Penthesilea out of the camp, 
and threw it into the Scamander. 

Pentheus, son of Echion and Agave, 
and king of Thebes in Boeotia. During his 
reign Bacchus came from the East, and 



[ sought to introduce his orgies into his 
I native city. The women all enthusi- 
astically embraced the new religion, and 
Mount CitliEeron resounded with the 
frantic yells of the Bacchantes. Pentheus 
opposed his influence to the spread of 
the orgies, and even laid hands upon 
Bacchus and put him in prison ; but the 
god soon made his escape, and inspired 
Pentheus with a desire to be an eye-witness 
of their revels. Accordingly he went se- 
cretly, and ascended a tree on Cithaeron; and 
while there he was descried by his mother 
and aunts, to whom Bacchus made him ap- 
pear to be a wild beast, and he was torn to 
pieces by the Bacchanals. 

Penthylus, a prince of Paphos, who as- 
sisted Xerxes with twelve ships, but was 
seized by the Greeks, to whom he com- 
municated many important matters con- 
cerning the situation of the Persians. 

Peparethos, or Evjenus Piperi, a small 
island in the JEgean Sea, off the coast of 
Thessaly, north-east of Euboea, colonised 
by some Cretans, under the command of 
Staphylus. It produced good wine and 
oil. The town of Peparethos suffered 
damage from an earthquake during the 
Peloponnesian war. It was defended by 
Philip against the Romans, but was after- 
wards destroyed. 

Perjsa, or Ber^ea, I., a name given 
by the Greeks to that part of Judsea which 
lay east of Jordan, and between the Lake 
of Gennesareth and the Dead Sea; from 
irepav, beyond. — II. A part of Caria, op- 
posite Rhodes. 

Percote, an ancient town of Mysia, 
south of Lampsacus, on the banks of the 
small river Practius, and not far from the 
shores of the Hellespont. It continued 
to exist long after the Trojan war, and is 
named by some writers among the towns 
given to Themistocles by the king of 
Persia. 

Perdiccas, I., the youngest of three 
brothers, who came from Argos and settled 
in Upper Macedonia, and who are said to 
have been descended from Temenus. Eu- 
sebius names three kings before Perdiccas 
I., but he is generally regarded as the 
founder of the Macedonian dynasty. — II. 
The second of the name was son of 
Alexander I. of Macedon, and succeeded 
his father about b. c. 463. He was a 
fickle and dishonourable prince, who took 
an active part in the Peloponnesian war, 
and alternately assisted Athens and Sparta, 
as his interests or policy dictated. He 
died B.C. 414. — III. The third of the name, 
who succeeded Alexander II., after having 
cut off Ptolemy Alorites, who was acting 



PER 



PER 



447 



as regent, but who had abused his trust. 
After a reign of five years he fell in 
battle against the Illyrians, b. c. 359. — 
IV. One of the friends and favourites of 
Alexander the Great. At the king's death 
he wished to make himself absolute ; and 
the ring, which he had received from the 
hand of the dying Alexander, seemed to 
favour his pretensions. The better to 
support his claims to the throne, he mar- 
ried Cleopatra, sister of Alexander; but 
his ambitious views were discovered by 
Antigonus and the rest of the generals of 
Alexander, Antipater, Craterus, and Pto- 
lemy, who leagued together against him ; 
and after much bloodshed on both sides 
Perdiccas was ruined, and assassinated in 
his tent by his own officers, b. c. 321. 

Perdix, a young Athenian, son of the 
sister of Daedalus, and inventor of the saw 
and compasses, &c. His uncle, jealous of 
his rising fame, threw him down from the 
top of the Acropolis, which caused his 
death. The poets fabled that he was 
changed into a bird which bears his 
name. 

Perenna. See Anna. 

Perennis, a praetorian prasfect under 
Commodus, over whom he acquired great 
influence. His son was commander of 
the Illyrian legions, and he himself began 
to aspire to the empire, when he was de- 
nounced by Cleander, a freedman of the 
emperor, and put to death, together with 
all the members of his family, a. d. 186. 

Perga. See Perge. 

Pergamus (Pergama, pi), the citadel 
or Acropolis of Troy, often used for the 
city itself. — II. or Pergamum (Hepyafios 
or Tlepya/Aov), the most important city in 
Mysia, situated in the southern part of that 
country, in a plain watered by two small 
rivers, the Selinus and Cetius, which af- 
terwards joined the Caicus. It was the 
capital of the kingdom of Pergamus, which 
was one of those created out of the wreck 
of Alexander's empire, and was founded 
about b. c. 283, by Philseterus, a native of 
Pontus, whom Lysimachus, after the battle 
of Ipsus, had entrusted with the treasures 
obtained in the war. (See Phil^terus. ) 
The city, which was very large, and de- 
fended by a strong fortress on the side of a 
hill, contained several splendid edifices, of 
which the most celebrated was a temple of 
.ZEsculapius, which possessed the right of 
asylum. It was famous for a library of 
200,000 volumes, collected by different 
monarchs, which were afterwards trans- 
ported to Alexandria by Cleopatra, with 
the permission of Antony. Parchment 
was first invented and made use of at Per- 



gamus to transcribe books, hence called 
charta Pergamena. Pergamus was one of the 
seven churches of Asia. The kingdom of 
Pergamus was transmitted by Philseterus 
to his descendants in regular order till the 
death of Attalus III. (b.c. 133), who be- 
queathed it to the Romans, when it be- 
came the capital of the Roman province 
of Asia. 

Perge, or Perga, Eski Kelesi, a city of 
Pamphylia, on the Cestrus, situated be- 
tween and upon the sides of two hills, with 
an extensive valley in front, and flanked 
by the mountains of Taurus. In its 
neighbourhood stood the celebrated tem- 
ple of Diana Pergaea, at which a sacred 
meeting was held annually. This city was 
twice visited by St. Paul. Extensive ruins 
still mark its site. 

Pergus, a lake of Sicily near Enna, 
where Proserpine was carried away by 
Pluto. 

Periander, son of Cypselus, tyrant 
of Corinth, whom he succeeded in the 
sovereign power. The commencement of 
his reign was marked by the same mo- 
deration that distinguished that of his 
father ; but having subsequently con- 
tracted an intimacy with Thrasybulus, 
tyrant of Miletus, he is said by Herodotus 
to have surpassed, from that time, his 
father Cypselus in cruelty and crime. It 
is certain that if the particulars which the 
historian has related of his conduct towards 
his own family be authentic, they would 
fully justify the execration he has expressed 
for the character of this disgusting tyrant. 
But notwithstanding his enormities, Peri- 
ander was distinguished for his love of 
science and literature, which entitled him 
to be ranked among the seven sages of 
Greece. He reigned forty-four years, and 
was succeeded (b. c. 585)^m his nephew 
Psammitichus, who lived amy three years. 

Pericles, a celebrated orator, statesman, 
and general of Athens, the son of Xanthip- 
pus, the victor at Micale, and Agariste, 
daughter of Cleisthene, and descended from 
a long line of illustrious ancestors, was born 
at Athens, b. c. 499. His acute mind was 
sharpened by the lessons of Damon, Zeno, 
and Anaxagoras ; while his address and 
liberality easily gained him the affections of 
the people. When he commenced his poli- 
tical career the aristocratic party, headed 
by Cimon, son of Miltiades, at Athens was 
omnipotent ; and seeing his only chance 
to place himself at the head of affairs was 
by raising the people, he sought to dimi- 
nish the authority of the Ai'eopagus, which 
the people had been taught for ages to 
respect and venerate; and having succeeded 



448 



PER 



PER 



in ostracising Cimon and breaking up the 
aristocratic party, he became absolute 
sovereign of Athens. He then made war 
against the Lacedaemonians, restored the 
temple of' Delphi to the care of the Pho- 
cians, and gave a finishing blow to the 
independence of the allies by the conquest 
of Samos and Byzantium. From this 
time till the beginning of the Peloponne- 
sian war, Pericles appears engaged in 
peaceful pursuits. He founded numerous 
colonies, which took off the superfluous 
population at home, and served as garri- 
sons at a distance. With the contributions 
of the allies, he constructed a third wall 
from Athens to the harbour of the Piraeus ; 
covered the Acropolis with magnificent 
edifices, which gave employment to all 
kinds of tradesmen, mechanics, and la- 
bourers ; and encouraged public taste, and 
at the same time increased his own popu- 
larity by throwing open the theatre — then 
in the zenith of its glory — to the poorer 
citizens. His sole object seems to have 
been to make Athens the first state of 
Greece, and himself the sovereign ; and in 
this he fully succeeded. But the advan- 
tages that flowed to Athens from the ad- 
ministration of Pericles were not without 
alloy. The splendour he introduced cor- 
rupted the morals of the people and ex- 
hausted the public revenues, while to 
supply the deficiencies recourse was had 
to the infliction of rigorous imposts upon 
the allied states. Hence a spirit of disaf- 
fection was engendered ; and Sparta, which 
had long viewed with jealousy the mag- 
nificence of her rival, seized the opportu- 
nity of fanning the discord into a flame. 
This opportunity was as follows : — Pericles 
being descended by the mother's side from 
the family of Cleisthenes, was implicated, 
according to the religious notions of those 
times, in the grRt of the murder of Cylon's 
partisans, which was committed at the 
very altars of the Acropolis. The Lace- 
daemonians urged on the Athenians the 
necessity of banishing the members of the 
family who had committed this offence 
against religion, which was only an in- 
direct way of attacking Pericles and driving 
him into exile. But the Athenians re- 
torted by urging the Lacedaemonians to 
cleanse themselves from the guilt incurred 
by the death of Pausanias. (See Pausa- 
nias.) This plan, therefore, failed; but 
the Lacedaemonians having sent a second 
and a third embassy to Athens to declare 
that the independence of the allies was the 
only condition of the continuance of peace, 
Pericles declared for the war so well 
known in history as the Peloponnesian, 



and which laid the foundation of the ruin 
of his country. Pericles lived to direct 
the Peloponnesian war for two years ; but 
the dreadful pestilence which had dimi- 
nished the number of his family proved 
fatal also to him, b. c. 429, after he had 
been for forty years at the head of the 
state. His son Pericles, his offspring 
by the celebrated Aspasia (see Asfasia), 
became one of the ten generals who suc- 
ceeded Alcibiades in the administration of 
affairs ; and, like his colleagues, was con- 
demned to death by the Athenians after 
the unfortunate battle of Arginusae. 

Periegetes Dionysius. See Diont- 
sius V. 

Perilla, a daughter of Ovid, extremely 
fond of poetry and literature. 

Perillus, I., an ingenious artist, who 
made a brazen bull as an instrument of 
torture, and presented it to Phalaris, ty- 
rant of Agrigentum. This image was 
hollow, and had an opening on the upper 
part of the back, through which the victim 
was introduced into the body of the bull, 
and (a fire being kindled beneath the 
belly of the image) was slowly roasted 
alive; while the cry of the sufferer, as it 
came forth from the mouth of the bull, 
resembled the roaring of a living animal. 
Phalaris is said to have tried the experi- 
ment first upon the artist himself, and to 
have lost his own life in this same manner 
in a rebellion of his subjects. — II. A lawyer 
and usurer in the age of Horace. 

Perimela, a daughter of Hippodamas, 
thrown into the sea for receiving the ad- 
dresses of the Achelous. She was changed 
into an island in the Ionian Sea, and be- 
came one of the Echinades. 

Perinthus, a town of Thrace, in the 
Propontis ; anciently Mygdonica ; after- 
wards Heraclea, in honour of Hercules ; 
now Erekli. See Heraclea I. 

Peripatetic J, a sect of philosophers 
at Athens, disciples of Aristotle; named 
from the place where they were taught, 
Peripaton, in the Lyceum ; or because they 
received the philosopher's lectures as they 
walked, irepnTarovvTes. The Peripatetics 
acknowledged the dignity of human na- 
ture, and placed their summum bonum in 
the due exercise of moral and intellectual 
faculties. 

Permessus, a river of Bceotia, rising in 
Mount Helicon, and which, after uniting 
its waters with those of the Olmius, flowed 
along with that stream into the Copaic 
Lake near Haliartus. Both the Olmius 
and Permessus received their supplies 
from the fountains of Aganippe and Hip- 
pocrene. The river Permessus, as well 



PER 



PER 



449 



as the fountain Aganippe, was sacred to 
the Muses. 

Pero, I., a daughter of Chloris and 
Neleus, king of Pylos, and wife of Bias, 
son of Amythaon. (See Melampus. ) — 
1 1. A daughter of Cimon, whom she sup- 
ported when in prison with the milk of her 
own breasts. 

Peroe, a fountain of Bceotia, called ; 
after a daughter of the Asopus. 

Perpekna, 31., I., was consul b. c. 130, 
and defeated and took prisoner Aristonicus j 
in Asia. — II. M. Yento, was proscribed 
by Sylla, whereupon he passed into Spain, 
and became one of the lieutenants of Ser- 
torius. Dissatisfied eventually with play- 
ing only a secondary part, he conspired 
against his leader, and assassinated him at I 
a banquet ; but on assuming tbe command 
he was defeated by Pompey, and put to 
death. 

Perrh^eeia, a district of Thessaly, on 
the borders of the Peneus, extending be- I 
tween the town of Atrax and the vale of 
Tempe. The Perrhasbi are noticed in the 
catalogue of Horner among the Thessalian j 
clans who fought at the siege of Troy. 
Their antiquity is also attested by the fact 
ef their being enrolled among the Amphic- 
tyonic states. 

Persa, or Perseis, I., one of the Ocean- 
ides, and mother of JEetes, Circe, and Pasi- 
phae, by Apollo. — II. A patronymic of 
Hecate as daughter of Perses. 

Pers-e, the inhabitants of Persia. See 
Persia. 

Persephone, the Greek name of Pro- 
serpina. See Proserpixa. 

Persepolis, a celebrated city, situated 1 
in the royal province of Persis, about 
twenty stadia from the river Araxes, and 
mentioned by Greek writers after the time j 
of Alexander as the capital of Persia, j 
The name, indeed, does not occur in Hero- \ 
dotus, Ctesias, or Xenophon, who frequently 
mention Susa, Babylon, and Ecbatana. i 
But the inscriptions found there (if they 
have been correctly interpreted), show that i 
it must, occasionally at least, have been 
visited by Darius, and the several monarchs 
called Xerxes. It is, at all events, certain 
that this city was the residence of the un- 
fortunate Darius Codomannus, who, with 
his court, fled from it after his defeat at 
Arbela or Gaugamela (b. c. 331) by Alex- 
ander the Great. The conqueror soon 
after took the city, and gave it up to mi- 
litary execution. Alexander himself set 
the palace on fire, under circumstances 
which, if we may believe Diodorus, have 
been accurately as well as admirably de- ! 
picted in Dryden's noble Ode. But Ar- J 



rian, a far less questionable authority, has 
given a very different account of the mat- 
ter. He states that Alexander destroyed 
this palace contrary to the advice of Par- 
menio, not in a drunken frolic, but in cold 
blood, and on principle, in retaliation of 
the destruction of the Greek temples by 
the Persians. From the few notices that 
now exist, it appears that Persepolis was an 
important city under theSassanian dynasty. 
The ruins of Persepolis, Estakar, or Tehd- 
minar, still astonish travellers by their 
magnificence. 

Perses, I., a son of Perseus and Andro- 
meda, from whom the Persians are some- 
times fabled to have received their name. — 
II. Or Perseus, king of Macedonia. See 
Perseus. 

Perseus, L, son of Jupiter and Danae, 
daughter of Acrisius. (See Acrisius. ) 
A sketch of his fabulous history has already 
been given under a previous article (see 
Danae) ; and it remains here but to re- 
late the particulars of his enterprise against 
the Gorgons. "When Perseus had made 
his rash promise to Polydectes, by which 
he bound himself to bring the latter the 
Gorgon's head, full of grief he retired to 
the extremity of the island of Scyros, where 
Mercury came to him, promising that he 
and Minerva would be his guides. Mer- 
cury brought him first to the Graias (see 
Phorcydes), whose eye and tooth he stole, 
and would not restore these until they had 
furnished him with directions to the abode 
of the Nymphs, who were possessed of the 
winged shoes, the magic wallet, and the 
helmet of Pluto, which made the wearer 
invisible. Thus equipped, and grasping the 
short curved sword (harpe) which Mercury 
gave him, he mounted into the air, and flew 
to the ocean, where he found the three Gor- 
gons asleep. (See Gorgoxes.) Fearing 
to gaze on their faces, which changed the 
beholder to stone, he looked on the head 
of Medusa as it was reflected on his shield, 
and, Minerva guiding his hand, he severed 
it from her body. The blood gushed forth, 
and with it the winged steed Pegasus, 
and Chrysaor, the father of Geryon, for 
Medusa was at that time pregnant by 
Neptune. Perseus took up the head, put 
it into his wallet, and set out on his re- 
turn. The two sisters awoke, and pur- 
sued the fugitive ; but, protected by the 
helmet of Pluto, he eluded their vision, 
and they were obliged to give over the 
bootless chase. Perseus pursued his aerial 
route, and after having, in the course of 
his journey, punished the inhospitality of 
Atlas by changing him into a rocky moun- 
tain (see Atlas), he came to the country 



450 



PER 



PER 



of the ^Ethiopians. Here he liberated 
Andromeda from the sea-monster, and then 
returned with the Gorgon's head to the 
island of Seriphus. This head he gave to 
Minerva, who set it in the middle of her 
shield. The remainder of his history, up 
to the death of Acrisius, is given else- 
where. (See Danae and Acrisius.) After 
the unlooked-for fulfilment of the oracle 
in the accidental homicide of his grand- 
father, Perseus, unwilling to take the in- 
heritance of one who had died by his 
means, proposed an exchange of dominions 
with Megapenfhes, the son of Prcetus, and 
thenceforward reigned at Tiryns. He 
afterwards built and fortified Mycenae and 
Midea. The time of his death is unknown. 
Perseus had, by Andromeda, Alceus, Elec- 
tryon, Gorgophone, Nestor, and Sthenelus ; 
and after death, according to some, became 
a constellation in the heavens. He re- 
ceived divine honours. — II. Or Perses, 
son of Philip V., whom he succeeded on 
the throne of Macedonia, b. c. 179. Like 
his father, he distinguished himself by his 
enmity to the Romans ; but at the com- 
mencement of his reign he dissembled his 
feelings ; and it was only when the Romans 
saw the extensive preparations he was 
making in secret to regain the possessions 
his father had lost, that they resolved to 
anticipate his designs, and declared open 
war against him. After a campaign of no 
decisive result in Thessaly, the war was 
transferred to the plains of Pieria, in Ma- 
cedonia, where - Perseus encamped in a 
strong position on the banks of the river 
Enipeus. But the consul Paulus iEmilius 
having despatched a chosen body of troops 
across the mountains to attack him in the 
rear, he was compelled to retire to Pydna, 
where a battle took place, which terminated 
in his entire defeat, b. c. 168, and put an 
end to the powerful kingdom of Macedonia, 
after a duration of five hundred and thirty 
years. Perseus fled, almost alone, first to 
Pella, the ancient seat of the Macedonian 
kings, then to Amphipolis, and thence to 
the island of Samothrace, whose asylum 
was considered inviolable. Here, after a 
time, he surrendered to the Romans, who 
at first treated him with great leniency ; 
but he was afterwards carried to Rome, 
and, with his children, dragged along the 
streets of the city to adorn the triumph of 
the conqueror. He was afterwards con- 
fined at Alba, where he died in a few 
years ; but some writers state that he was 
put to a shameful death the first year of 
his captivity. He left two sons, Philip 
and Alexander, and one daughter. 

Persia, a celebrated kingdom of Asia, 



comprising in its utmost extent all the 
countries between the Indus and the Me- 
diterranean, and from the Euxine and 
Caspian to the Persian Gulf and Indian 
Ocean. In its more limited acceptation, 
however, the name Persia (or rather Per- 
sis) denoted a particular province, the 
original seat of the conquerors of Asia, 
bounded on the north and north-west by 
Media, from which it was separated by the 
mountain range known to the ancients 
under the name of Parachoathras ; on the 
south by the Persian Gulf ; on the east by 
Carmania ; and on the west by Susiana, 
from which it was separated by rugged and 
inaccessible mountains. At the earliest 
period of which any trace is preserved, 
Persia appears to have formed a province 
of the great Assyrian empire, on the dis- 
ruption of which it fell under the power of 
the Medes, b. c. 820. For nearly three 
centuries it remained tributary to Media, 
till Cyrus the Great, of Persian origin by 
his father's side, having dethroned his 
grandfather Astyages, king of Media, 
founded the empire of Persia, about b. c. 
559, which became under the succeeding 
monarchs one of the most considerable 
kingdoms of the earth. But the tyranny of 
its government, the depravity of its princes, 
the oppression of the Satrapaa, the slavery 
of the people, and the want of union among 
the different parts of the empire, served to 
precipitate its fall ; and at length, under 
Darius III., the Persian empire was in- 
vaded by Alexander the Great, and after the 
three great battles of the Granicus, Issus, 
and Arbela, the whole extent of his do- 
minions, from the Hellespont to the Indus, 
was reduced under the sway of the Mace- 
donian conqueror. On the death of Alex- 
ander, b. c. 323, Persia fell to the lot of 
Seleucus Nicator, founder of the Syrian 
dynasty of the Seleucidaa ; but b. c. 250 
it became part of the Parthian empire, 
and so remained for nearly 500 years, 
till a. n. 229, when Artaxerxes founded 
the dynasty of the Sassanidae, and restored 
to Persia its ancient appellation. (See 
Sassanibje.) The most ancient name of 
this extensive region is that of Elam. The 
name of Persia, by which it was after- 
wards known in Europe, appears to have 
been derived from that of the province of 
Fars, or Phars, which being changed by 
the Greeks to TLepans, was applied by 
them to the whole country. This desig- 
nation has not, however, been adopted in 
the East ; the Persians, both in ancient 
and modern times, having styled their 
country Iran. Modern Persia comprises 
the countries known in antiquity by the 



PER 



PET 



451 



names of Media, Susiana, Caramania, 
Hyrcania, and Persia Proper. The Per- 
sians were divided into several races, or 
tribes, of which the principal were the 
Pasargadse, Maraphii, and Maspii. The 
Pasargadce were the noblest ; and to their 
chief clan, called the Acha>menidae, the 
royal family belonged. Herodotus says 
that the Persians were originally called 
Artaai ; which word probably contains the 
same root as Arii, the original name of the 
Medes. 

Persicum Mare, or Persicus Sinus, 
a part of the Indian Ocean on the coast of 
Persia and Arabia, now called the Persian 
Gulf. 

Persis, the original province of the Per- 
sians. See Persia. 

Persius, Aulus Flaccus, a Roman 
satirist, born at Volaterrss, a town of 
Etruria, in the reign of Tiberius, a. d. 34. 
He was of equestrian rank, and allied by 
blood and affinity to the most illustrious 
families of Rome. He lost his father at 
the age of six years ; and towards his 
mother, Fulvia Sisennia, who married a 
second time, he appears to have shown the 
strongest filial affection. In his twelfth 
year he proceeded to Rome, where he 
studied grammar under Rhemnius Pala?- 
mon, and rhetoric under Virginius Flac- 
cus ; and at the age of sixteen he became 
a pupil of Anna?us Cornutus, a Stoic phi- 
losopher, who had come from Leptis in 
Africa to settle at Rome, and in whose 
school he became a fellow-pupil of Lucan 
the poet. His friendship for Cornutus 
continued throughout life ; and at his 
death, which took place in his thirtieth 
year, he bequeathed his books and a large 
sum of money to Cornutus, who, however, 
declined to receive the latter, and gave it 
up to the sisters of Persius. Persius was 
distinguished for his benevolence and high 
moral integrity. His Six Satires breathe 
a tone of pure morality, to which the 
great majority of his contemporaries were 
strangers ; but they are written in a rugged 
and obscure style, which has prevented 
their attaining that general regard to which 
their intrinsic merits entitle them. They 
have been frequently reprinted and trans- 
lated. 

Pertinax, Publius Helvius, a Roman 
emperor after the death of Commodus, 
was born at Alba Pompeia a. d. 126. He 
was the son of a freedman engaged in the 
manufacture of charcoal at Alba Pompeia, 
and commenced life as a man of letters; 
but finding the literary profession un- 
profitable, he entered the army as a cen- 
turion ; and after distinguishing himself 



in Syria, Massia, Germany, and Dacia, he 
was made proconsul of Africa, and finally 
preefect of Rome under Commodus, on 
whose murder he was proclaimed emperor, 
a. d, 193. His reign, which promised to 
be a thorough contrast to that of his pre- 
decessor, was of short duration; for the 
praetorian troops, irritated by some harsh 
expressions, broke out into mutiny, rushed 
to the palace in a body, and decapitated 
him within three months after he had been 
invested with the purple. 

Perusia, Perugia, one of the most an- 
cient cities of Etruria, at the south-eastern 
extremity of the Lacus Thrasymenus, La- 
go di Perugia. In conjunction with the 
other Etrurian states, it long resisted the 
Roman arms ; but, when reduced, was 
a powerful ally. It became a Roman co- 
lony about 709 a. u. c. , under the con- 
sulship of C. Vibius Pansa ; and some 
years after it sustained a memorable siege, 
in which Antony long held out against 
Octavius Cassar. But he was at last forced 
by famine to surrender; and a madman 
having set fire to his own house, a general 
conflagration ensued, and the city was 
burned to the ground. It appears, however, 
to have risen again from its ruins ; and un- 
der the emperor Justinian we find it main- 
taining a successful siege against the Goths. 

Pescennius. See Niger. 

Pessinus (gen. -untis), an ancient city 
on the western confines of Galatia, on the 
river Sangarius, famous on account of the 
worship of Cybele. Mount Dindymus 
(whence Cybele was named Dindymene) 
rose above the town. The safety of Rome 
having been declared to depend on the re- 
moval of the statue of the goddess to Italy, 
a special embassy was sent to king Attalus, 
who obtained permission to remove this 
statue, which was nothing else but a great 
stone. On its arrival at Rome it was re- 
ceived with great pomp and ceremony by 
the Roman senate and people, headed by 
Scipio Nasica, who had been selected for 
this office by the national voice as the best 
citizen, according to the injunction of the 
Pythian oracle. This took place in the 
year 547a.u.c, near the close of the second 
Punic war. Pessinus was the chief city 
of the Tolistoboii. It was a place of con- 
siderable trade, but sank in importance 
under the Romans ; and although Con- 
stantine the Great, in his new arrangement 
of the provinces, made Pessinus the capital 
of Western Galatia, yet the city gradually 
disappeared from notice after the com- 
mencement of the sixth century. 

Petelinus Lacus, a lake near one of 
the gates of Rome. 



452 



PET 



PEU 



Petilia, Strongoli, a small town of the 
Brutii, near the coast of the Sinus Taren- 
tinus, built, or perhaps only repaired,- by 
Philoctetes, who, after the Trojan war, was 
driven from his own country by a revolt of 
his subjects. In the second Punic war 
it alone, of all the cities of this district, 
preserved its fidelity to the Romans ; but 
it was attacked by Hannibal, and finally 
surrendered after a long and desperate 
resistance. — II. A town of Lucania, con- 
founded by Strabo with the Brutian Pe- 
tilia, supposed to have been situated on 
what is now the Monte della Stella, not 
far from Passtum. 

Petilius, an individual at Rome who was 
accused of having stolen, during his go- 
vernorship of the capitol, a gold crown 
consecrated to Jupiter, but was acquitted 
by the judges in order to gratify Augustus, 
with whom he was on friendly terms. 
Hence he was surnamed Capitolinus. The 
Capitolini, however, were a branch of the 
Petilian family long before this. 

Petosiris, a celebrated astrologer and 
philosopher of Egypt, who wrote an astro- 
logical work compiled from the sacred 
books, a treatise concerning the mysteries 
of the Egyptians, &c. 

Petra, I., a city of Arabia, the capital 
of the Nabathaei, and giving name to the 
division of -the country called Arabia Pe- 
traea. It was situated a short distance 
below the southern boundary of Palestine, 
in an elevated plain, and was well supplied 
with fountains and. trees; but all around 
were rocks, which only allowed an access 
to the place on one side, and that a .diffi- 
cult one. Hence the name of the place, 
from irerpa, a rock. Petra has been con- 
sidered identical with Sela (also signify- 
ing a rock), which is often mentioned in the 
Old Testament. In the time of Augustus 
it was an important commercial city. It 
maintained its independence against the 
Greek kings of Syria ; but it was taken 
by the Roman emperor Trajan, and Ha- 
drian is said to have called it after his own 
name. The ruins of Petra, which are very 
extensive, have been frequently visited and 
described by modern travellers. — II. A 
fortress of Macedonia, among the moun- 
tains beyond Libethra, the possession of 
which was disputed by the Perrhaebi of 
Thessaly and the kings of Macedonia. — 
III. A fortress on Mount Haemus. — IV. 
A Corinthian borough or village, of which 
Eetion, the father of Cypselus, was a na- 
tive. — V. A rock-fortress in Sogdiana, 
taken by Alexander. It was also called 
Oxi Petra, probably from its being near 
the river Oxus. 



PETRiKA, one of the divisions of Arabia, 
so called, not, as is commonly supposed, 
from its stony or rocky character, (irirpa, 
a rock, or stone,) but from its celebrated 
emporium Petra. It was bounded on the 
east by Arabia Deserta, on the west by 
Egypt and the Mediterranean, on the 
south by the Red Sea, which here di- 
vides and runs north in two branches, and 
on the north by Palestine. This country 
contained the southern Edomites, the 
Amalekites, the Cushites, who are im- 
properly called the Ethiopians, the Hivites, 
&c. Their descendants are at present 
known by the general name of Arabians. 

Petreius, I., a Roman soldier who 
killed his tribune during the Cimbrian wars 
because he hesitated to attack the enemy, 
and was rewarded with a crown of grass. 
— II. A lieutenant of C. Antonius who 
defeated the troops of Catiline. He took 
the part of Pompey against Julius Ca?sar ; 
and when the latter had been victorious in 
every part of the world, Petreius, who had 
retired into Africa, fell by his own hand, 
after having performed the same sad office 
for Juba, the partner of his flight. 

Petrinum, a village of Campania, in 
the vicinity of Sinuessa. 

Petrocorii, a Gallic tribe, belonging 
originally to Celtic Gaul, but subsequently 
forming part of Gallia Aquitanica, when 
the latter was detached from Celtica. Their 
territory corresponded to Perigord, and 
their capital Petrocorii to Perigneicx. 

Petronius, Arbiter, the name of a 
supposed author of a species of Latin 
novel, fragments of which have reached 
our time, descriptive of the licentious man- 
ners of the Romans under the empire. It 
is supposed to be written by C. Petronius, 
a man of high rank and favour with Nero, 
who made him his arbiter elegantiarum, 
or master of the ceremonies, and the mi- 
nister and associate of his pleasures and 
debauchery. He was appointed proconsul 
of Bithynia, and afterwards rewarded with 
the consulship, in hoth of which employ- 
ments he behaved with dignity ; but Ti- 
gellinus, who was one of Nero's favourites, 
jealous of his fame, having accused him of 
conspiring against the emperor's life, Petro- 
nius immediately withdrew from Nero's 
punishments by a voluntary death, a. d. 66, 
the peculiarities of which have been de- 
scribed with great minuteness by Tacitus. 

Peuce, a name applied to the land in- 
sulated by the two principal arms of the 
Danube at its mouth ; so called from TrevKV, 
a pine-tree, with which species of tree it 
abounded. The inhabitants were called 
Peucini. 



FEU 



PHA 



453 



Peuckstes, a Macedonian set over Egypt 
by Alexander, on whose death he re- 
ceived Persia, and behaved with great 
cowardice after he had joined himself to 
Eumenes. 

Peucetia, a maritime district of Apulia, 
below Daunia, fabled to have derived its 
name from Peucetius, son of Lycaon, king 
of Arcadia, who, with his brother (Eno- 
trus, migrated to Italy seventeen gene- 
rations before the siege of Troy. The 
Peucetii, however, are always spoken of in 
history, even by the Greeks themselves, as 
barbarians, who differed' in no essential 
respect from the Daunii, Japyges, and 
ether neighbouring nations. 

PeucIni. See Peuce. 

Phacusa, a town of Egypt, on the Pe- 
lusiac arm of the Nile. The ruins are 
found near the modern Tell Phakus (hill 
of Phacusa). 

Phacussa, one of the Sporades, now 
Gaiphonisi. 

Ph^eacia, the Homeric name for the 
island of Corcyra. See Corcvra. 

P-HiECAsiA, one of the Sporades in the 
iEgean. 

Ph.<edon, a native of Elis, and the 
founder of the Eliac school. He was de- 
scended from an illustrious family; but 
had the misfortune early in life to be de- 
prived of his patrimony, and sold as a 
slave at Athens. It happened that So- 
crates, as he passed by the house where 
Phaedon lived, remarked in his countenance 
traces of an ingenuous mind, which in- 
duced him to persuade one of his friends, 
Alcibiades or Crito, to redeem him. From 
that time Phaedon applied himself dili- 
gently to the study of moral philosophy 
under Socrates, and to the last adhered 
to his master with the most affectionate 
attachment. He instituted a school at 
Elis after the Socratic model, which was 
continued by Plistanus, an Elian, and 
afterwards by Menedemus of Eretria. The 
celebrated dialogue of Plato on the im- 
mortality of the soul is named after Phae- 
don.. 

Phaedra, a danghter of Minos and Pa- 
siphae, and wife of Theseus, by whom she 
became mother of Acamas and Demophbon. 
See HiproLYTUs I. 

Phjedrus, a Latin fabulist, generally 
supposed to have been a Thracian by birth, 
and to have been brought when a child 
among the captives who were carried to 
Rome by C. Octavius, father of Augustus. 
The Latin tongue soon became as familiar to 
him as his native language. Augustus gave 
him his freedom, and the means of living 
comfortably without the necessity of ex- 



ertion ; but under the reign of Tiberius 
he was persecuted by Sejanus, who be- 
came his accuser, and effected his con- 
demnation. His fables were valuable 
for precision, purity, elegance, and sim- 
plicity ; and though the subjects are gene- 
rally borrowed from iEsop, yet he has 
occasionally intermixed stories or his- 
torical pieces of his own. They have 
attained a higher degree of popularity 
than any fables that have ever been pub- 
lished. 

Ph^dyma, a daughter of Otanes, who 
first discovered that Smerdis, who had 
ascended the throne of Persia, was an im- 
postor. 

Ph^enarete, the mother of Socrates. 
She was a midwife by profession. 

Phaethon, son of Helios and the ocean 
nymph Clymene. His claims to a ce- 
lestial origin being disputed by Epaphus, 
son of Jupiter, Phaethon went to the 
palace of his sire, the sun-god, from whom 
he extracted an unwary oath that he would 
grant him whatever he asked. The am- 
bitious youth instantly demanded per- 
mission to guide the solar chariot for one 
day, to prove himself thereby the un- 
doubted progeny of the sun. Helios, 
aware of the consequences, remonstrated, 
but to no purpose. The youth persisted, 
and the god, bound by his oath, reluc- 
tantly committed the reins to his hands, 
warning him of the dangers of the road, 
and instructing him how to avoid them. 
Phaethon grasped the reins ; the flame- 
breathing steeds sprang forward ; but, soon 
aware that they were not directed by the 
well-known hand, they ran out of the 
course ; the world was set on fire, and a 
total conflagration would have ensued, 
had not Jupiter, at the prayer of Earth, 
launched his thunder, and hurled the ter- 
rified driver from his seat into the river 
Eridanus. His sisters, the Heliades, as 
they lamented his fate, were turned into 
poplar trees on its banks; and their tears, 
which still continued to flow, became 
amber as they dropped into the stream. 
Cycnus, the friend of the ill-fated Phae- 
thon, also abandoned himself to mourning, 
and at length was changed into a swan 
(kvkvos). This story was dramatised by 
iEschylus in the Heliades, and by Eu- 
ripides in his Phaethon. Ovid appears to 
have followed closely the former drama. 

Phaethontxades, or Phaetontides, a 
name given to the sisters of Phaethon. 
See Phaethon. 

Phaetusa, one of the Heliades, who 
were changed into poplars after the death of 
their brother Phaethon. 



454 



PHA 



PHA 



Phalanthus, a Lacedaemonian, son of 
Aracus, who founded Tarentum in Italy, 
at the head of the Partheniae (for an 
account of whom, see ThirlwaWs Greece, 
vol. i. p. 352.). On his way to Italy he 
was shipwrecked on the coast, and carried 
ashore by a dolphin ; hence a dolphin was 
placed near his statue in the temple of 
Apollo at Delphi. He received divine 
honours after death. 

Phalanx, the close order of battle, in 
which the heavy-armed troops of a Grecian 
army were usually drawn up. There 
were several different arrangements of the 
phalanx peculiar to different states ; but 
the most celebrated was that invented by 
Philip of Macedon. The men stood close 
together, sometimes with their shields 
locked, in ranks of several men in depth, 
displaying in front a row of long-extended 
spears. The phalanx, whose charge was 
irresistible in a smooth plain by a lighter 
body, was found to be over-matched by 
the combined strength and activity of 
the Roman legion, which was able to take 
advantage of any inequality of ground, 
and charge in flank and rear ; and when 
once an accident offered an opening in the 
unwieldly mass of the enemy, their con- 
fusion was inevitable, and rally hopeless. 

Phalaris, a tyrant of Agrigentum in 
Sicily, who is supposed to have lived about 
the fifty-seventh Olympiad, or about b. c. 
550. But all is conjecture respecting him. 
He is said to have been originally a native 
of Astypalasa in Crete, and to have been 
deposed by his subjects, who practised 
upon him the same cruelties, with the fa- 
mous brazen bull made by Perillus, to 
which he had been in the habit of sub- 
jecting others. (See Perillus.) A col- 
lection of letters bearing the name of Pha- 
laris is still extant ; but Bentley, in one 
of the most celebrated controversies of mo- 
dern times, has shown them to be forgeries 
of some sophist, who lived at a later period. 

Phaleron, Phalerum, Phalera 
(orwm), or Phalereus Portus, the most 
ancient harbour of Athens, about twenty- 
five stadia from the city. After the erec- 
tion of the docks of the Piraeus, it ceased 
to be of any importance in a maritime 
point of view. 

Phanje, Cape Mastico, a promontory 
and harbour of Chios, with a temple of 
Apollo and a palm-grove in its vicinity. 
It was situated in the southern part of the 
island, and the neighbourhood was remark- 
able for its excellent wine. 

Phanote, Gardiki, a strong town of 
Chaonia in Epirus, which once belonged 
to the Suliots. 



Phaon, a boatman of Mitylene in Les- 
bos, who received a small box of ointment 
from Venus, which, as soon as he had 
rubbed himself with it, rendered him one 
of the most beautiful men of his age. 
Sappho became enamoured of him (see 
Sappho) ; but finding her passion unre- 
quited, she threw herself into the sea from 
the promontory of Leucate. 

Phar^e, L, one of the twelve cities of 
Achaia, on the Pisus, annexed by Augustus 
to the colony of Patras. — II. A town of 
Messenia, on the Sinus Messeniacus, north- 
west of Cardamyla. 

Pharis, a town of Laconia, the inhabit- 
ants of which were called Pharitce, 

Pharmacusa, I., an island of the iEgean 
sea, south-west from Miletus, where Jul. 
Cassar was seized by some pirates. — II. 
Kyra, two islets on the Sinus Saronicus, 
east of Salamis, in the largest of which 
Circe is said to have been interred. 

Pharnabazus, a satrap of Persia, whose 
father bore the same name, b. c. 409. He 
assisted the Lacedaemonians against the 
Athenians, and gained their esteem by his 
friendly behaviour ; but his conduct to- 
wards Alcibiades was most perfidious, for 
he did not scruple to betray the man who 
had long honoured him with his friend- 
ship. 

Pharnaces, I., grandfather of Mithri- 
dates the Great, and son and successor of 
Mithridates IV. of Pontus. He conquered 
Sinope and Tium, and was engaged in a 
protracted war with Eumenes, king of Per- 
gamus, which was put an end to chiefly 
through the interference of Rome. Poly- 
bius records of Pharnaces that he was more 
wicked than all the kings who had preceded 
him. — II. King of Pontus, and son of Mi- 
thridates the Great, to whom he proved 
treacherous when the latter was forming his 
bold design of advancing towards Italy from 
Asia. Although the favourite son of that ce- 
lebrated monarch, he incited the army to 
open rebellion, and disconcerted all his fa- 
ther's plans, and, as a reward of his perfidy, 
was proclaimed king of Bosporus, and styled 
the ally and friend of the Roman nation. 
During the civil war waged by Cassar and 
Pompey, Pharnaces made an attempt to 
recover his hereditary dominions, and suc- 
ceeded in taking Sinope, Amisus, and some 
other towns of Pontus. But Julius Cassar, 
after the defeat and death of Pompey, 
marched into Pontus, and, encountering 
the army of Pharnaces near the city of 
Zela, gained a complete victory ; the fa- 
cility with which it was gained being ex- 
pressed by the victor in those celebrated 
words, " Veni, Vidi, VicV He was ul- 



PHA 



PHE 



455 



timately slain by some of his own fol- I 
lowers. 

Pharxacia. a town of Pontus, in Asia 
Minor. 

Pharos, a small island in the bay of 
Alexandria, about seven furlongs distant 
from the continent, upon which was erected 
a celebrated tower, called the Tower of Pha- 
ros, considered one of the seven wonders of 
the world. It was formed of white marble, 
and the architect had contrived to fasten 
some mirrors so artificially against the up- 
per galleries, that one could see in them all 
the ships which sailed in the sea for a great 
distance. On the top, fires were kept to 
direet sailors in the bay. which was dan- 
gerous and difficult of access. The emperor 
Claudius having ordered a tower so called 
to be built at the entrance of the port of Os- 
tia for the benefit of sailors,, the appellation 
Pharos was afterwards given to every other 
edifice raised to direct the course of sailors 
with lights or by signals, 

Phaksalia. I., the region around the 
city of Pharsalus in Thessaly, celebrated 

the armies of Caesar and Pompey. See 
Pharsalus, — II. The title of Lucan's epic 
poem. See Luc ax us. 

Pharsalus. Pharsa, a city in that part 
of Thessaly called Thessaliotis, on the river 
Enipeus. which falls into the Apidanus, 
one of the tributaries of the Peneus. Al- 
though a city of considerable size and im- 
portance, we find no mention of it prior 
to the Persian invasion. It is frequently ' 
mentioned by Thucydides. At a later 
period, the plains in the vicinity of Phar- j 
salia became celebrated for the battle fought 
in them between the armies of Ca?sar and i 
Pompey. See Pkarsalia I. 

Pharusii. or Phatjrusii, a people of 
Africa, beyond Mauritania. 

Phaselis, a town on the eastern coast 
of Lvcia/ near the confines of Pamphylia, 
colonised by some Dorians, Though 
united to Lvcia. it did not form part of 
the Lycian confederacy, but was governed 
by its own laws. At a later period, having 
become the haunt of pirates, it was at- 
tacked and taken by Servilius Isauricus ; 
and was afterwards selected by Alexander 
as an advantageous post for the prosecu- 
tion of his conquests into the interior. 
Phaselis was celebrated for the manu- 
facture of rose perfume. The modern 
name is Tekroza. 

Phasiaxa, a district of Armenia Ma- 
jor, through which the Phasis or Araxes 
flows ; hence the name of the region. The 
pheasant is a native of this country. 

Phasias, a patronymic given to Me- 



dea, from being born at Colchis on the 
banks of the Phasis. 

Phasis, I., Riou or Fasch, the principal 
I river of Colchis, which rises on the moun- 
tains of Armenia, Faoz, and after travers- 
I ing parts of Armenia, Iberia, and Colchis, 
falls into the Euxine. It was famous for 
I the expedition of the Argonauts, who en- 
tered it after a long and perilous voyage, 
and carried off the golden fleece from its 
' vicinity. It was celebrated for the purity 
I and excellence of its water. — II. A city 
I at the mouth of the Colchian Phasis, 
founded by a Milesian colony. In Ha- 
! drian's time it was a mere fortress, with a 
i garrison of 400 men. — III. (See Araxes 
I II.) — The name Phasis would seem to have 
j been a general appellation for rivers in early 
oriental geography. 

Phavqrixus, a native of Arelate, in 
Gaul, who taught philosophy and rhetoric 
at Athens in the reign of Trajan and 
; Adrian. Of his numerous works, only a 
: few fragments have come down to us. 

PhazXxia, Fezzan, a region of Africa, 
south of Tripolis. 

Phxgefjs, or Phlegeus, I., a com- 
\ panion of JEneas, killed by Turnus. — II. 
Another likewise killed by Turnus. — 
III. A priest of Bacchus, and father of 
I Arsinoe, wife of Alcma?on. He was put to 
I death by the children of Alcmaeon by Cal- 
j lirrhoe. See Alcm^eox. 
Phejldox. See Phedox. 
Phemius, a musician among Penelope's 
suitors, — The name is applied indiscrimi- 
nately to any person who excels in music. 

Phexeus, an ancient city in the north 
of Arcadia, at the foot of Mount Cyllene, 
where Hercules is said to have resided 
after his departure from Tiryns. Near it 
was a lake of the same name. 

Pherj:, I., one of the most ancient and 
important cities of Thessaly in the district 
of Pelasgiotis. It was the capital of Ad- 
metus and Eumelus ; but was famed at a 
later period as the capital of a territory 
ruled over by Jason, Polydorus, and Alex- 
ander in succession. It afterwards fell 
1 into the hands of Philip of Macedon ; and 
j after participating in all the changes of 
I the period that followed the death of Alex- 
ander the Great, it was ultimately taken 
| by the Romans under the consul Acilius. 

— II. A town of Messenia, east of the 
, Pamisus, where Telemachus and the son 
of Nestor were entertained by Diocles on 
their way from Pylos to Sparta. Pheras 
[ was one of the seven towns offered by 
j Agamemnon to Achilles. It was annexed 
by Augustus to Laconia, after the battle of 
I Actium. 



456 



PHE 



PHI 



Pherecrates, a writer of the old co- 
medy at Athens, contemporary with Aris- 
tophanes. He wrote seventeen plays, of 
which, however, only a few fragments re- 
main, and was the inventor of a species of 
verse called from him the Pherecratic. 

Pherecydes, I., a Grecian philosopher, 
contemporary with Terpander and Thales, 
was born in the island of Scyros about 
b. c. 600. He maintained the doctrines of 
the metempsychosis and the immortality 
of the soul. Pythagoras' was his pupil. 
Nothing can be averred with certainty 
regarding the manner or the period of 
his death. — II. A native of Leros, one 
of the Sporades, and contemporary with 
Herodotus. He afterwards went to Athens, 
where, among other works, he made a col- 
lection of traditions relative to the early 
history of that city, a few fragments of 
which have reached our times. 

Pheres, I., son of Cretheus, and of 
Tyro the daughter of Salmoneus. He 
founded Pliers in Thessaly, where he 
reigned, and became the father of Ad- 
metus and of Lycurgus, king of Nemea. 
— II. A friend of JEneas, killed by Ha- 
lesus. 

Phidias, the most celebrated statuary of 
antiquity, son of Charmidas, was born at 
Athens about b. c. 480. He was instructed 
in his art by Hippias and Ageladas, and is 
said to have practised painting in his youth. 
Phidias began to embellish Athens with 
his works of sculpture in Olympiad 82 or 
83, when Pericles was kmardr-qs. In the 
third year of Olympiad 85 he finished the 
famous statue of Minerva for the Parthe- 
non ; but being subsequently accused of 
having carved his own image and that of 
Pericles on the shield of the statue of 
the goddess, he was banished from Athens 
by the populace, and retired to Elis, where 
he revenged the ill-treatment received from 
his countrymen by making a statue of 
Jupiter Olympius which eclipsed the fame 
of that of Minerva, and was considered one 
of the wonders of the world. After his 
return to Athens he was thrown into pri- 
son by the enemies of Pericles, on a charge 
of impiety, and died in prison in the first 
year of Olympiad 87, in which year the 
last work of Pericles, the Propylaea, had 
been finished. Besides his two most cele- 
brated works above noticed, Phidias exe- 
cuted many admired statues of Venus, 
Minerva, Apollo, Mercury, &c, in marble 
and bronze ; but his productions in a mix- 
ture of gold and ivory, called the chryse- 
lephantine sculpture, were the most highly 
esteemed. 

Phidippidas, a celebrated courier, who 



ran from Athens to Lacedasmon, 152 En- 
glish miles, in two days, to ask of the 
Lacedaemonians assistance against the Per- 
sians. The Athenians raised a temple to 
his memory. 

Phidon, a king of Argos, of the race 
of the Heraclidee, who lived about b. c. 
7-48, and made himself absolute in his 
native city. He reduced the city of 
Corinth under his sway, and availing 
himself of the distracted state of Sparta, 
which was then engaged in the first Mes- 
senian war, he extended his conquests over 
the greater part of the Peloponnesus. 
Among other tyrannical acts he deprived 
the Eleans of their right to preside over 
the Olympic games, and nominated him- 
self to that dignity ; but the Eleans, in 
conjunction with the Lacedaemonians, in- 
dignant at his usurpations, at last rose 
against him, and effected his overthrow. 
Phidon is said to have invented weights 
and measures, which bore his name, and 
also to have been the first who coined sil- 
ver money at iEgina. Phidon is sometimes 
confounded with two legislators, one of 
Corinth, and another of Cumae, of whom 
nothing is known. 

Phigalia, an ancient city of Arcadia, 
the site of which is supposed to be occu- 
pied by Paulizza. The Spartans expelled 
the inhabitants, b. c. 659 ; but a hundred 
Oresthasians having volunteered, in com- 
pliance with the oracle, to sacrifice them- 
selves for the city, the Phigalians were re- 
established. Phigalia is chiefly remarkable 
for the series of beautiful sculptures in alto- 
relievo found near it, which are known by 
the name of the Phigalian Marbles, and 
are now placed in the British Museum, 
where they form part of the collection of 
Elgin Marbles. 

Phila, a town of Macedonia. 

Philadelphia, I., a city of Lydia, south- 
east of Sardis, built on a root of Mount 
Tmolus, by the river Coganus, and de- 
riving its name from its founder, Attalus 
Philadelphus, brother of Eumenes. Its 
vicinity to the region called Catacecau- 
mene exposed it to frequent earthquakes, 
by one of which it was overwhelmed along 
with thirteen other cities in the reign of 
Tiberius. Philadelphia was one of the 
seven churches of Asia mentioned in the 
Book of the Revelation. It is now called 
Ala Shehr ( "the exalted city"), and is a 
place of some importance. Numerous ruins 
of the ancient city are still visible. — II. 
Vrencuck, a city of Cilicia Trachea, on the 
river Calycadnus, north of Seleucia Trachea. 
— III. A capital of the Ammonites, near 
the sources of the Jabook or Jobaccus, so 



PHI 



PHI 



457 



called from Ptolemy Philadelphia. Its 
oriental name was Rabbath Ammon. 

Phi lade lpiius, the surname of one of 
the Ptolemies, king of Egypt. See Pto- 

I-EM^EUS. 

Philje. I., a town and island of Egypt, 
above the smaller cataract, built by the 
Ptolemies as a common emporium for the 
Egyptians and the Ethiopians from Meroe 
(from (pi\os, friendly). The modern name 
is Gezirat-el-Birbe (" Temple Island"), 
in allusion to the many splendid remains 
of antiquity found upon it. Near it was 
the small island Abatos. (See Abatos.) 
— II. One of the Sporades. 

Philjeni, two brothers of Carthage, 
whose names have been transmitted to 
posterity in connection with the following 
circumstances : — A contest having arisen 
between the Cyreneans and Carthaginians 
about the extent of their territories, it was 
mutually agreed that, at a stated hour, 
two men should depart from each city, and 
wherever they met there they should fix 
the boundaries of their country. The 
Philami departed from Carthage, and met 
the Cyreneans when they had advanced 
far into their territories. The Cyreneans 
maintained that the Philaeni had left Car- 
thage before the appointment, and there- 
fore must retire or be buried in the sand. 
The Philasni refused, were overpowered 
by the Cyreneans, and were accordingly 
entombed. The Carthaginians raised two 
altars on the spot, which were thenceforth 
regarded as the limits of their territory in 
this direction. 

Phjlammon, an ancient bard of Delphi, 
to whom was attributed the formation of 
Delphian choruses of virgins, which sang 
the birth of Latona and of her children. 
He is said to have taken part in the Argo- 
nautic expedition, and passed for a son of 
Apollo. 

Philander and Phvlacis, two children 
of Apollo by the nymph Acacallis. They 
were exposed to wild beasts in Crete, but 
preserved by the milk of a goat. 

Philemon, I., a writer of the new Co- 
medy, was born either at Soli in Cilicia, or 
at Syracuse about b. c. 294. He was a 
rival of Menander, and is said to have 
written ninety-seven comedies, of which 
only a few fragments have reached our 
times. The common account makes him 
to have died of laughter on seeing an ass 
eat figs. The statement of Apuleius, how- 
ever, is the most probable, according to 
which he expired without pain or disease, 
from the pure exhaustion of nature, in 
his ninety-seventh year. — II. A son of 
the preceding, also a comic poet, and 



called, for distinction sake, Philemon the 
Younger. 

Philetjerus, I., an eunuch, who was 
made governor of Pergamus by Lysimachus, 
and who taking advantage of the misfortunes 
that befell his patron towards the close of his 
career, made himself master of the treasures 
of Pergamus, and laid the foundation of an 
empire, over which he presided for twenty 
years. He appointed his nephew Eumenes 
his successor. (See Pergamus.) — II. A 
Cretan general, who revolted from Seleu- 
cus, and was conquered. 

Philetas, a grammarian and poet of 
Cos, who lived in the reign of Philip and 
his son Alexander the Great, and was pre- 
ceptor to Ptolemy Philadelphus. He wrote 
elegies and epigrams, which were greatly 
commended by the ancients, and died of 
emaciation brought on by excess of study. 

Philinus, a native of Agrigentum, who 
fought with Hannihal against the Romans, 
and wrote a history of the Punic wars. 

Philippi, a city of Thrace, north-east of 
Amphipolis, in the immediate vicinity of 
Mount Pangams, founded by Philip of 
Macedon, on the site of an old Thasian 
settlement called Crenides. The Romans 
settled a colony in it after their conquest 
of Macedonia, and it was in the time of 
Tiberius one of the most flourishing cities 
in this part of the empire. Philippi is 
celebrated in history for being the scene 
of the great victory gained by Antony 
and Octavianus over the forces of Brutus 
and Cassias, by which the republican 
party was completely overthrown ; but it 
is still more interesting from the circum- 
stance of its being the first place in Europe 
where the Gospel was preached by St. Paul, 

a. n. 51, who also addressed one of his 
Epistles to the Philippian converts. It 
afterwards became the seat of a Christian 
bishop ; and its ruins still retain the name 
of Filibah. 

Philippides, a poet, and a writer of the 
new comedy, who lived at Athens about 

b. c. 335. He wrote forty-five plays, of 
which the titles of twelve are mentioned 
by ancient authors ; and is said to have 
died of joy at an advanced age, after he 
had obtained a prize which he did not ex- 
pect. 

Philippopolis, a city of Thrace, on the 
Hebrus, founded by Philip, father of Alex- 
ander. It was situated in a large plain, 
on a mountain with three summits, and 
hence received also the appellation of 
Trimontium. In the Roman times it 
became the capital of the province of 
Thracia. The modern name is Filibe or 
Philipopoli. 

X 



458 



PHI 



PHI 



Philippus, I., one of the earliest kings 
of Macedonia, succeeded his father Ar- 
gaeus on the throne b. c. 649, and reigned 
thirty-eight years. — II. The fourth son of 
Amyntas II., king of Macedonia. He was 
sent to Thebes as a hostage, where he 
learned the art of war under Epaminondas ; 
but at the death of his brother Perdiccas, 
being recalled to Macedonia, he ascended 
the throne as guardian of his nephew ; but 
soon made himself independent. The 
neighbouring nations, ridiculing his youth, 
appeared in arms. Unable to meet them 
as yet in the field, he suspended their fury 
by presents, and soon turned his arms 
against Amphipolis, a colony tributary to 
the Athenians, which was conquered and 
added to the kingdom of Macedonia. He 
then turned his attention to the Thracians 
and Illyrians, made himself master of an 
old colony called Crenides, to which he 
gave the name of Philippi, and derived 
the greatest advantages from the gold 
mines in the neighbourhood. He then 
married Olympias, daughter of Neoptole- 
mus, king of the Molossi, and is said soon 
afterwards to have received in one day the 
intelligence of the birth of his son Alex- 
ander, of an honourable crown at the 
Olympic Games, and of a victory over the 
barbarians of Illyricum. Philip now began 
to turn his views towards Greece ; but it 
would be impossible within our limits to 
give an outline of his proceedings in this 
quarter. Suffice it to say, that by won- 
derful art, dissimulation, and bribery, he 
succeeded in embroiling the different states 
with one another ; and then attacking with 
open force the Athenians and Thebans, his 
most violent opponents, who were incited 
by the eloquence of Demosthenes, he com- 
pletely defeated them in the famous battle 
of Cheronaaa, which may be considered as 
the final period of the liberties of Greece, 
b. c. 337. Soon after, he was appointed 
general of the Greeks against the Persians, 
by the council of the Amphictyons, into 
which he had procured himself to be ad- 
mitted. But in the midst of his prepara- 
tions for this expedition he was murdered 
during the celebration of the nuptials of 
his daughter Cleopatra with the king of 
Epirus, by a young man, named Pau- 
sanias, in revenge of a private affront he 
had received from one of the king's re- 
lations, for which Philip had declined 
giving him satisfaction, b. c. 336, in the 
forty-seventh year of his age and twenty- 
fourth of his reign ; and was succeeded by 
his son Alexander, surnamed the Great, 
then in his twentieth year. — III. The third 
of the name, more commonly known by 



the name of Arideeus. (See Arid^us.) — ■ 
IV. One of the sons of Alexander, slain 
by order of Olympias. — V. The fifth of 
the name, was the eldest son of Cassander, 
and succeeded his father on the throne of 
Macedon about b. c. 298. He was carried 
off by sickness after a reign of one year. — 
VI. The last king of Macedonia of that 
name, son of Demetrius III., and grand- 
son of Antigonus Gonatas, ascended the 
throne at the age of fifteen on the death 
I of his uncle Antigonus Doson, who had 
usurped it on the death of Demetrius. He 
first displayed his military skill in the war 
that was carried on between the iEtolian 
and Acha?an leagues on the side of the 
latter ; and having forced the iEtolians to 
conclude a peace, he formed an alliance 
with Hannibal after the battle of Canna?, 
in the object of sharing in the Roman 
spoils. The Romans were enabled to 
keep in check the forces of Philip ; and, 
on the termination of the struggle with 
Carthage, they sought to avenge the injury 
the prince had meditated by invading his 
hereditary dominions. Philip, for two 
campaigns, resisted the attacks of the Ro- 
mans and their allies, the iEtolians, Eu- 
menes, king of Pergamus, and the Rho- 
dians ; finally, however, he sustained a 
signal defeat at Cynoscephalae, in the plains 
of Thessaly, b. c. 1 97, and was compelled 
to sue for peace on the most humiliating 
conditions which the victors chose to impose. 
In the midst of these public calamities the 
mind of Philip was distracted by private 
distresses. Dissensions had long subsisted 
between his two sons Perseus and Deme- 
trius ; and, by the arts of the former, a 
violent prejudice had been raised in the 
mind of Philip against the latter, who had 
resided at Rome for some years as a hos- 
tage, even after peace was concluded with 
that power. The unfortunate Demetrius 
fell a victim to his brother's treachery, and 
his father's credulity and injustice. But 
Philip having discovered, not long after, 
the fatal error into which he had been be- 
trayed, was so stung with remorse, that an- 
guish of mind soon brought him to the 
grave. He died b. c. 179, after a reign 
of forty-two years. The assassin of De- 
metrius succeeded his father, and with the 
same ambition, rashness, and oppression, 
renewed the war against the Romans till 
his empire was destroyed, and Macedonia 
became a Roman province — VII. M. Ju- 
lius, a Roman emperor, sprung from an 
obscure family in Arabia, hence surnamed 
Arabian. From the lowest rank in the 
army he gradually rose to be general of 
the praetorian guards, and is said to have 



PHI 



PHI 



459 



assassinated Gordian to make himself em- 
peror. To establish himself with more 
certainty on the imperial throne, he left 
Mesopotamia a prey to the continual inva- 
sions of the Persians, and hurried to Rome, 
where his election was universally ap- 
proved ; but he was assassinated by his own 
soldiers in his forty-fifth year, and the fifth 
of his reign, a. d. 249. His son, who bore 
the same name, and had shared with him 
the imperial dignity, was also massacred. 
He was succeeded by Decius. — VI 1 1. A 
pretender to the crown of Macedonia, after 
the overthrow of Perseus. He is com- 
monly known by the appellation of " Pseu- 
dophilippus." His true name was An- 
driscus. (See Andriscus.) — IX. A 
comic poet of Athens, son of Aristophanes, 
none of whose talent he inherited. — X. 
A native of Opus, and a disciple of Plato, 
whose " Laws" he first gave to the world, 
having found the work among his mas- 
ter's tablets. He wrote "on Eclipses, and 
on the Size of the Sun, the Moon," &c. XI. 
An epigrammatic poet, a native of Thes- 
salonica, who lived during the reign of 
Tiberius. He is sometimes called "the 
Macedonian," but more frequently " Philip 
of Thessalonica." Eighty-five epigrams 
of his remain. — XII. Philippus is the 
name of several ancient physicians, of whom 
the most celebrated is Philippus of Acar- 
nia, the friend and physician of Alexander 
the Great, whose life he was instrumental 
in saving when he had been seized with a 
violent attack of fever, b. c. 333. The con- 
fidence of Alexander in his physician was 
unbounded, as the well-known anecdote 
proves. Parmenio had sent to warn Alex- 
ander that Philippus had been bribed by 
Darius to poison him ; the king, however, 
did not doubt his fidelity, but, while he 
drank the draught prepared for him, put 
into the physician's hand the letter he had 
just received. His speedy recovery fully 
justified his confidence, and proved at once 
the skill and honesty of Philippus. 

Philiscus, I., an orator and epigram- 
matic poet of Miletus in Ionia, contem- 
porary of Lysias, and a pupil of Isocrates. 
Besides his poetical pieces, one of which 
has been preserved by Plutarch, he left 
several harangues and a life of Lycurgus. 
— II., or Philicus, a tragic poet, a native 
of Corcyra, and contemporary Avith The- 
ocritus (270 b. c). He gave his name, 
as inventor, to a particular species of Iambic 
verse ( Metrum Philisceum or Pliiliceum). — 
III. A tragic poet, a native of iEgina, 
and contemporary with Philiscus of Cor- 
cyra. — IV. A sculptor of Rhodes, whose 
era is uncertain. He executed, among 



others, two statues, one of Apollo, the 
other of Venus, which were placed in the 
collection of Octavia. 

Philistion, I., a comic poet of Nicasa 
in the age of Socrates. — II. A physician 
of Locris. 

Piiilistus, a wealthy native of Syracuse, 
and the confidant, minister, and general of 
Dionysius the Elder, whom he assisted in 
gaining the supreme power, b. c. 306 ; but 
subsequently lost his favour, and was 
driven into exile. He then retired to 
Adria, but was recalled from banishment 
by Dionysius the Younger, over whose 
mind he acquired a powerful ascendancy. 
Philistus commanded the fleet of Dionysius 
in a naval battle with Dion and the Syra- 
cusans, which cost the former his throne, 
and his vessel having run aground, he was 
taken prisoner and put to an ignominious 
death. He left three historical works, 
the style of which Cicero compares to that 
of Thucydides ; but only a few fragments 
of these have reached our times. 

Philo, I., styled Judaeus by distinc- 
tion, a learned Jewish writer, born a', 
Alexandria, about b. c. 30. He was sent 
a. d. 40, at the head of a deputation to 
Rome, to vindicate his countrymen on 
account of a tumult at Alexandria, but 
Caligula refused to receive him. He 
afterwards made the same journey during 
the reign of Claudius ; after which nothing 
certain is known respecting him. Several 
learned works of his, relating chiefly to the 
Jewish religion, have reached our time ; 
and so happy was Philo in his expressions, 
and elegant in his variety, as to be called the 
Jewish Plato. — II. An epigrammatic poet, 
who lived from the reign of Nero to that 
of Hadrian. He celebrated, in a separate 
production, the reign of the latter, and 
composed four books of epigrams, of which 
only one small distich remains. — III. A 
native of Larissa, the pupil and successor 
of Clitomachus in the new academy. He 
also taught at Rome, whither Le had re- 
paired during the Mithridatic war, b c. 
100, and among others had Cicero for an 
auditor. — IV. An architect of Byzantium, 
who lived about b. c. 300, and built a 
dock at Athens, into which ships were 
drawn in safety, and protected from storms. 
He is frequently confounded with a By- 
zantine architect of the same name, who 
lived about b. c. 150, and among other 
works wrote a treatise on the " Seven 
Wonders of the World," part of which still 
remains. — The name Phik was common 
to several physicians and philosophers of 
antiquity ; but as none of them are of 
sufficient importance to be loticed here, it 
x 2 



460 



PHI 



PHI 



may be sufficient to refer the reader to Fa- 
bricius, who has given a list of them. 

Philoctetes, son of Poean, king of 
Melibcea, and Demonassa. He was one of 
the Argonauts, and arm-hearer and friend 
of Hercules, who bequeathed to him the 
arrows dipped in the gall of the Hydra, 
for having kindled his funeral pile on Mt. 
GEta, when all his immediate followers 
had refused. But another version makes 
Hercules to have bestowed his arrows on 
Paean, for having performed the service 
ascribed to the son. Be this as it may, 
no sooner were the last offices paid to 
Hercules, than he returned to Melibcea, 
whence he visited Sparta, where he be- 
came one of the suitors of Helen, and 
was soon after called on to accompany the 
Greeks to the Trojan war. But the offen- 
sive smell arising from a wound in his foot 
obliged the Greeks, at the instigation of 
Ulysses, to remove him from the camp, 
and he was accordingly carried to the 
island of Lemnos, where he was suffered to 
remain, till the Greeks, in the tenth year 
of the Trojan war, were informed by the 
oracle that Troy could not be taken with- 
out the arrows of Hercules, then in the 
possession of Philoctetes. On this Ulysses, 
accompanied by Diomedes, went to Lem- 
nos, to endeavour to prevail on Philoctetes 
to come and finish the tedious siege. Phi- 
loctetes refused ; but the Manes of Her- 
cules commanded him to repair to the 
Grecian camp, where he should be cured 
of his wound, and put an end to the war. 
Philoctetes obeyed. Restored to his for- 
mer health by iEsculapius, or, according 
to some, by Machaon or Podalirius, he 
destroyed an immense number of the 
enemy, among whom was Paris, son of 
Priam. After the fall of Troy, he set 
sail from Asia; but unwilling to visit his 
native country, he came to Italy, where, 
by the assistance of his Thessalian fol- 
lowers, he built a town in Calabria, called 
Petilia. The causes of the wound of Phi- 
loctetes are differently stated by myco- 
logists ; and a completely different legend 
respecting the whole history of the Thes- 
salian hero is given by Servius. Sophocles 
has made the sufferings of Philoctetes the 
subject of one of his tragedies. 

Philocyprus, a prince of Cyprus in the 
age of Solon, by whose advice he changed 
the situation of a city, which he in grati- 
tude called Soli. 

Philodemus, an Epicurean philosopher 
and poet, mentioned by Cicero and Horace. 

Philolaus, a native of Crotona, who 
lived about b. c. 374. He was a Pytha- 
gorean, a disciple of Archytas, and the 



first who wrote on the subject of physics. 
It is said that Plato bought, for a large 
sum, three books of Philolaus, with the 
aid of which he composed his " Timasus." 

Philomela, daughter of Pandion, king 
of Athens, and sister of Procne, who had 
married Tereus, king of Thrace. (See 
Pandion.) Procne, separated from Phi- 
lomela, spent her time in great melan- 
choly, till she prevailed on her hus- 
band to go to Athens, and bring her 
sister to Thrace. Tereus obeyed, but had 
no sooner prevailed on Pandion to let 
Philomela accompany him, than he be- 
came enamoured of her, offered violence 
to her, and afterwards cut out her tongue, 
that she might not be able to proclaim the 
barbarous indignities she had suffered, 
He then confined her in a lonely castle, 
and on his return to Thrace, told Procne 
that Philomela had died by the way. 
Procne was plunged hi the deepest afflic- 
tion at the loss of her sister ; but Philo- 
mela soon contrived to communicate her 
story to her sister by means of characters 
woven into a peplus or robe. At the time 
Procne became informed of this circum- 
stance, she was about to celebrate the orgies 
of Bacchus, and as, during the festivals, she 
was permitted to rove about the country, she 
hastened to deliver her sister from confine- 
ment, and, by way of avenging herself upon 
Tereus, murdered her son Itylus, then in 
the sixth year of his age, and served him 
up as food before her husband. Tereus, 
in the midst of his repast, called for Itylus, 
but Procne informed him that he was then 
feasting on his flesh. The two sisters then 
fled away ; but Tereus pursued them with 
an axe, and finding themselves nearly over- 
taken, they prayed to the gods to change 
them into birds, whereupon Procne imme- 
diately became a swallow, Philomela a 
nightingale, Itylus a pheasant, and Tereus 
a hoopoo. This story is related, with 
numerous variations, by the ancient my- 
thologists. 

Philopator. See Ptolem^us IV. 

Philopce me n, son of Grangis, a cele- 
brated general of the Achaean league, 
born at Megalopolis about b. c. 253. His 
early youth was spent in the cultivation of 
philosophy and military science, as he had 
proposed to himself Epaminondas for a 
model ; but he had attained the age of 
thirty when the first opportunity of dis- 
tinction was afforded him by the attack of 
the Spartans upon his native city, on which 
occasion he gave decisive proofs of his va- 
lour. He distinguished himself no less, 
some time after this, in the battle of Sel- 
lasia, where Antigonus Doson gained a 



PHI 



PHI 



461 



complete victory over Cleomenes, b. c. 222. | 
Antigonus then offered him a considerable 
command in his army, but Philopcemen 
declined it, and hearing that there was war 
in Crete, sailed to that island to exercise 
and improve his military talents. When 
he had served there for some time, he re- 
turned home with high reputation, and 
was immediately appointed by the Acha?- 
ans general of the horse. In the exercise 
of this command, he acquitted himself with 
such signal ability, that he was not long 
afterwards appointed to the command of 
all the Achaean forces, and zealously em- 
ployed himself in reforming the discipline 
of the army, recruiting its strength, and 
making it completely efficient. After 
several engagements in which his arms 
were completely victorious, and his per- 
sonal valour most conspicuous, he again 
went as a volunteer to Crete, and soon 
after his return, b. c. 192, he marched 
against Sparta, and compelled her to join 
the Achaean league, which then included 
the whole of the Peloponnesus except 
Elis. The remainder of his life was spent 
rather in the council than in the field. 
At length, b. c. 183, when he had been 
elected strategos for the eighth time, the 
Messenians having revolted from the Achae- 
an league, Philopoemen marched against 
them with a body of cavalry ; but having 
fallen from his horse, he was dragged to 
the enemy's camp, thrown into a dungeon, 
and obliged to drink poison, in his seven- 
tieth year. Philopoemen was justly called 
by his countrymen the last of the Greeks. 

Philostratus, I., Flavius, a native of 
Lemnos, who distinguished himself as a 
teacher of rhetoric, first at Athens and 
afterwards at Rome. He enjoyed the 
friendship and patronage of the Emperor 
Septimius Severus, and the Empress Julia, 
who had a strong predilection for literary 
pursuits ; and it was at the request of the 
latter that Philostratus composed the most 
famous of his works, the Life of Apollonius 
of Tyana. Besides this, many of his other 
writings are still extant. — II. A nephew 
of the former, called, for the sake of dis- 
tinction, " the Younger," and the author of 
a work which has come down to us under 
the title of EIkouss. 

Philotas, a son of Parmenio, who 
distinguished himself in the battles of 
Alexander, but was at last accused of 
conspiring against the monarch's life, 
and was tortured and put to death. See 
Parmenio. 

Philoxenus, I., a dithyrambic poet of 
Cythera, born about b. c. 439. He en- 
joyed the favour of Dionysius, tyrant of 



Sicily ; but on one occasion, when Di- 
onysius had given him one of his dramas 
to correct, he ran his pen through the 
whole, and was thereupon sent to the quar- 
ries, where he is said to have composed the 
best of his dramas, entitled Cyclops. The 
tyrant, however, charmed with his plea- 
santry and firmness, at length forgave him. 
He died at Ephesus, about b. c. 380. — 
II. A celebrated painter of Eretria, and 
a pupil of Nicomachus of Thebes, lived 
about b.c. 316. He was the most rapid 
painter of antiquity ; and his chief pro- 
duction was a Battle of Alexander and 
Darius, executed by order of Cassander 
king of Macedon. 

Phi lyra, one of the Oceanides, beloved 
by Saturn, who, dreading the jealousy 
of his wife Rhea, changed Philyra into a 
mare, and himself into a horse. The off- 
spring of their union was the Centaur 
Chiron, half man, half horse ; but Philyra 
was so ashamed of the monstrous shape of 
the child, that she prayed the gods to 
change her form and nature, and she was 
accordingly metamorphosed into the lin- 
den-tree, called by her name among the 
Greeks. 

Philyrides, a patronymic of Chiron, 
the son of Philyra. 

Phineus, I., a son of Agenor (or, ac- 
cording to some, of Neptune), gifted with 
prophetic powers, and king of Salmydes- 
sus, on the coast of Thrace. He married 
Cleopatra, the daughter of Boreas and 
Orithyia, and became by her the father of 
two sons, Plexippus and Pandion. After 
the death of Cleopatra he married Ida?a, 
the daughter of Dardanus, who, becom- 
ing jealous of her step-children, maligned 
them to their father, and the latter, believ- 
ing the slander, deprived them of sight 
and imprisoned them. According to the 
commonly-received account, the gods, to 
punish him, struck him with blindness, 
and sent the Harpies to torment him. 
(See Harpyi^e. ) He was some time after 
delivered from these monsters by his 
brothers-in-law, Zetes and Calais, who 
pursued them as far as the Strophades; 
he also recovered his sight by means of the 
Argonauts, whom he had received with 
great hospitality, and instructed in the 
easiest and speediest way by which they 
could arrive in Colchis. He was ulti- 
mately killed by Hercules. The legend 
of Phineus assumed a great variety of 
shapes among the ancient writers. — II. 
The brother of Cepheus, king of ^Ethiopia, 
to whom Andromeda, daughter of the 
latter, had been promised in marriage. 
On her being given to Perseus, a contest 
x 3 



462 



PHI 



PHO 



arose, in which Phineus was changed to 
stone by the Gorgon's head, which Perseus 
had brought with him. See Andromeda 
and Danae. 

Phintias, a city on the southern 
coast of Sicily, east of Gela, founded by 
Phintias, a tyrant of Agrigentum, who 
transferred thither the inhabitants of Gela, 
b. c. 282. It has been said, but erroneously, 
to correspond to Alicctta. — II. called also 
Pithias, Pinthias, and Phytias. See 
Damon. 

Phlegethon, a river of -the lower world, 
which rolled in waves of fire. Hence its 
name, from cpXeyw, "#o burn." 

Phlegox, a native of Tralles, in Lydia, 
and one of the Emperor Hadrian's freed- 
men, who wrote numerous treatises, among 
which was a species of universal chronicle, 
commencing with the first Olympiad. 

Phlegra, I., the earlier name of the 
peninsula of Pallene in Thrace (after- 
wards Macedonia). The appellation is 
derived from (pXeyu, " to burn," and the 
place was fabled to have witnessed the 
conflict between the gods and the earth- 
born Titans. The spot most probably had 
been volcanic at an early period. — II. 
More commonly Phlegrjei Campi, a region 
of Italy, respecting which a tradition was 
related similar to that in the case of the 
peninsula of Pallene. (See Phlegra, I.) 
The territory of Italy thus denominated 
formed part of ancient Campania, and ap- 
pears to have experienced in a very great 
degree the destructive effects of subter- 
raneous fires. Here we find MountVesu- 
vius; the Solfaterra, still smoking, as the 
poets have pretended, from Jupiter's thun- 
der ; the Monte Nuovo ; the Monte Barbaro, 
formerly Mons Gaurus ; the grotto of the 
Sibyl ; the noxious and gloomy lakes of 
Avernus and Acheron, &c. It is not im- 
probable that these objects terrified the 
Greeks in their first voyages to the coast, 
and that they were afterwards embellished 
and exaggerated by the fancy and fiction 
of the poets. 

PHLEGYiE, the followers of Phlegyas, 
in Boeotia. See Phlegyas. 

Phlegyas, son of Mars and Chrysoge- 
nea, the daughter of Halmus, on whose 
death he succeeded to part of the throne of 
Thessaly, or as others say of Boeotia, his 
cousin Minyas, son of Chryse, another 
daughter of Halmus, having obtained the 
other half. Phlegyas named the country 
Phlegyonitis, and having built a city called 
Phlegya, collected within it the bravest 
warriors of Greece, whom he separated 
from the other people of the country, and 
sent them forth upon expeditions of plunder 



and rapine. They even ventured to assail 
and burn the temple of Delphi; and Ju- 
piter, on account of their impiety, finally 
destroyed them with lightning and pes- 
tilence. The Phlegyans are regarded 
by Buttmann as belonging to the universal 
tradition of an impious people being des- 
troyed by fire from heaven. Miiller re- 
gards them as identical with the Lapithse 
and the military class of the Minyans. 
Their name probably ($Aeyvai, from (pAeyw, 
" to burn") gave occasion to the legend of 
their destruction. 

Phlius, a small independent republic 
of the Peloponnesus, adjoining Corinth 
and Sicyon on the north, Arcadia on the 
west, and the Nemean and Cleonaean dis- 
tricts of Argolis on the south and south- 
east. Homer represents it, under the 
early name of Arasthyrea, as dependent on 
Mycenae. The remains of Phlius are to 
be seen not far from Agios Giorgios. 

Phoc^ea, Fochia, a maritime town of 
Ionia in Asia Minor, with two harbours 
between Cumse and Smyrna, founded 
by some emigrants of Phocis, under the 
guidance of two Athenian chiefs named 
Philogenes and Damon. Its favourable 
position rendered it at a very early 
period a great emporium of trade ; and 
its inhabitants, who were distinguished 
for their industry, and the extent and 
magnitude of their commercial trans- 
actions, established numerous colonies 
along the coast of the Mediterranean. 
When Harpagus, general of Cyrus, at- 
tempted to reduce them under his power, 
they left Ionia, and repaired first to Cor- 
sica, whence they were expelled, and 
then to Gaul, where they settled and 
founded Massilia, now Marseilles. Phoca?a 
still continued to exist under the Persian 
dominion, but greatly reduced in popu- 
lation and commerce. Some centuries 
later it was besieged by a Roman naval 
force, in the war against Antiochus, and 
it continues to be mentioned in history 
down to the latest period of the Byzantine 
empire. 

Phocenses and Phocici, the inhabit- 
ants of Phocis in Greece. 

Phocion, an Athenian general and 
statesman, contemporary and opponent of 
Demosthenes. Though of humble origin, 
he was educated in the school of Plato and 
Xenocrates. After distinguishing himself 
in a campaign under Chaboras, and sub- 
sequently at Naxos, b. c. 37 6, he was placed 
by the voice of his countrymen at the head 
of affairs. In his military capacity, Pho- 
cion distinguished himself on several oc- 
casions ; but it is chiefly as a statesman 



PHO 



PIKE 



463 



inclined to peace that he has obtained his- 
torical importance. That he was held in 
high esteem at Athens is proved by the 
fact that he was chosen general forty- four 
times, without any solicitation or bribery ; 
and he succeeded in maintaining his popu- 
larity, notwithstanding all the secret and 
open efforts of his enemies to undermine 
it. He resisted the attempts of Philip of 
Macedon, Alexander the Great, and Anti- 
pater to corrupt him ; but when, on the 
death of Antipater, the people had thrown 
off the Macedonian yoke, Phocion was 
accused of treason, and fled for safety to 
Polysperchon, who however sent him back 
to Athens, where he was immediately con- 
demned to drink the fatal poison, b. c. 318. 
He died with the greatest composure, en- 
joining upon his son Phocus to cherish no 
remembrance of the injuries which Athens 
had inflicted on his father. His body 
was deprived of a funeral ; but the Athe- 
nians afterwards repented of their ingrati- 
tude, and honoured him by raising statues 
to his memory, and putting to death his 
accusers. 

Phocis, a small but celebrated district 
of Greece, having the Sinus Corinthiacus 
on the south, Doris and the Locri Ozolae 
on the west, the Locri Epicnemidii and 
Opuntii on the north, and Boeotia on the 
east. It originally extended from the 
Bay of Corinth to the Sea of Eubcea, and 
reached on the north as far as Thermo- 
pylae, but its boundaries were afterwards 
more contracted. The Phocians are said 
to have derived their origin from Phocus, a 
son of JEacus, who settled in the country. 
The original inhabitants are supposed to 
have been of the race of the Leleges ; but 
be this as it may, the inhabitants were 
called Phocians as early as the time of 
Homer. Previously to the Persian inva- 
sion, they resisted all the efforts of the 
Thessalians to deprive them of their inde- 
pendence ; but when the defile of Ther- 
mopylae was at last forced by the Persians, 
Xerxes, at the instigation of the Thessali- 
ans, who had espoused his cause, ravaged 
Phocis with fire and sword, and laid waste 
many of their cities. The Phocians had 
no political importance till after the battle 
of Leuctra; but shortly after this event 
circumstances occurred which occasioned 
the celebrated Phocian or Sacred "War, in 
which all the states of Greece were more 
or less engaged, and which resulted in the 
entire subjugation of the Phocians and the 
destruction of all their cities except Aba?, 
b. c. 346. Phocis, however, soon after 
recovered from this state of degradation 
and subjection, by the assistance of Athens 



and Thebes, who united in restoring its 
cities in a great measure to their former 
condition. In return for these benefits;, 
the Phocians joined the confederacy that 
had been formed by the two republics 
against Philip ; they also took part in the 
Lamiac war after the death of Alexander , 
and displayed great zeal and alacrity in 
pursuit of the Gauls after their unsuccess- 
ful attempt on the temple of Delphi. 

Phocus, the son of Phocion, who sent 
him to Sparta to be trained after the strict 
discipline of Lycurgus ; but he was re- 
markable only for a dissolute mode of life, 
and was in no respect worthy of his pa- 
rent. 

Phocylides, a gnomic poet contempo- 
rary with Theognis, was born at Miletus, 
Olympiad 59. He composed epic and 
elegiac poems, which the ancients ranked 
in the gnomic class, but the few genuine 
fragments which we possess of his poems 
contain no allusion to his personal circum- 
stances. A poem that still exists, under 
the title of Hoirnxa vovdsTinou, is sometimes 
ascribed to him ; but it is probably the 
production of some Christian writer of the 
twelfth or thirteenth century. 

Phoebe, I., one of the female Titans, the 
offspring of Heaven and Earth (Coelus and 
Terra), and mother of Latona and Asteria 
by Cceus, another of the Titans. The 
name Phoebe (&ol§rf) signifies the bright 
one (from (pdca, "to shine"'); and Cceus 
(Ko?os), the burning (from naico, "to burn"). 
— II. One of the names of Diana, or the 
Moon. See Diana. 

Phcebidas, a Lacedaemonian general, 
who was sent to the assistance of the Mace- 
donians against the Thracians. Having 
seized the citadel of Thebes, he was ba- 
nished from the Lacedaemonian army for 
this perfidious measure, and died b. c. 377. 

Phcebigena, a surname of JEsculapius, 
as descended from Phoebus. 

Phcebus, one of the names of Apollo, 
derived from (paw, to shine. 

PhcenIce or Phoenicia, a small but in- 
teresting country of Asia, occupying that 
part of the Syrian coast which stretches 
from Aradus (the modern Rouad) on the 
north, to a little below Tyre on the south, 
a distance of about fifty leagues. Its 
breadth was much less considerable, being 
for the most part bounded by Mt. Li- 
banus to the east, and Mt. Carmel on the 
south. The surface of this narrow tract 
was generally rugged and mountainous ; 
and the soil of the valleys, though mode- 
rately fertile, did not afford sufficient sup- 
plies of food to feed the population. Li- 
banus and its dependent ridges were, 
x 4 



464 



PIKE 



PH(E 



however, covered with timber suitable for 
ship-building; aud besides Tyre and Sidon, 
Phoenicia possessed the ports of Tripoli, 
Byblos, Berytus, &c. In this situation, 
occupying a country unable to supply 
them with sufficient quantities of corn, 
hemmed in by mountains, and bv powerful 
and warlike neighbours, on the one hand, 
and having, on the other, the wide expanse 
of the Mediterranean, studded with islands, 
and surrounded by fertile countries, to 
invite the enterprise of her citizens, they 
were naturally led to engage in maritime 
and commercial adventures ; and became 
the boldest and most experienced mariners, 
and the greatest discoverers, of ancient 
times. From the remotest antiquity, a 
considerable trade seems to have been car- 
ried on between the eastern and western 
worlds. The spices, drugs, precious stones, 
and other valuable products of Arabia and 
India have always been highly esteemed 
in Europe, and have exchanged for the 
gold and»silver, the tin, wines, &c. of the 
latter. At the first dawn of authentic 
history, we find Phoenicia the principal 
centre of this commerce. Her inhabitants 
are designated in the early sacred writings 
by the name of Canaanites, — a term which, 
in the language of the East, means mer- 
chants. The products of Arabia, India, 
Persia, &c. were originally conveyed to 
her by companies of travelling merchants, 
or caravans ; which seem to have been 
constituted in the same way, and to have 
performed exactly the same part in the 
commerce of the East, in the days of 
Jacob, that they do at present. It would 
not be easy to over-rate the beneficial in- 
fluence of that extensive commerce from 
which the Phoenicians derived such im- 
mense wealth. It inspired the people with 
whom they traded with new wants and 
desires, at the same time that it gave them 
the means of gratifying them. It every 
where gave fresh life to industry, and a 
new and powerful stimulus to invention. 
The rude uncivilised inhabitants of Greece, 
Spain, and northern Africa, acquired some 
knowledge of the arts and sciences prac- 
tised by the Phoenicians ; and the advan- 
tages of which they were found to be 
productive secured their gradual though 
slow advancement. Nor were the Phoe- 
nicians celebrated only for their wealth, 
and the extent of their commerce and na- 
vigation. Their fame, and their right to 
be classed amongst those who have con- 
ferred the greatest benefits on mankind, 
rest on a still more unassailable foundation. 
Antiquity is unanimous in ascribing to 
them the invention and practice of all those 



arts, sciences, and contrivances that fa- 
cilitate the prosecution of commercial un- 
dertakings. They are held to be the 
inventors of arithmetic, weights and mea- 
sures, of money, of the art of keeping 
accounts, and, in short, of every thing that 
belongs to the business of a counting-house. 
They were, also, famous for the invention 
of ship-building and navigation ; for the 
discovery of glass ; for their manufactures 
of fine linen and tapestry ; for their skill 
in architecture, and in the art of working 
metals and ivory ; and still more for the 
incomparable splendour and beauty of their 
purple dye. At a later period they fitted 
out ships, and carried on an extensive 
commerce with all the countries known to 
antiquity. They planted numerous colo- 
nies on the African shores of the Mediter- 
ranean, as well as in Spain, Sicily, and 
Malta. They visited the British isles in 
search of tin, navigated the Baltic to pro- 
cure amber, and are even said to have 
performed the circumnavigation of Africa, 
and to have formed settlements eastward 
of the Persian Gulf. To this people also 
is attributed the invention of alphabetical 
characters and their introduction in Eu- 
rope, while their religion formed the basis 
of the various mythological structures 
that arose in Greece. Phoenicia was 
originally formed of several independent 
states, each governed by its own sovereign, 
but united as fear or interest prompted 
them ; but in the course of time, Tyre 
came to exercise supremacy over the rest. 
After the conquest of Samaria and Judaea, 
the Phoenicians became subject succes- 
sively to the Assyrian, Babylonian, and 
Persian monarchies. In the wars between 
the Greeks and Persians, the Phoenicians 
formed the chief and most efficient part of 
the Persian navy. They afterwards formed 
part of the subjects of the Seleucidse, and 
were eventually included in the Roman 
province of Syria. 

Phcenissa, a patronymic given to Dido 
as a native of Phoenicia. 

Phoenix, I., son of Amyntor, king of 
Argos, and Cleobule or Hippodamia. 
According to the Homeric account, A- 
myntor having transferred his affections 
from his wife, Hippodamia, to a concu- 
bine, the former besought her son Phoe- 
nix to gain the affections of his fa- 
ther's mistress, and alienate her from 
Amyntor. Phoenix succeeded in his 
suit, and his enraged father imprecated 
upon him the bitterest curses. The 
son, therefore, notwithstanding the en- 
treaties and efforts of his relations to 
detain him at his parent's court, fled to 



PHO 



PHR 



465 



Phthia, in Thessaly, where he was kindly 
received by Peleus, monarch of the coun- 
try, who assigned him a territory on the 
confines of Phthia, and the sway over the 
Dolopians, and intrusted him also with 
the education of his son Achilles. Such 
is the Homeric account. Later writers, 
however, make Amyntor to have put out 
his son's eyes, and the latter to have fled 
in this condition to Peleus, who led him 
to Chiron, and persuaded the centaur to 
restore him to sight. Phoenix accompanied 
his pupil Achilles to the Trojan war ; and 
after the death of the latter, he was one 
of those commissioned to return to Greece 
and bring young Pyrrhus to the war. On 
the fall of Troy, he went to Thessaly, 
where he died, and was buried near Tra- 
chinia, where a small river in the neigh- 
bourhood received from him the name of 
Phoenix. — II. A son of Agenor, sent, like 
his brothers Cadmus and Cilix, in pursuit 
of their sister Europa, whom Jupiter had 
carried away. His inquiries proving un- 
successful, he was fabled to have settled in 
and given name to Phoenicia. 

Pholoe, I., Mauro Bouni, a mountain 
on the north-west of Arcadia, which, to- 
gether with the range of Erymanthus, of 
which it is a continuation, forms the 
boundary between Arcadia and Elis. — 
IT. A female servant of Cretan origin, 
who was given with her two sons to Ser- 
gestus by iEneas. 

Pholus, I., the Centaur, who kindly 
entertained Hercules on his expedition 
against the boar of Erymanthus, but was 
accidentally killed by one of the hero's 
poisoned arrows, in the conflict which en- 
sued respecting the wine. See Centauri. 
— II. One of the friends of iEneas, kill- 
ed by Turnus. 

Phorbas, I., son of Priam and Epi- 
thesia, killed during the Trojan war by 
Menelaus. The god Somnus borrowed his 
features when he deceived Palinurus, and 
threw him into the sea near the coast of 
Italy. — II. A man who profaned Apollo's 
temple. — III. A native of Syene, son of 
Methion, killed by Perseus. 

Phorcus, or Phorcys, I., a sea-deity, 
son of Pontus and Terra, and brother and 
husband of Ceto, by whom he became the 
father of the Gorgons, the dragon who kept 
the apples of the Hesperides, and other 
monsters. — II. The name of a man whose 
seven sons assisted Turnus against iEneas. 

Phorcydes or GR^iE, the two daugh- 
ters of Phorcys and Ceto, called Pephredo 
(Horrijier), and Enyo (Shaker), to whom 
later writers add a third, Deino ( Terrifter). 
They are always united with the Gor- 



gons, whose guards they were, and are 
described as swan-formed, having one eye 
and one tooth in common, on whom nei- 
ther the sun with its beams, nor the 
nightly moon ever looks. 

Phormion, L, an Athenian general , son 
of Asopicus, who impoverished himself 
to maintain the dignity of his army. — II. 
A Peripatetic philosopher of Ephesus, 
ridiculed by Cicero, for lecturing upon 
subjects of which he was ignorant. 

Phoroneus, son of Inachus and the 
ocean-nymph Melia, and second king of 
Argolis. According to one tradition, he was 
the first man, while another makes him 
to have collected the rude inhabitants into 
one society, and to have given them laws 
and social institutions. He also decided a 
dispute for the land between Juno and 
Neptune, in favour of the former, who 
thence became the tutelar deity of Argos. 
By the nymph Laodice Phoroneus had a 
son named Apis, from whom the peninsula, 
according to one account, was called Apia ; 
and a daughter Niobe, the first mortal 
woman who enjoyed the love of Jupiter. 

Phoronis, a patronymic of Io as sister 
of Phoroneus. 

Photinus, an eunuch, prime minister 
of Ptolemy king of Egypt, by whose ad- 
vice Pompey was put to death after the 
battle of Pharsalia. Subsequently, when 
Julius Caesar visited Egypt, Photinus 
raised a sedition against him, for which he 
was put to death. 

Phraates I., called also Phriapatius, 
succeeded Arsaces III. as king of Parthia. 
He made war against Antiochus, king of 
Syria, and was defeated in three succes- 
sive battles. His children being too young 
to succeed to the throne, he appointed his 
brother Mithridates king. — II, Successor of 
his father Mithridates, as king of Parthia. 
He was murdered by some Greek merce- 
naries, who had been once his captives, and 
had enlisted in his army, b. c. 129- — III. 
Successor of his father Pacorus on the 
throne of Parthia. He gave one of his 
daughters in marriage to Tigranes, son of 
Tigranes, king of Armenia, and soon after 
invaded the kingdom of Armenia, to place 
his son-in-law on the throne of his father. 
But the expedition was attended with ill- 
success, and Phraates was afterwards as- 
sassinated by his sons Orodes and Mithri- 
dates. — IV. Nominated king of Parthia 
by his father Orodes, whom he afterwards 
murdered, b. c. 37. He made war against 
M. Antony, and obliged him to retire 
with much loss. Some time after he was 
dethroned by the Parthian, nobility, but 
soon regained his power, and expelled the 
x 5 



466 



PHR 



PHR 



usurper Tiridates, who, however, contrived 
to carry off the youngest son of Phraates, 
and conveyed him to Augustus, whose 
protection he implored. Menaced by a 
Roman invasion, and in danger from a 
large part of his own subjects, Phraates 
willingly made great concessions to Au- 
gustus. He sent four of his sons to Rome 
as hostages, and restored Augustus the 
Roman standards which had been taken 
on the defeat of Crassus, an event which 
is frequently alluded to by the poets of the 
Augustan age. He was afterwards mur- 
dered by one of his concubines, and her son 
Phraatices, who took possession of the 
throne, but was shortly after deposed by 
his subjects, whom he had offended by 
his cruelty and oppression. 

Phraortes, son and successor of Deioces 
on the throne of Media. He conquered 
the greatest part of Asia, but fell in an 
expedition against the Assyrians of Ninus, 
or Nineveh, b. c. 625, after a reign of 
twenty-two years. 

Phriconis, a surname given to Cuma in 
iEolis. See Cuma. 

Phrygia, a country of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by Paphlagonia and 
Bithynia, west by Lydia and Caria, south 
by Lycia, Pisidia, and Isauria, and east by 
Cappadocia and Pontus ; but the limits of 
this district varied so much at different 
times, that it is difficult to define them 
accurately. Ancient writers often speak 
of the Great and Less Phrygia, but when 
Phrygia is spoken of simply, it is always 
the former that is meant, the latter, which 
was included in Mysia, where a band of 
Phrygian refugees had settled, being a 
mere political division. Besides this an- 
cient classification, we find . in the Lower 
Empire the province divided into Phrygia 
Paeatiana, and Phrygia Salutaris. The 
name Epictetus, or " the Acquired," was 
given to that portion of the province which 
was annexed by the Romans to the king- 
dom of Pergamus. The origin of the 
Phrygians is lost in obscurity ; but it is 
generally supposed that they were origin- 
ally a Macedonian people, who, under the 
name of Briges, passed into Asia a hun- 
dred years before the Trojan war. The 
early government of Phrygia appears to 
have been monarchical under the Median 
or Gordian dynasty : but the country 
was afterwards -incorporated with the 
Lydian empire by Crcesus. After the 
overthrow of the Lydian monarchy by 
Cyrus, Phrygia was annexed to the Per- 
sian empire, and, in the partition of Alex- 
ander's dominions, it fell at first into the 
hands of Antigonus, then of the Seleucidae, 



and, after the defeat of Antiochus, was 
ceded to Eumenes, king of Pergamus, but 
finally reverted to the Romans on the 
death of Attalus, b. c. 133. The Phry- 
gians were called barbarians by the Greeks, 
and are generally stigmatised by the an- 
cients as a slavish nation, destitute of 
courage or energy, and possessing but 
little skill in anything save music and 
dancing. Their music (Phrygii cantus} 
was of a grave and solemn nature, when 
opposed to the more cheerful Lydian airs. 

Phrynichus, a name common to several 
individuals, of whom the most celebrated 
are — I. A tragic poet of Athens, son of 
Polyphradmon, and a disciple of Thespis. 
He first exhibited b. c. 511, and his career 
extended over a period of thirty-five years ; 
but neither the date of his birth nor the 
date and place of his death have been as- 
certained. His plays were great improve- 
ments upon those of his predecessors, their 
subjects being generally drawn from con- 
temporaneous history. He also was the 
first to introduce female parts. The names 
of seventeen of his tragedies are cited by 
Suidas ; and of these two have been cele- 
brated in history — "the Phoenissa; " or 
Phoenician women, and " the Capture of 
Miletus." (See Herodotus, vi. 21.) — TI. 
An Athenian comic poet who lived about 
b. c. 430 ; of whose works a few fragments 
have been collected by Hertelius and 
Grotius. — III. A native of Arabia, who 
established himself in Bithynia in the 
latter half of the second century of our 
era, and compiled a Lexicon of Attic forms 
of Expression, and several . other works 
which have come down to our times. 

Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, the 
first who obtained a musical prize at the 
Panathenaea at Athens, b. c. 438. He 
added two strings to the lyre, which had 
been always used with seven by his pre- 
decessors. 

Phryxus, a son of Athamas, king of 
Thebes, by Nephele. Ino, daughter of 
Cadmus, whom his father Athamas had 
married, after the repudiation of Nephele, 
resolved to destroy the children of the 
latter ; and for this purpose she persuaded 
the women to parch the seed-corn unknown 
to their husbands. The lands having con- 
sequently yielded no crop, Athamas sent 
to Delphi to consult the oracle, in what 
way the threatening famine might be 
averted ; and Ino persuaded the messenger 
to say that Apollo directed Phryxus to be 
sacrificed to Jupiter. Compelled by his 
people, Athamas reluctantly placed his 
son before the altar ; but Nephele snatched 
away both her son and her daughter, and 



PHT 



PIC 



467 



gave them a gold-fleeced ram she had ob- I 
tained from Mercury, which carried them 
through the air over sea and land. They 
proceeded safely till they came to the sea 
between Sigamni and the Chersonese, when j 
Helle fell into it. and it was named from 
her Hellespontus. Phryxus went on to 
Colchis to .Eetes. the son of Helios, who 
received him kindly, and gave him in j 
marriage his daughter Chalciope. He there 
sacrificed his ram to Jupiter Phryxius. 
and gave the golden fleece to JEetes, who } 
nailed it to an oak in the grove of Mars. 
Some time after he was murdered by his ! 
father-in-law. who envied him the pos- j 
session of the golden fleece, and was placed 
among the constellations after death. The j 
recovery of the golden fleece gave rise to 
the celebrated expedition of the Argonauts 
achieved under Jason, and many of the 
princes of Greece. See Jason. 

Phthia, a town of Phthiotis, at the east 
of Mount Othrys in Thessaly, where 
Achilles was born, hence called Phthius 
heros. 

Phthiotis, a province of Thessaly in- 
cluding ail the southern portion of that j 
country, as far as Mount CEta and the j 
Maliac Gulf. Homer comprised within 
this extent of territory the districts of , 
Phthia and Hellas properly so called, 
and, generally speaking, the dominions of I 
Achilles, together with those of Protesi- j 
laus and Eurypylus. 

Phurxutus. See Corxutus. 

Phta, a tall and beautiful woman of j 
Attica, whom Pisistratus, when he wished 
to re-establish himself in his usurped 
power, arrayed like the goddess Minerva, 
and led to the city in a chariot, making 
the populace believe that the goddess her- j 
self came to restore him to power. 

Phycus, a promontory of Cyrenaica, 
northwest of Apollonia, and now Ras-al- 
Sem. 

Phylace, the name of four towns of 
ancient Greece, in Thessaly, Epirus, Ar- 
cadia, and Macedonia. Of these the first 
is the most celebrated, as the native place 
of Protesilaus, hence styled Phylacides, in 
whose honour a temple was erected here. 

Phyle, a fortress of .Attica, celebrated 
as the scene of Thrasybulus's first exploit ' 
in behalf of his oppressed country. It 
was situated about 100 stadia, north-west 
of Athens ; and is now represented by 
Bigla Caslro. 

Phyllis. I., daughter of Sithon, king 
of Thrace, and betrothed to Demophodn, 
son of Theseus, who, on his return from 
Troy, having stopped on the Thracian 
toast, became enamoured of the prin- 



cess. A day having been fixed for their 
union, Demophodn set sail for Athens, in 
order to arrange affairs at home, promising 
to return at an appointed time. He did 
not come, however, at the expiration of 
the period which he had fixed, and Phyllis, 
fancying herself deserted, put an end to 
her existence. The trees that sprang up 
around her tomb were said at a certain sea- 
son to mourn her untimely fate, by their 
leaves withering and falling to the ground. 
According to another account, Phyllis was 
changed after death into an almond-tree, 
destitute of leaves ; and Demophodn hav- 
ing returned a few days subsequently, and 
having clasped the tree in his embrace, it 
put forth leaves, as if conscious of the 
presence of a once-beloved object. Hence, 
says the fable, leaves were called (pvKKo. in 
Greek, from the name of Phyllis ($JAAis). 
Ovid has made the absence of Demophodn 
from Thrace the subject of one of his 
heroic epistles. — II. A country-woman 
introduced by Virgil. — III. A region of 
Thrace, forming part of Edonis, and situ- 
ated north of Mount Pangams. 

Phyllus, or Phayllus, a general of 
Phocis during the Phocian War against the 
Thebans. He assumed the command after 
the death of his brothers Philomelus and 
Onomarchus. 

Physcox. See Ptolem^eus VII. 

Physcos, a town of Caria, opposite 
Rhodes, to which it was subject. 

Piceni, the inhabitants of Picenum, 
See Picenum. 

Picextixi, a people of Italy, between 
Lucania and Campania, on the Tuscan 
Sea, removed thither by the Romans from 
Picenum, after their conquest of that dis- 
trict, a. u. c. 4S4. Having sided with Han- 
nibal in the second Punic war, besides 
many other humiliations they were ex- 
cluded from military service, and allowed 
only to perform the duties of couriers 
and messengers. 

Picenum, a district of Italy, along the 
Adriatic, south and east of Umbria, occu- 
pied by the Picentes, a colony of the Sa- 
bines, who were said to have been guided 
to this land by a woodpecker (picus), a 
bird sacred to Mars. The conquest of Pi- 
cenum was effected by the Romans about 
484 a. u. c, not long after the expedition 
of Pyrrhus into Italy, when 360,000 men 
submitted. Picenum constituted the fifth 
region in the division of Augustus. 

Pict^e or Picti, a people of Scythia 
(called also Agathyrsae) ; named from 
painting their bodies with different colours, 
to appear more terrible in the eyes of their 
enemies. The name Picts was also given 
x 6 



4G8 



PIC 



PIN 



to a Caledonian race, first mentioned under 
this denomination a. d. 297. Various deri- 
vations have been assigned for their name. 

Pictavi or Pictones, a people of Aqui- 
tanic Gaul, a short distance below the Li- 
geris or Loire. Their territory corresponds 
to the modern Poitou. Ptolemy assigns 
them two capitals, Augustoritum and Li- 
monum. 

Picumnus and Pilumnus, two deities 
at Rome, who presided over the auspices 
required before the celebration of nup- 
tials. Pilumnus was supposed to patronise 
children. He was also invoked as the god 
of bakers and millers, and was said to have 
first invented the mode of grinding corn. 
Turnus boasted of being one of his lineal 
descendants. 

Picus, a fabulous king of Latium, son 
of Saturn, and celebrated for his beauty 
and love of horses. He married Canens, 
daughter of Janus and Venilia, celebrated 
for the sweetness and power of her voice. 
When hunting one day in the woods, he 
was met by Circe, who became deeply 
enamoured of him, but, upon his treating 
her with disdain, she changed him into a 
woodpecker, called picus. Some say that 
Picus was married to Pomona. 

Pieria, I., the region pointed out by 
Greek tradition as the first seat of the 
Muses, was a narrow strip of land stretch- 
ing along the Thermaic gulf from the 
mouth of the Haliacmon to the mouth of 
the Peneus, being separated from the rest 
of Macedonia by the ridges of Mount 
Olympus. Within its limits were the 
towns of Pimplea and Libethra : the for- 
mer was said to have been the birthplace 
of Orpheus ; at the latter they showed his 
tomb. Hence the titles Pierides, Pim- 
pleides, Libethrides, applied to the Muses. 
The name Pieria was derived apparently 
from the Pieres, a Thracian people, who 
were subsequently expelled by the Te- 
menidas, the conquerors of Macedonia, 
and driven north beyond the Strymon and 
Mount Pangasus, where they formed a 
new settlement. — II. A district of Syria, 
bounded on the north by Mount Pierus, 
from which the region received its name. 

Pierides, I., a name given to the Muses, 
from the district of Pieria in Thessaly, 
their natal region. — II. The daughters 
of Pierus, who challenged the Muses to a 
trial in music, in which they were con- 
quered, and changed into magpies. Some 
suppose that the victorious Muses took 
their name, just as Minerva, according to 
some authorities, assumed that of the giant 
Pallas after she had conquered him. 

Pierus, a native of Thessaly, father of 



the Pierides, who challenged the Muses. 
(See Pierides II.) — II. A mountain of 
Thessaly, sacred to the Muses. 

Pigrum Mare, an appellation given 
to the extreme Northern Ocean, from its 
being supposed to be in a semi-congealed 
or sluggish state. 

Pilumnus. See Picumnus. 

Pimplea. See Pieria I. 

Pinarii and Potjtii, two distinguished 
families among the subjects of Evander at 
the time Hercules visited Italy on his re- 
turn from Spain, a curious legend respect- 
ing whom will be found in Livy i. 7. 

Pinarius Rusca, M., a praetor, who 
conquered Sardinia, and defeated the Cor- 
sicans. 

Pinarus, Deh-sou, a river of Cilicia 
Campestris, rising in Mount Amanus, and 
falling into the Sinus Issicus near Issus. 

Pindarus, the most celebrated lyric 
poet of antiquity, was born at Cynosce- 
phalas, a village of Thebes, about b.c. 522. 
His family were the hereditary flute- 
players of Thebes; but he was early 
trained in the higher departments of music 
and poetry by Myrtis and Corinna, who 
had both attained celebrity for their lyric 
compositions during the infancy of Pindar. 
Both were competitors with him in poetry. 
Myrtis strove with the bard for a prize at 
public games ; and although Corinna said, 
" It is not meet that the clear-toned Myr- 
tis, a woman born, should enter the lists 
with Pindar," yet she is said (perhaps from 
jealousy of his rising fame) to have often 
contended against him in the agones, and 
five times to have gained the victory. At 
the age of twenty he composed a song of 
victory in honour of a Thessalian youth 
belonging to the family of the Aleuadae, 
b. c. 502, and soon extended the bounda- 
ries of his art to the whole Greek nation. 
Pindar spent the rest of his life in lucrative 
intercourse with the tyrants and wealthy 
men of Greece and its dependencies. Thus 
we find him employed for the Sicilian 
rulers, Hiero of Syracuse and Theron of 
Agrigentum ; for Arcesilaus, king of Cy- 
rene, and Amyntas, king of Macedonia. 
The free states vied with one another in 
honouring the great lyric poet. The 
Athenians made him their public guest 
(■rrpo^evos) ; and the inhabitants of Ceos 
employed him to compose a processional 
song (npoo-oSiov), although they had their 
own poets, Simonides and Bacchylides. 
In the public assemblies of Greece, where 
females were not permitted to contend, he 
was rewarded with the prize in preference 
to every other competitor. His hymns 
and paeans were repeated before crowded 



PtN 

assemblies in the temples of Greece ; and 
the priestess of Delphi declared that it 
was the will of Apollo that Pindar should 
receive half of all the first-fruit offerings 
annually heaped on his altars. After his 
death, which took place about e. c. 442, 
he was honoured with every mark of re- 
spect, even to adoration ; and statues were 
erected at Thebes and Athens to his me- 
mory. Of his works the Odes are the 
only compositions extant, and they have 
been always esteemed models for sublimity 
of sentiment, grandeur of expression, energy 
and magnificence of style, boldness of me- 
taphors, harmony of numbers, and elegance 
of diction. 

Pindenissus, Behesni, a city of Cilicia, 
belonging to the Eleuthero- Cilices, situ- 
ated on a height of great elevation and 
strength, forming part of the range of 
Amanus. Cicero took it after a siege of 
fifty-seven days, and compelled the Tiba- 
reni, a neighbouring tribe, to submit like- 
wise. 

Pindus, L, a name applied by the 
Greeks to the elevated chain which sepa- 
rates Thessaly from Epirus. Towards the 
north it joined the great Illyrian and Ma- 
cedonian ridges of Bora and Scardus, while 
to the south it was connected with the 
ramifications of. GSta, and the JEtolian 
and Acarnanian mountains. It was sacred 

to Apollo and the Muses II. Called 

also Cyphas, a town of Doris in Greece, 
watered by a small river of the same 
name, which falls into the Cephisus, near 
Lilaea. 

Pirjeum, a small fortress of Corinthia, 
on the Sinus Corinthiacus, taken on one 
occasion by Agesilaus. It must not be 
confounded with the Corinthian harbour 
of Piraeus, on the Sinus Saronicus, near 
the confines of Argolis. 

Piraeus, or Pirjeeus, a celebrated and 
capacious harbour of Athens, at some dis- 
tance from the city, but joined to it by long 
walls, called ixaupa ts'ixh, which were suffi- 
ciently broad on the top to admit of two 
waggons passing each other. Upon both of 
the walls a great number of turrets were 
erected, which were turned into dwelling- 
houses when the Athenians became so 
numerous that the city was not large 
enough to contain them. Of the three 
harbours of Athens, Munychia, Phalerus, 
and Pirams, the last was by far the largest. 
Its entrance was narrow, being contracted by 
two projecting promontories; but within it 
contained three large basins or ports, named 
Cantharus, Aphrodisus, and Zea, capable 
of containing 300 ships. Besides being 
the chief harbour of the capital, the Pi- 



PIR 469 

ra?us formed a city of itself, and abounded 
in temples and other magnificent struc- 
tures. The walls which joined it to Athens, 
with all its fortifications, were totally de- 
molished when Lysander put an end to 
the Peloponnesian war by the reduction of 
Attica. But they were rebuilt by Conon 
with the money supplied by the Persian 
commander Pharnabazus, after the defeat 
of the Lacedaemonians, in the battle off 
the Arginusae Insulae. In after days the 
Piraeus suffered greatly from Sylla, who 
demolished the walls, and set fire to the 
armoury and arsenals. It is now called 
Porte Leone, and is connected with the 
modern city of Athens, by a railroad 
about five miles in length. 

Pi rene, a fountain of white marble, 
near Corinth, celebrated by the ancient 
poets as being sacred to the Muses, and 
as being the spot where Bellerophon seized 
the winged horse Pegasus, preparatory to 
his enterprise against the Chimaera. The 
fountain was fabled to have derived its 
name from the nymph Pirene, who was 
said to have dissolved in tears at the death 
of her son Cenchreas, accidentally slain by 
Diana. 

Pirithous, son of Ixion and Dia, one 
of the chieftains (or, according to another 
account, the monarch) of the Lapithae, 
and memorable in mythological narrative 
for his friendship with Theseus. The re- 
nown of Theseus having spread widely 
over Greece, Pirithous became desirous of 
witnessing his exploits ; and he accordingly 
made an irruption into the plain of Ma- 
rathon, and carried off the herds of the 
King of Athens. Theseus, on receiving 
information, went to repel the plunderers. 
The moment Pirithous beheld him, he was 
seized with secret admiration, and, stretch- 
ing out his hand as a token of peace, 
exclaimed, " Be judge thyself! What sa- 
tisfaction dost thou require ! " — " Thy 
friendship," replied the Athenian ; and 
they thereupon swore eternal fidelity. 
Theseus and Pirithous were both present 
at the hunt of the Calydonian boar ; and 
the former also took part in the famous 
conflict between the Centaurs and Lapithae, 
that arose upon the marriage of Pirithous 
and Hippodamia. (See Lapith^;. ) After 
the death of Hippodamia, Pirithous re- 
solved, with his friend Theseus, to carry 
away Helen ; and the beautiful prize hav- 
ing fallen to the share of Theseus, they 
resolved on the daring deed of carrying 
away from the palace of the monarch of 
the under-world his queen Proserpina, 
whom they destined to be the wife of Piri- 
thoiis. They descended together to the 



470 



PIS 



PIS 



region of shadows ; but Pluto, knowing 
their design, seized them, and placed them 
upon an enchanted rock at the gate of his 
realms. Here they sat, unable to move, 
till Hercules, passing by in his descent for 
Cerberus, freed Theseus, having taken him 
by the hand and raised him up ; but when 
he would do the same for Pirithoiis, the 
earth quaked, and he left him. Pirithoiis 
therefore remained everlastingly on the 
rock, in punishment of his audacious at- 
tempt. 

Pisa, a town of Elis, on the Alpheus, 
at the west of the Peloponnesus, founded 
by Pisus, son of Perieres, and grandson 
of iEolus. Its inhabitants, called Piscei, 
long enjoyed the privilege of presiding at 
the Olympic Games ; but after a contest 
of long duration and various success, they 
were superseded by the inhabitants of 
Elis. The horses of Pisa were famous. 
The year, in which the Olympic Games 
were celebrated, was often called Pisceus 
annus, and the victory obtained Pistece 
ramus olivce. 

Pism, Pisa, a town of Etruria, at the 
mouth of the Arnus, supposed to have 
been built by a colony from Pisa in the 
Peloponnesus ; but even in the time of 
Cato its origin was a matter of uncertainty. 
It was probably colonised by the Etruscans 
when they extended their dominions from 
the Arno to the Maira. It underwent the 
same vicissitudes as the rest of Etruria, and 
became subject to the Romans, a.u.c. 560, 
retaining, like most Etruscan towns, its mu- 
nicipal form of government. Livy mentions 
that a Latin colony was sent to Pisae, at the 
request of the citizens, who offered a part of 
their territory to the colonists about 179 
b. c. Nothing more is said concerning 
Pisa? in Roman history, but we find that 
it had bishops at the beginning of the 
fourth century, and passed successively 
under the dominion of various conquerors 
of Italy, the Goths, the Longobards, and 
the Carlovingians. 

Pisander, I., an early Greek poet, born 
at Camirus, in the island of Rhodes, about 
630 b. c. He was contemporary with Eu- 
Eiolpus, and wrote a poem, entitled " He- 
raclea," on the labours and exploits of 
Hercules, of which frequent mention is 
made by the grammarians. — II. A Greek 
poet, born at Laranda, a city of Lycaonia, 
in Asia Minor, during the reign of Alex- 
ander Severus. He composed a long poem, 
entitled "Rpwinal ©eoyafxiai, in which he 
sang the nuptials of gods and heroes. — 
III. An Athenian, one of the leaders of 
the oligarchical party, and instrumental in 
bringing about the establishment of the 



Council of Four Hundred IV. A Spar- 
tan admiral, in the time of Agesilaus, slain 
in a naval battle with Conon near Cnidus, 
b. c. 394. 

Pisaurusi, a city of Umbria, on the 
sea-ceast, below Ariminum, and near the 
river Pisaurus. Its origin is uncertain. 
It became a Roman colony a. u. c. 568, 
and was destroyed by an earthquake 
during the early part of the reign of Au- 
gustus. 

Piseus, a king of Etruria, about 260 
years before the foundation of Rome. 

Pisidia, an inland and mountainous 
country of Asia Minor, between Phrygia, 
Galatia, and Isauria, and forming the 
northern part of the Syrian and Roman 
provinces of Pamphylia. The inhabitants, 
called Pisidas, maintained their independ- 
ence under the Persian empire ; and though 
the Romans obtained possession of some of 
their towns, they were never entirely sub- 
dued. In the time of Strabo Pisidia was 
governed by petty chiefs, who supported 
themselves by plunder and rapine. Anti- 
ochia, Sagalassus, and Selge were their 
chief towns. 

Pisistratid^, the name given to Hip- 
pias and Hipparchus, sons of Pisistratus, 
tyrant of Athens. 

Pisistratus, son of Hippocrates, and 
descended from the Codrida?, was born at 
Athens about b. c. 592. At the time when 
he makes his first prominent appearance the 
state was distracted by the three rival fac- 
tions of the Plain, the Coast, and the 
Highlands. The first of these was headed 
by Lycurgus ; the second by Megacles, a 
grandson of the archon who brought the 
memorable stain and curse upon his house 
by the massacre of the adherents of Cylon ; 
and the third by Pisistratus, who had par- 
ticularly distinguished himself in the war 
against the Megarians, and had formed the 
design of making himself sovereign of 
Athens. Solon, to whom he was related, 
opposed his views, and discovered his du- 
plicity before the public assembly. Pisis- 
tratus however, not disheartened, and 
having matured his plans, one day in- 
flicted upon himself and his mules several 
wounds, and driving into the market- 
place, exposed his mangled body to the 
eyes of the populace, accused his enemies 
of attempts on his life, because he was the 
friend of the people, and claimed a chosen 
body of fifty men to defend his person from 
the malevolence of his enemies. But no 
sooner had he received an armed band, 
than he seized the citadel of Athens, and 
made himself absolute. His triumph, 
however, was of short duration ; for the 



PIS 



PIS 



471 



rival factions of Megacles and Lycurgus j 
soon combined and drove him from the 
city. Soon after Megacles, jealous of Ly- | 
eurgus, promised to restore Pisistratus, if 
he would marry his daughter. Pisistratus 
consented, and returned to Athens. Me- 
gacles, however, finding that Pisistratus did 
not treat his daughter properly, once more 
expelled him ; whereupon he retired to 
Euboea, but eleven years after he was drawn 
from his obscure retreat by means of his son 
Hippias, and a third time received by the 
people of Athens as their sovereign. He 
then strengthened himself by foreign and 
native mercenaries, by legislating bene- 
ficially for the poor, and taking hostages 
of the rich; and having gratified the people 
with numerous largesses, aderned the city 
with splendid monuments of art, and esta- 
blished a library in which he deposited the 
poems of Homer, then first collected, he 
died about b. c. 527, after he had enjoyed 
the sovereign power for thirty-three 
years, including the years of his banish- 
ment. He was succeeded by his sons 
Hipparchus and Hippias, named Pisistra- 
tidce, who at first rendered themselves as 
illustrious as their father, but were ulti- 
mately banished from Athens about seven- 
teen years after the death of Pisistratus, 
b. c. 510. 

Piso, the name of a celebrated family at 
Rome, a branch of the Gens Calpurnia, 
descended from Calpus, son of Numa. 
Before the death of Augustus, eleven of this 
family had obtained the consulship, and 
many had been honoured with triumphs. 
The principal members of it were: — 
I., C. Calpurnius, city praetor B.C. 212. 
He had the command of the Capitol and 
citadel when Hannibal marched against 
Rome. He was afterwards sent into Etruria 
as commander of the Roman forces, and 
at a subsequent period had charge of 
Capua in Campania, after which his com- 
mand in Etruria was renewed. — II. C. 
Calpurnius, praetor b.c. 187. He obtained 
Farther Spain for his province, where he 
signalised his valour, and, in conjunction 
with L. Quintius Crispinus, praetor of 
Hither Spain, gained a decisive victory 
over the revolted Spaniards. More than 
thirty thousand of the enemy fell in the 
battle. On his return to Rome he ob- 
tained a triumph. He subsequently at- 
tained to the consulship (b. c. 180). in 
which office he died, having been poisoned, 
as was believed, by his wife Hostilia. — 
III. L. Calpurnius, one of the most re- 
markable men of the Roman state, tri- 
bune of the commons, b.c. 149, and after- 
wards twice consul b.c 135 and 133. An 



able speaker, alearned lawyer, asound states- 
man, and a wise and valiant commander, 
he distinguished himself still more by his 
purity of morals, and by a frugality and 
plainness of life, which obtained for him 
the surname of Frugi. He left memoirs 
or annals of his time. — IV. L. Cal- 
purnius Piso, son of the preceding, inhe- 
rited, if not the talents, at least the vir- 
tues, of his father. He was sent as praetor 
into Spain, where he died soon after. 

V. C. Calpurnius, consul with Acilius 
Glabrio, b. c. 67, and a warm defender 
of the prerogatives of the consular office 
against the attacks of the commons and 
their tribunes. He was also the author 
of a law against bribery at elections. — 

VI. A young Roman, whom indigence 
(the result of profligate habits), and a 
turbulent disposition induced to take part 
in the conspiracy of Catiline. The leading 
men at Rome, anxious to get rid of so 
troublesome and dangerous an individual, 
caused him to be sent as quaestor into 
Hither Spain, and he was not long after 
assassinated in his province. — VII. C. 
Calpurnius Frugi, a descendant of the 
individual above-mentioned, first husband 
of Tullia, daughter of Cicero, who praises 
him for his virtues and his oratorical abili- 
ties. Piso exerted himself strenuously for 
the recall of his father-in-law, but died a 
short time before this took place. — VIII. 
L. Calpurnius, father-in-law of Caesar, 
and consul b.c. 58. Before attaining to 
this office he had been accused of ex- 
tortion, and only escaped condemnation 
through the influence of his son-in-law. 
Cicero was allied to Piso by marriage, and 
the latter had given him many marks of 
friendship and confidence ; but Clodius 
eventually gained Piso over to his views, by 
promising to obtain for him the province 
of Macedonia, where his whole conduct was 
marked by such debauchery, rapine, and 
cruelty, that the senate recalled him, chiefly 
through the exertions of Cicero. On Piso's 
return, he had the hardihood to attack 
Cicero in open senate, and complain of 
the treatment he had received at his hands. 
Cicero replied, in an invective speech, the 
severest, perhaps, that ever fell from the 
lips of any man, in which the whole life 
and conduct of Piso are pourtrayed in 
the darkest colours, and which must hand 
him down as a detestable character to all 
posterity. Notwithstanding this, however, 
Piso was afterwards censor along with Ap- 
pius Claudius (a. u. c. 702) • and we find 
him, at a subsequent period, appointed 
one of the -three commissioners who were 
sent by the senate to treat with Antony. 



472 



PIS 



PIT 



— IX. L. Calpurnius Piso, son of the pre- 
ceding, many of whose vices he inherited. 
He was at first one of the warmest opponents 
of the party of Caesar, after whose death he 
followed the fortunes of Brutus and Cas- 
sius, until the overthrow of the republican 
forces. Being at length restored to his 
country, he refused all public offices, until 
Augustus prevailed upon him to accept 
the consulship, a.u.c. 731, Augustus him- 
self being his colleague. He was afterwards 
named governor of Pamphylia. and having 
subsequently passed into Europe, gained 
a complete victory over the Bessi, a 
Thracian tribe. He was appointed, after 
this, prefect of the city by Tiberius. It 
was to this individual and his two sons 
that the epistle of Horace, commonly 
called the " Art of Poetry," was ad- 
dressed. — X. Cn. Calpurnius, son of the 
preceding, married Plancina, a woman 
of high descent, and of vast wealth. Ti- 
berius appointed him governor of Syria, 
and was said to have given him secret 
instructions to thwart the movements 
of Germanicus, while Plancina was to 
endeavour to mortify, in every possible 
way, the pride of Agrippina. These ma- 
chinations proved but too successful. Ger- 
manicus was cut off, and Piso, accused of 
having poisoned him both by his widow 
Agrippina and the public voice, and find- 
ing himself deserted by all, even by the 
emperor, put an end to his existence a.d. 
20. — XI. C. Calpurnius, leader of the 
celebrated conspiracy against Nero. His 
eloquence, and amiable qualities, had con- 
ciliated the public esteem to such a degree, 
that the majority of the conspirators in- 
tended him as the successor of the em- 
peror. The plot, however, was discovered 
on the very morning of the day intended 
for its execution, and Piso, instead of at 
once adopting energetic measures, and at- 
tempting to seize upon the throne by open 
force, as his friends advised him to do, 
shut himself up in his mansion and put 
himself to death by opening his veins. — 
XII. C. Licinianus, adopted son of the 
Emperor Galba, made himself universally 
esteemed by his integrity, disinterested- 
ness, and by an austerity of manners 
that recalled the earlier days of Rome. 
He was put to death, by order of Otho, 
after the fall of Galba, at the age of thirty- 
one years. 

Pistor, "Baker" a surname given to 
Jupiter by the Romans, because, when 
their city was taken by the Gauls, he per- 
suaded them to throw loaves from the 
Tarpeian hill, that the enemy might sup- 
pose that there was no want of provisions, j 



though in reality they were on the eve of 
surrendering through famine. This de- 
ceived the Gauls, who soon after raised 
the siege. 

Pistoria, Pistoia, a town of Etruria, 
at the foot of the Apennines, memorable 
in the history of Rome as having wit- 
nessed in its vicinity the close of Catiline's 
desperate but short career. 

Pitane, a town of iEolis, in Asia Minor, 
north-west of Pergamus, and on the banks 
of the Evenus. The inhabitants made 
bricks, which swam on the surface of the 
water. 

Pithecusa. See .ZEnaria. 

Pitho, called also Suada, goddess of 
persuasion among the Greeks and Romans, 
supposed to be the daughter of Mercury 
and Venus. 

Pitholeon, a foolish poet, the author of 
some silly epigrams, in which Greek and 
Latin expressions were intermingled to- 
gether. 

Pittacus, one of the so-called wise men 
of Greece, son of Hyrradius, was born at 
Mytilene in Lesbos about b. c. 652. With 
the assistance of the sons of Alcasus he 
delivered his country from the oppression 
of the tyrant Melanchrus, and in the war 
which the Athenians waged against Les- 
bos, killed Phryno, the enemy's general, by 
entangling his adversary in a net concealed 
under his shield. From this time Pit- 
tacus was held in high esteem among 
the Mytileneans, and was intrusted with 
the supreme power in the state, which he 
held for ten years, having gained the good 
will of all by his clemency and modera- 
tion. He was the author of a consider- 
able number of elegies, of which a few 
fragments are still extant. Many of the 
numerous maxims of practical wisdom 
current among the ancients were ascribed 
to Pittacus, and are preserved in the works 
of Diogenes Laertius, Plutarch, iElian, 
and others. He spent the last ten years 
of his life in literary ease, and peaceful re- 
tirement, and died in his eighty-second 
year, about b. c. 570. 

Pitthea, a town near Trcezene ; hence 
the epithet Pittheus. 

Pittheus, a king of Trcezene in Argo- 
lis, son of Pelops and Hippodamia. He 
gave his daughter iEthra in marriage to 
iEgeus, king of Athens, and himself took 
care of the youth and education of his 
grandson Theseus. 

Pityonesus, a small island off the coast 
of Argolis, opposite Epidaurus. 

Pityusa, Tulea, a small island off the 
coast of Argolis, near Aristera. 

Pixyus^e, a group of small islands in 



PLA 



PLA 



473 



the Mediterranean, off the coast of Spain, 
south-west of the Baleares. They derived 
their name from the number of pine-trees 
(irirvs, a pine) which grew in them. The 
largest is Ebusus, Iviga, and next to it is 
Ophiusa, Formontera. 

Placentia, Piacenza, a city of Gallia 
Cisalpina, at the confluence of the Trebia 
and Padus. It was colonised by the Ro- 
mans, with Cremona, a. u. c. 535, to serve 
as a bulwark against the Gauls, and to 
oppose the threatened approach of Hanni- 
bal ; and its utility in this latter respect 
was fully proved, by its affording a secure 
retreat to the Roman general after the 
disastrous battles of the Ticinus and Trebia, 
It withstood all the efforts of the victori- 
ous Hannibal ; but after the termination 
of the second Punic war, it was taken and 
burned by the Gauls, headed by Hamilcar 
the Carthaginian, but soon after was re- 
stored by the consul Valerius. Placentia 
had acquired the rights of a municipal 
city in Cicero's time ; and it remained a 
powerful and opulent colony down to the 
fall of the empire. Its theatre, situated 
without the walls, was burned in the civil 
war between Otho and Vitellius. 

Placidia, a daughter of Theodosius the 
Great, and sister of Honorius and Arca- 
dius. She married Ataulphus, king of the 
Visigoths, and afterwards Constantius, by 
whom she became the mother of Valen- 
tinian III., and died a. d. 449. See 
Ataulphus. 

Plana si a, Pianosa, a small island be- 
tween Corsica and Ilva, whither Tiberius 
ordered Agrippa, grandson of Augustus, 
to.be banished. 

Plancina, granddaughter of L. Mu- 
natius Plancus, and wife of Piso, governor 
of Syria in the reign of Tiberius. (See 
Piso X.) Like her husband, she ulti- 
mately laid violent hands upon herself, 

t A. D. 39. 

Plancus, I., T. Bursa, a tribune of the 
commons b. c. 5 '2. He took part in the 
troubles excited by the death of Clodius, 
and, on the expiration of his office, was 
accused and condemned, notwithstanding 
the interest made by Pompey in his be- 
half. — II. L. Munatius, a native of Tibur, 
in early life a pupil of Cicero. He obtained 
considerable eminence in the oratorical 
art, and afterwards commanded a legion 
under Caesar in Gaul. On the assassina- 
tion of that individual Plancus displayed 
great political versatility. After the vic- 
tory at Mutina, he affected the utmost zeal 
for the cause of Brutus and freedom ; but 
subsequently, when he saw Antony re- 
established in power, he went over to him 



with four legions which he had at the 
time under his command. Upon this he 
obtained the consulship along with Le- 
pidus, b. c. 42 ; but tired at last of Antony, 
he sided with Octavius, who received him 
with the utmost cordiality. It was Plan- 
cus who proposed in the senate that the 
title of Augustus should be bestowed on 
Octavius. But with all his faults Plancus 
appears to have been a man of literary 
tastes, and we have an ode addressed to 
him by Horace on one occasion, when he 
had become suspected of disaffection by 
Augustus, and was meditating his depar- 
ture from Italy. 

Plat-iEA, and m (arum), an ancient town 
of Bceotia, at the foot of Mt. Citha?ron, and 
near the river Asopus, which separated its 
territory from that of Thebes. It was said 
to have been named from Platea, daugh- 
ter of an ancient king of the country, who 
had given his own name to the Asopus. 
This town has acquired an immortality of 
renown from its having given its name to 
the great battle fought in its vicinity, on 
the 22d September, anno b. c. 479, be- 
tween the combined Greek forces under 
Pausanias, and the Persian army under 
Mardonius, generalissimo of the forces left 
by Xerxes in Greece. The Grecians gained 
a most complete victory. Mardonius was 
killed in the action ; and the camp to 
which the fugitives retreated having been 
forced, a prodigious slaughter took place. 
In fact, with the exception of about 40,000 
horse, who escaped under Artabazus, the 
entire Persian army, said to have been 
nearly 300,000 strong, was all but entirely 
annihilated. The victorious Greeks, be- 
sides securing the independence of their 
country, found an immense booty in the 
camp of the Persians. Notwithstanding 
the services the Platasans had rendered to 
the common cause in this great struggle, 
their city was taken and razed by the 
Spartans b. c. 374. But it was afterwards 
restored, and its walls rebuilt, by Alexander 
the Great. The existing remains of the city 
called Palceo Castro date from the aera of 
that conqueror. 

Plato, one of the most illustrious phi- 
losophers of antiquity, and the founder of 
the academic sect, was born in the island 
of JEgina, in the eighty-eighth Olympiad, 
or B. c. 429. His father was Ariston, the 
son of Aristocles, — the name which Plato 
originally bore ; — and his origin is traced 
back, on his father's side, to Codrus, and 
on that of his mother, Perictione, through 
five generations, to Solon. In his youth he 
applied himself to poetry and painting ; but 
he relinquished these pursuits to become a 



474 



PLA 



PLE 



disciple of Socrates. During the imprison- 
ment ofhis master, Plato attended him, and 
committed to writing his last discourses 
upon the Immortality of the Soul. On the 
death of Socrates he retired to Megara; 
after which he extended his travels to 
Egypt and the East. When he had 
exhausted the philosophical treasures of 
distant countries, he repaired to Italy, to 
the Pythagorean school at Tarentum, 
where he endeavoured to improve his own 
system, by incorporating in it the doctrine 
of Pythagoras, as then taught by Archytas, 
Timaeus, and others. On his return to 
Athens, he formed his school in a grove, 
called the Academy, over the door of which 
seminary was this inscription, " Let no one 
ignorant of geometry enter here." He was 
soon attended by a crowd of hearers of every 
description, and among other illustrious 
names to be ranked among his disciples, are 
those of Dion, Aristotle (see Aristoteles), 
Hyperides, Lycurgus, Demosthenes, and 
Isocrates. The ancients thought more 
highly of him than of all their philosophers, 
and always called him the Divine Plato. 
Cicero, whose regard and veneration for him 
were boundless, observes that he was justly 
called by Panaetius, the divine, the most 
wise, the most sacred, the Homer of Phi- 
losophers ; and made him so implicitly his 
guide in wisdom and philosophy, as to de- 
clare, that he would rather err with Plato 
than be right with any one else. Plato thrice 
visited the court of Siqily — once invited 
by the elder Dionysius, and twice by the 
younger. The former he so much offend- 
ed, that the tyrant caused him to be seized 
on his passage home, and sold for a slave ; 
and the philosopher was indebted for his 
liberation to Aniceris of Cyrene. On his 
return to Athens, Plato resumed his school, 
and no persuasion could afterwards induce 
him to quit his peaceful retirement. At 
his death, which happened in his eighty- 
first year, b.c. 348, statues and altars were 
erected to his memory ; and the day of his 
birth was long celebrated as a festival. — 
II. A comic writer, who flourished about 
the period of the death of Socrates. His pa- 
triotic feelings led him frequently to attack 
the corrupt demagogues of the day, such as 
Cleon, Hyperbolus, Cleophon, and others. 
He gave his name to a particular kind of 
metre. Suidas, Plutarch, and Athenaeus 
attribute to him a large number of come- 
dies; several of which, however, belong 
to another Plato, a writer of the Middle 
Comedy, who lived about a century after 
the former. 

Plautianus, Fulvius, an African of ob- 
scure origin, who came to Rome but was 



banished thence for seditious behaviour 
During his banishment he formed an ac- 
quaintance with Severus, who some years 
after ascended the imperial tfirone. When 
Severus attained to the sovereignty, Plauti- 
anus rapidly advanced to favour and power, 
and became eventually praetorian prefect. 
Statues were erected to him both at Rome 
and in the provinces, as well by indivi- 
duals as by the senate itself. The soldiers 
and senators alike swore by his fortune, as 
had been formerly done in the case of Se- 
janus, and he wanted but little to be equal 
in power with Severus. Plautianus is 
charged with having made use of his exor- 
bitant power to oppress the people, and to 
excite the vindictive passions of his master. 
By the marriage of his daughter Plautilla 
with Caracalla, who had already, for some 
years, enjoyed the rank of Augustus, he 
obtained admittance into the imperial 
household ; where his pride, and the influ- 
ence which he possessed over the emperor, 
rendered him an object of suspicion and dis- 
like. Being at last accused privately to 
the emperor of aiming at the succession, 
he was slain by a soldier, at the order of 
Caracalla, in the presence of Severus. 
Plautilla was banished by Severus, along 
with her brother Plautus, to the island of 
Lipara, where, seven years after, she was 
put to death by order of Caracalla, a.d. 211. 

Plautus, M. Accius, a Roman Comic 
poet, born at Sarsina, in Umbria, of whom 
few authentic particulars are known. 
After having realised a small fortune by 
his plays, he embarked it all in commercial 
speculations, but lost it, and was reduced to 
such poverty that to maintain himself, he 
entered into the family of a baker as a 
common servant, and was employed in 
grinding corn. He died about b. c. 184. 
His plays, twenty of which have reached 
our times, were universally esteemed at 
Rome. 

Pleiades, I., a name given to seven of 
the daughters of Atlas by Pleione or 
JEthra, one of the Oceanides. Their names 
were Maia, Electra, Taygeta, Halcyone, 
Celamo, Sterope, and Merope. While 
these nymphs were hunting with Diana, 
Orion, happening to see them, became 
enamoured, and pursued them. In their 
distress they prayed to the gods to change 
their form, and Jupiter, taking compas- 
sion on them, turned them into pigeons, 
and afterwards made them a constellation 
in the sky. The constellation of the Plei- 
ades, rising in the spring, brought with it 
the spring-rains, and opened navigation. 
Hence, according to the common etymo- 
logy, the name is derived from tt\4w (7rAeta>), 



PLE 



PLI 



475 



tosail, and is thought to indicate the stars 
that are favourable to navigation. AH had 
some of the immortal gods for their suitors, 
except Merope, who married Sisyphus, 
king of Corinth : hence the star of Merope 
is dim and obscure among the rest of 
her sisters. — II. The name of Pleiades 
was given to seven Tragic writers, and 
also to seven poets contemporary with 
each other. The names of the Tragic 
poets were Alexander the iEtolian, Phi- 
liscus of Corcyra, Sositheus, Homer the 
younger, iEantides, Sosiphanes or Sosicles, 
and Lycophron ; and the names of the seven 
contemporary poets who obtained this col- 
lective appellation were Apollonius of 
Rhodes, Aratus, Homerus the younger, 
Lycophron, Nicander, Philiscus, and The- 
ocritus. 

Pleione, one of the Oceanides, who 
married Atlas, king of Mauritania, by 
whom she had twelve daughters, and a son 
called Hyas. Seven of the daughters were 
changed into a constellation called Pleiades, 
and the rest into another called Hi/ades. 

Plemmvrium, Massa d' Olivera, a pro- 
montory of Sicily, in the immediate neigh- 
bourhood of Syracuse, and facing the island 
of Ortygia, together with which it formed 
the entrance to the great harbour of that 
city. It was fortified by Nicias during the 
siege of Syracuse by the Athenians, but at 
a subsequent period of the war the Athe- 
nians were compelled to abandon this post, 
and fortified themselves near Dascon, in its 
vicinity. 

Pleumosii, a people of Gallia Belgica, 
tributary to the Nervii, and situated in 
the vicinity of Tornacum, now Tournay. 

Plinius, I., Secundus C, surnamed the 
Elder, and also the Naturalist, a distin- 
guished Roman writer, born either at Co- 
mum or Verona, of a noble family, in the 
ninth year of the reign of Tiberius, a. d. 
23. Very little is known of his public 
life. When a young man he distinguished 
himself in the field, and, after he had 
been made one of the augurs at Rome, 
was appointed governor of Spain. His 
devotion to study was intense ; and his 
manner of life, as described by his nephew, 
exhibits a degree of industry and perse- 
verance without a parallel. He ultimately 
lost his life from his zeal in the pursuit of 
knowledge. Being at Misenum, a. d. 79, 
with a fleet under his command, accom- 
panied by his sister and his nephew, the 
younger Pliny, he was requested by the 
former to leave his study and observe a 
cloud of a very unusual size and appear- 
ance, which was afterwards discovered to 
issue from Mount Vesuvius. Ignorant of 



the cause, he at once ordered his ships to 
repair to the assistance of the inhabitants 
of the coast, while he himself steered as 
near as possible to the foot of the moun- 
tain, which now sent forth vast quantities of 
burning rock and lava. He then with his 
companions landed at Stabiae, but they were 
soon obliged to leave the town for the 
fields, where the danger was equally great, 
from the shower of fire which fell upon 
them. In this state they made the best of 
their way to the shore, but Pliny, who 
was very corpulent, fell down dead, suffo- 
cated by the noxious vapours. His body 
was found three days afterwards. The 
eruption which caused his death was that 
in which the cities of Herculaneum and 
Pompeii were destroyed. Pliny wrote the 
" History of his own Time," in thirty-one 
books, which is lost, and his " Natural His- 
tory," in thirty-seven books, one of the most 
precious monuments of antiquity extant. — 
II. C. Caecilius Secundus, surnamed the 
Younger, son of L. Caecilius by the sister of 
Pliny the Elder, by whom he was adopted, 
was born at Comuin, a town of Insubria, 
a. d. 62. He studied under Verginius Kufus 
and Quintilian ; and in his eighteenth year 
began to plead in the forum. Here he 
became acquainted with Tacitus the his- 
torian, with whom his intimacy lasted 
throughout life. Soon after this he went 
as tribune to Syria ; but after one or two 
campaigns, he returned to Rome, where 
he finally settled. He was promoted to 
the consular dignity by Trajan, in praise 
of whom he pronounced a famous oration, 
still extant. He was next chosen augur ; 
and afterwards made pro-consul of Bithy- 
nia, whence he wrote to Trajan a curious 
account of the Christians, and their manner 
of worship. The time and manner of his 
death are uncertain ; but it is generally 
supposed that he died about a. d. 11 6. The 
" Epistles of Pliny" which are elegant 
specimens of letter -writing, and very in- 
structive, have been translated into Eng- 
lish by Lord Orrery and Mr. Melmoth. 

Plistarchus, son of Leonidas, of the 
family of the Eurysthenidae, succeeded 
Cleombrotus on the Spartan throne. 

Plisthenes, son of Atreus, king of 
Argos, father of Menelaus and Aga- 
memnon. See Atreus. 

PlistInus, a brother of Faustulus, the 
shepherd who saved the life of Romulus 
and Remus. He was killed in a scuffle 
between the two brothers. 

Plistoanax and Plistonax, son of 
Pausanias, general of the Lacedaemonian 
armies in the Peloponnesian war. He 
was banished from Sparta for nineteen 



476 



PLI 



PLU 



years, but was afterwards recalled by order 
of the oracle of Delphi. 

Plistus, a river of Phocis, falling into 
the bay of Corinth. 

Plotina Pompeia, a Roman lady who 
married Trajan, while yet in a private station. 
She accompanied Trajan in the East, and 
at his death brought back his ashes to Rome, 
and enjoyed all the honours of a Roman 
empress under Hadrian, who, by her means, 
had succeeded to the vacant throne. At 
her death, a. d. 122, she was ranked among 
the gods, and received divine honours. 

Plotinopolis, a town of Thrace on the 
Hebrus, founded by Trajan, and named 
after the Empress Plotina. 

Plotinus, the most celebrated writer 
and teacher of the New Platonic school at 
Alexandria, was born a. n. 205 at Lyco- 
polis in Egypt. After studying philo- 
sophy under various teachers, he attached 
himself more particularly to Ammonius, 
the founder of the Eclectic school, whose 
pupil he remained for eleven years. Sub- 
sequently he determined to accompany the 
army of Gordian to the East, in order to 
study the Oriental systems on their native 
soil, but the day which proved fatal to 
the emperor nearly terminated the life of 
the philosopher. He however saved him- 
self by flight, and the following year re- 
tired to Rome, where he publicly taught 
philosophy, with such success as to excite 
the almost superstitious veneration of his 
disciples. When helpless and infirm, he 
retired to Campania, where he died a. d. 
270, in his sixty-sixth year. His lectures 
were at first all delivered orally : but in 
his fiftieth year he endeavoured to commit 
his ideas to writing ; and his various scat- 
tered treatises were collected by Porphyry 
in six Enneades. 

Plutarchus, one of the most generally 
known and popular writers of antiquity, 
was born at Chasronea in Boeotia, about the 
middle of the first century, though the 
period has not been precisely ascertained. 
In his early days he saw at one and the 
same time his father, his grandfather, and 
great-grandfather in being ; and he was 
brought up in an agreeable family converse, 
which imparted to his character an air of 
integrity and goodness that shows itself in 
so many of his numerous writings. Under 
Ammonius, Plutarch was made acquainted 
with philosophy and mathematics. He 
then travelled in quest of knowledge ; and 
after he had visited Egypt and Greece, 
retired to Rome, where he opened a school. 
Trajan is said, but upon no satisfactory 
authority, to have honoured him with the 
office of consul, and to have appointed him 



governor of Illyricum. After the death of 
his imperial benefactor, he removed to Chae- 
ronea, where he lived in the greatest tran- 
quillity, respected by his fellow-citizens, 
and raised to all the honours his native 
town could bestow, and died there in 
an ' advanced age, about a. n. 1 40. By 
his wife Timoxena, he had four sons and 
a daughter ; two of the sons and the 
daughter died when young, and those who 
survived were called Plutarch and Lam- 
prias, after his grandfather. His igno- 
rance of the Latin tongue causes him to 
fall into many errors on the subject of 
Roman history. The great work of Plu- 
tarch is his " Parallel Lives," which has 
been repeatedly edited and translated into 
every European Language. 

Pluto (TIXovtuv), called also Hades 
("AiS^y) and Ai'doneus ('AtSwevs) as well 
as Orcus and Dis, was the brother of Ju- 
piter and Neptune, and lord of the lower 
world, or the abode of the dead. He is 
described as a being inexorable and deaf 
to supplication, and an object of aversion 
and hatred to both gods and men. The 
appellation of Pluto would seem to be 
connected with the term ttKovtos, wealth, 
as mines within the earth are the producers 
of the precious .metals. The realms of 
Pluto did not offer much field for such 
legends of the gods as Grecian fancy de- 
lighted in ; yet the tale of his carrying off 
Proserpina is one of the most celebrated 
in antiquity. (See Proserpina.) Pluto 
was represented similar to his brothers, 
but he was distinguished from them by 
his gloomy and rigid mien. The dog 
Cerberus watched at his feet, Harpies 
hovered around him, Proserpine sat on 
his left hand, and the Parca? occupied the 
right. Few temples were raised in his 
honour. The cypress, the narcissus, the 
adianthus, and the thighs of victims, were 
sacred to him, and his sacrifices consisted 
of black sheep or oxen. 

Plutonium, a temple of Pluto in Lydia. 

Plutcs, god of riches, son of Jasion or Ja- 
sius, and Ceres, goddess of corn, and brought 
up by the goddess of peace. The Greeks 
spoke of him as a fickle divinity, and re- 
presented him as blind, because he dis- 
tributed riches indiscriminately ; as lame, 
because he came gradually ; but with wings, 
to intimate that he flew away with more 
velocity than he approached mankind. 
Plutus appears as an actor in the comedy 
of Aristophanes, which bears his name ; 
and he also bears a part in the Timon of 
Lucian. 

Pluvius, a surname of Jupiter, as god 
of rain. He was invoked by that name 



PLY 



POL 



477 



among the Romans, whenever the earth 
was parched up by continual heat, and was 
in want of refreshing showers. 

Plynteria, a festival among the Greeks 
in honour of Minerva, surnamed Aglauros, 
whose temple stood on the Acropolis. Any- 
undertaking commenced on the day of the 
celebration of this festival was believed to 
be ill-omened. 

Pnyx, the place of public assembly at 
Athens, especially during elections, so 
called from the crowds accustomed to as- 
semble therein (a7ro rod ireiTVK.vwo-Qcu~). It 
was situated on a low hill, sloping down to 
the north, at the western verge of the city, 
and at a quarter of a mile to the west of 
the Acropolis. In the centre of Ihe Pnyx, 
and projecting from it, was the celebrated 
Bema, from which the orators addressed 
the people, carved out of the living rock, 
ascended by steps, and based upon seats of 
the same material. 

Podalirius, a son of iEsculapius and 
Epione, brother of Machaon, and one of 
the pupils of the Centaur Chiron. He was 
present at the siege of Troy, and made 
himself so conspicuous by his valour that 
Homer ranks him among the first of the 
Grecian heroes ; but his skill in the heal- 
ing art even surpassed his bravery, and he 
distinguished himself in the camp of the 
Greeks by his care of the wounded, 
and by stopping a pestilence, which had 
baffled the skill of all their physicians. 
On his return from Troy he was ship- 
wrecked on the coast of Caria, where he 
fixed his habitation ; and having married 
Syrna, the daughter of Damoetas, built a 
city which he called after his wife. His 
death has been variously related. 

Podarces, L, the first name of Priam. 
When Troy was taken by Hercules, he 
was redeemed from slavery by his sister 
Hesione, and thence received the name of 
Priam. (See Priamus.) — II. The son 
of Iphiclus, of Thessaly, and brother of 
Protesilaus. He went with twenty ships 
to the Trojan war, and, after his brother's 
death, commanded both divisions, amount- 
ing to forty vessels. 

Pobarge, one of the Harpies, mother of 
two of the horses of Achilles by the Ze- 
phyrs. The word intimates swiftness of feet. 

Pceas, the father of Philoctetes, who is 
hence often called Pceantia proles. 

Pcecile, a celebrated portico at Athens, 
which received its name from the paintings 
with which it was adorned (iroiKikr) crrod, 
from ttoik'iAos, diversified). Its more 
ancient name is said to have been Peisia- 
nactus. The pictures were by Polygnotus, 
Micon, and Pamphilus, and represented 



the battle between Theseus and the Ama- 
zons, the contest at Marathon, and other 
achievements of the Athenians. It was 
in this portico that Zeno first opened his 
school, which was hence denominated the 
" Stoic" (the "school of the porch ," from 
crToa). No less than 1 500 citizens of 
Athens are said to have been destroyed by 
the thirty tyrants in the Pcecile. 

Pceni, a name given to the Carthagi- 
nians; derived apparently from Phceni, or 
Phcenices, as the Carthaginians were of 
Phoenician origin. 

Pogon, a name given to the harbour of 
Trcezene from its shape, being formed by 
a curved strip of land which resembled a 
beard (irdoycov). This port was formerly 
so capacious as to contain a large fleet ; 
but at present it is shallow, obstructed by 
sand, and accessible only to small boats. 

Pola, a town on the western coast of 
Istria, near the southern extremity, or 
Promontorium Polaticum, reported to 
have been founded by the Colchians, whom 
JEetes had sent in pursuit of the Argo- 
j nauts. Tt became afterwards a Roman 
colony, when it took the name of Pietas 
Julia, and was for a long period the prin- 
cipal town of Istria. This city still re- 
tains its ancient name, and contains ruins 
j of a magnificent amphitheatre and of tem- 
ples which sufficiently attest its ancient 
wealth and magnitude. 

Polemarchus. See Archon. 
Polemo, I., an Athenian philosopher, 
son of Philostratus. In his youth he was 
greatly addicted to pleasure ; but in his 
thirtieth year he applied himself to the 
study of philosophy, and after the death of 
Xenocrates, succeeded as head of the school 
in which his reformation had been effected. 
He died about b. c. 270, in extreme old 
| age, and was succeeded by Crates. Zeno and 
j Arcesilas were his disciples. — II. A son 
| of Zeno of Apamea, made king of' Pontus 
j by Antony, after the latter had deposed 
; Darius, son of Pharnaces. After the 
battle of Actium, he ingratiated himself 
with Augustus, but was killed in an ex- 
pedition against some barbarians of Sin- 
dice, near the Palus Masotis, and left his 
kingdom to his widow, Pythodoris, who 
was alive at the time that Strabo wrote 
is Geography. — III. Son and successor 
of the preceding, was placed on the throne 
by Caligula, and had his dominions after- 
wards enlarged by Claudius with a portion 
of Cilicia. Nero eventually converted 
Pontus into a Roman province. — IV. 
Antonius, a celebrated Sophist and public 
speaker, in the second century of our era. 
He was a native of Laodicea on the Lycus, 



478 



POL 



POL 



and of a consular family, and was held in j 
high esteem by Trajan, Hadrian, and An- j 
toninus Pius. He spent the greater part | 
of his life in Smyrna, where he opened a 
school of rhetoric, and was sent on several 
occasions as ambassador to Hadrian. He j 
accumulated a large fortune by his ora- j 
torical talents. He became a great suf- 
ferer by the gout, and at the age of fifty- 
six years, having become disgusted with 
life on account of the tortures to which 
his complaint subjected him, he returned ! 
to his native city, entered the tomb of his 
family, which he caused to be closed upon 
him, and there ended his existence. We j 
have remaining of his works only two j 
declamations, or oratorical exercises, en- 
titled "Funeral Discourses." — V. Sur- j 
named Periegetes, lived during the reign 
of Ptolemy Epiphanes, about 200 b. c. 
He was a pupil of the Stoic Panaetius, and | 
wrote a " History of Greece " (A6yos ! 
c E\A7]V(/c(fc) in eleven books, wherein he 
carefully observed chronology, and other 
works, all of which are lost. — VI. The 
author of a work " On Physiognomy," j 
still extant, who is generally supposed to 
be identical with Polemo, pupil and suc- 
cessor of Xenocrates. 

Polemonium, Vatisa, a city of Asia 
Minor, on the coast of Pontus, which de- \ 
rived its name from Polemo, the son of 
Zeno, who built it on the site of an earlier 
town called Side. 

Polias, a surname of Minerva, as pro- 
tectress of cities, but applied to her more 
particularly at Athens, of which she was 
the special protectress. 

Poliokcetes, " destroyer of cities," a 
surname given to Demetrius, son of An- 
tigonus. See Demetrius I. 

Polites, a son of Priam and Hecuba, 
killed by Pyrrhus in his father's presence. 
His son, who bore the same name, fol- 
lowed ^Eneas into Italy, and was one of 
the friends of young Ascanius. 

Politorium, a city of the Latins de- 
stroyed by the Romans, b. c. 369. 

Polla Argentaria, the wife of the poet 
Lucan. 

Pollentia, Polenza, a municipal town 
of Liguria, south-east of Alba Pompeia, 
chiefly celebrated for its wool. A fa- 
mous battle was fought in its vicinity 
between Stilico and the Goths a. d. 403, 
the success of which was very doubtful 
though Claudian speaks of it as the greatest 
triumph of his hero. 

Pollio, C. Asisius, L, a celebrated Ro- 
man, who distinguished himself by elo- 
quence, writings, and exploits in the field, 
was born b. c. 76. On the breaking out 



of the civil war he joined the party of 
Caesar, to whom he remained faithful to the 
last. He was subsequently nominated one 
of the consuls by the triumvirs b.c. 40 ; but 
at the commencement of the war between 
Antony and Octavius, he retired into pri- 
vate life, and devoted himself to literary 
pursuits till his death, which took place 

a. d. 4. Pollio was a great patron of lite- 
rature and the fine arts. He was the inti- 
mate friend of Horace and Virgil; and 
though none of his productions have 
reached our times he is said to have excelled 
equally as a poet, orator, and historian. — 
II. Annius, accused of sedition before 
Tiberius, and acquitted. He afterwards 
conspired against Nero. — III. Vedius, 
one of the friends of Augustus, who used 
to feed his fishes with human flesh. See 
Pausilypus. 

Pollux, or TloXvSevK-ns, I., a son of 
Jupiter by Leda, wife of Tyndarus, and 
brother of Castor. See Castor. — II. A 
celebrated grammarian and teacher of 
rhetoric, was born at Naucratis. a city of 
Egypt, about the middle of the second 
century of our era. He was a pupil of 
Adrian the Sophist, and subsequently be- 
came a favourite of the emperors AureliaH 
and Commodus, the latter of whom ap- 
pointed him teacher of rhetoric at Athens. 
Of his numerous writings only the Ono- 
masticon, or " Dictionary of Greek Words," 
has come down to us. 

Polusca, a town of Latium, formerly 
capital of the Volsci. The inhabitants were 
called Pollustini. 

Polvjsnus, I., a native of Macedonia, 
who, at an advanced age, wrote in Greek 
eight books of Stratagems, which he dedi- 
cated to Antoninus and Verus, while they 
were making war against the Parthians. — 
II. A mathematician of Lampsaeus who 
afterwards followed the tenets of Epicurus, 
and disregarded geometry as a false and 
useless study, 

Polybus, or Polybius, a king of Co- 
rinth, and adoptive father of QZdipus. (See 
QZdipus.) He was succeeded by Adrastus, 
who had fled to Corinth for refuge. 

PoLyBius, I., an eminent Greek historian, 
born at Megalopolis in Arcadia, about 

b. c. 203. His father Lycortas was prae- 
tor of the Achaean republic, and the friend 
of Philopcemen, and under the latter Poly- 
bius learned the art of war, while he re- 
ceived from his own father the lessons of 
civil and political wisdom. He played a 
distinguished part in the history of his 
country as ambassador to the Roman ge- 
nerals, and as a commander of the Achaean 
cavalry. At the age of about twenty-five 



POL 



POL 



479 



years lie was selected by his father to join j 
an embassy to Egypt, which, however, 
was not sent. When forty years old he 
was carried as a hostage to Rome, where 
he remained for the space of seventeen 
years, and became the friend, the adviser, 
and the companion in arms of the younger 
Scipio. In order to collect materials for 
his great historical work, which he now 
projected, he travelled into Gaul, Spain, 
and even traversed a part of the Atlantic. 
Scipio gave him access to the registers or 
records, known by the name of libri censu- 
ales, which were preserved in the temple 
of Jupiter Capitolinus, as well as to other 
historic monuments. On his return to 
Greece, after the decree of the senate 
which granted the Achaean hostages per- 
mission to return to their homes, he proved 
of great service to his countrymen, and 
endeavoured, though fruitlessly, to dis- 
suade them from a war with the Romans. 
The war broke out when he was in Africa, 
whither he had accompanied Scipio, and 
with whom he was present at the taking 
of Carthage. He hastened home, but 
appears to have arrived only after the fall 
of Corinth. Greece having been reduced 
under the Roman power, he traversed the 
Peloponnesus as commissary, and by his 
mild and obliging deportment won the 
affections of all. Some years after he 
once more travelled in Egypt : a. u. c. 
620, he accompanied Scipio into Spain, 
and finally returned to Achaia, where 
he died at the advanced age of about 
eighty-two years, of a fall from his horse. 
Polybius gave to the world various histo- 
rical writings, which are entirely lost, 
with the exception of his " General His- 
tory " ('lo-Topia KadoXm}]), in forty books, 
universally admired for its authenticity. — 
II. A celebrated physician, pupil and son- 
in-law of Hippocrates, was born in Cos in 
the beginning of the fifth century of our 
era. 

Polycarpus, a father and martyr of the 
church, born probably at Smyrna during 
the reign of Nero. He was a disciple of 
the Apostle John, who appointed him 
bishop of his native city. He subsequently 
paid a visit to Rome, where he opposed 
the heresies of Marcion and Valentinus; 
and during the persecution of the Chris- 
tians under Marcus Aurelius, he suffered 
martyrdom with the most heroic fortitude, 

a. d. 169. His " Epistles to the Phi- 
lippians " has been preserved. 

Polycles, the name of two Grecian 
statuaries or sculptors often confounded 
with each other. The first lived about 

b. c. 370, and was a contemporary of some 



of the greatest sculptors of antiquity, 
Praxiteles, Leochares, and Lysippus. 
The second, who was son of Timarchides, 
a statuary of Athens, and a pupil of Sta- 
dieus, lived about b. c. 1 70. The works 
of both these artists were conveyed to 
Rome, where they were held in high esti- 
mation. 

Polycletus, I., a celebrated sculptor 
and statuary, born at Sicyon about jb. c. 
400 ; but who subsequently took up his 
residence in Argos, whence he styled him- 
self an Argive. He was a pupil of Age- 
ladas, and the works which he executed 
placed him in the foremost rank of the 
sculptors of his day. — II. Another, also 
a native of Argos, brother and pupil of 
Naucydes. 

Polycrates, I., a tyrant of Samos, who, 
from the condition of a private citizen, 
raised himself to the supreme power b. c. 
566. He shared, at first, the government 
of his country with his two brothers Pan- 
taleon and Syloson ; but subsequently he 
caused the former to be put to death, and 
expelled the latter, after which he reigned 
with undivided authority. He soon ac- 
quired a power which made him dreaded 
equally by his subjects and neighbours ; 
and his alliance was courted by some 
of the most powerful sovereigns of that 
period. He conquered the Lesbians and 
other islanders, and had a fleet of 100 
ships, a navy superior to that of any one 
state recorded at so eaily a date. After a 
long career of uninterrupted good fortune, 
he finally fell a victim to the cruel and 
artful designs of the Persian satrap Oroetes, 
who lured him on by the temptation of 
immense wealth; and, having induced 
him to come to Magnesia, on the river 
Maeander, and thus got him into his power, 
nailed him to a cross. The daughter of 
Polycrates had dissuaded her father from 
going to Oroetes, on account of ill-omened 
dreams with which she had been visited, 
but her advice was disregarded. The 
history of Polycrates has been given by 
Herodotus considerably in detail, Book III. 
— II. An Athenian rhetorician and so- 
phist, who <vrote an encomium on Busiris, 
and another on Clytemnestra. He wrote 
also an Oration against Socrates, after the 
death of the latter. 

Polydamas, I., a Trojan, son of An- 
tenor by Theano, sister of Hecuba. He 
married Lycaste, natural daughter of 
Priam, and is accused of having betrayed 
his country to the Greeks in conjunction 
with Antenor and iEneas. — II. A son of 
Panthous, a Delphian, who had married a 
niece of Priam, represented as one of the 



480 



POL 



POL 



wisest and most valiant of the Trojan 
host. He was killed by Ajax, after he 
had slaughtered a great number of the 
enemy. — III. A celebrated athlete of 
Scotussa, remarkable for his great size and 
strength. He is said to have killed a lion 
with his fist, to have stopped a chariot 
with his hand in its most rapid course, 
and to have performed numerous other 
deeds of strength of a similar kind. The 
fame of his exploits procured him a high 
position in the army of Artaxerxes ; but 
he was ultimately killed by the roof of a 
cave falling in upon him while he was en- 
deavouring to support it. A statue was 
erected to him at Olympia. 

Polydamna, wife of Thonis, king of 
Egypt, who gave Helen a powder which 
had the power of driving away melancholy. 

Polydectes, I., kiwg of Sparta, of the 
family of the Proclidae, son of Eunomus. 
; — II. A son of Magnes, king of the island 
of Seriphos, who received with great kind- 
ness Danae and her son Perseus, who had 
been exposed on the sea by Acrisius. See 
Perseus. — III. A sculptor of Greece. 

Polydorus, I., son of Alcamenes, king 
of Sparta. He put an end to the war, 
carried on for twenty years between Mes- 
senia and his subjects, established colonies 
at Crotona and Locri, and was finally assas- 
sinated by Polemarchus. His son Eury- 
crates succeeded him b. c. 724. — II. A ce- 
lebrated sculptor of Rhodes, who, together 
with Agesanderand Athenodorus, made the 
statue of Laocoon and his children. — III. 
A son of Cadmus and Hermione. He suc- 
ceeded to the throne of Thebes, when his 
father went to Illyricum, and married Nyc- 
teis, by whom he had Labdacus, father of 
Laius. — IV. A son of Priam, killed by 
Achilles. — V. Another son of Priam, 
by Hecuba, or, according to others, by 
Laothoe, daughter of Altes, king of Pe- 
dasus. When Troy was besieged by the 
Greeks, his father removed him to the 
court of Polymnestor, king of Thrace, and 
entrusted to the care of the monarch the 
greatest part of his treasures. But no 
sooner was the death of Priam known, 
than Polymnestor made himself master of 
the riches, assassinated young Polydorus, 
and threw his body into the sea. Virgil, 
however, gives a different version of the 
story. See Hecuba. 

Polygnotus, one of the most celebrated 
ancient painters, son of Aglaophon, was 
born at Thasos about b. c. 400. He ac- 
companied Cimon, son of Miltiades, to 
Athens, where he executed all his great 
works, Ihe chief of which went to adorn 
the Pcecile, and for which he obtained the 



right of citizenship, and the privilege of 
living at the public expense. 

Polygon us and Telegonus, sons of 
Proteus and Coronis, killed by Hercules. 

Polyhymnia and Polymnia, one of the 
Muses, daughter of Jupiter and Mne- 
mosyne, who presided over singing and 
rhetoric, and was deemed the inventress of 
harmony. She was represented veiled in 
white, holding a sceptre in her left hand, 
and with her right raised up, as if ready to 
harangue. 

Polymnestes, I., a Greek poet of Co- 
lophon. — II. A native of Thera, father 
of Battus or Aristoteles, by Phronima, 
a daughter of Etearchus, king of Oaxus. 

Polymnestor, a king of the Thracian 
Chersonesus, who married Ilione, one of 
the daughters of Priam. He treacherously 
put to death Polydorus, whom Priam had 
entrusted to his care, a deed which was 
afterwards amply avenged by Hecuba, 
who put out his eyes, and murdered his 
two sons. See Polydorus and Hecuba. 

Polynices, a son of OZdipus, king of 
Thebes, by Jocasta, and brother of Eteo- 
cles. See Eteocles and Adrastus. 

Polypemon. See Procrustes. 

Polype rchon, or Polysperchon, one of 
the officers of Alexander. Antipater, at his 
death, appointed him governor of the king- 
dom of Macedonia in preference to his own 
son Cassander; but Polyperchon showed 
great ignorance in the administration of the 
government, and was killed in battle, b. c. 
309. 

Polyphemus, a son of Neptune and 
Thoosa, daughter of Phorcys, and king of 
the Cyclopes in Sicily. (See Cyclopes.) 
Ulysses, at his return from the Trojan war 
with twelve of his companions having 
visited the coast of Sicily, was seized by 
Polyphemus, who confined them in his cave, 
and daily devoured two of them. The 
Grecian hero would have shared the fate of 
his companions, had he not intoxicated the 
Cyclops, and put out his eye with a fire- 
brand while he was asleep. The monster, 
writhing with sudden pain, stopped the 
entrance of the cave to prevent the escape 
of his enemies; but Ulysses eluded his 
vigilance by fastening the sheep together, 
" three and three," with osier bands, and 
by tying one of his companions beneath the 
middle one of every three. In this way 
the whole party passed out safely. Poly- 
phemus became enamoured of Galatasa, 
whose lover Acis he slew out of jealousy. 
See Galatea. 

Polysperchon. See Polyperchon. 

Polyxena, a daughter of Priam and 
Hecuba, celebrated for beauty, accom- 



POL 



POM 



481 



plishments, and misfortunes. See Achil- 
les. 

Polyxo, I., a priestess of Apollo's tem- 
ple in Lemnos; she was nurse to queen 
Hypsipyle, and it was by her advice that 
the Lemnian women murdered their hus- 
bands. — II. One of the Atlantides. — 
III. A woman of Argos, who married 
Tlepolemus, son of Hercules, afterwards 
king of Rhodes, on whose departure for 
the Trojan war with the rest of the Greek 
princes she became sole mistress of the 
kingdom. After the Trojan war, Helen, 
having fled to Rhodes, was put to death 
by Polyxo, in revenge for the fate of her 
own husband, who perished at Troy. See 
Helena. 

Polvzelus, I., a poet of the old comedy, 
who flourished about the time of the bat- 
tle of Arginusae. The titles of some of 
his pieces have reached us. — II. An his- 
torian, a native of Rhodes. 

POMETIA. See SUESSA POMETIA. 

Pomona, a goddess among the Romans, 
presiding over fruit-trees. Her worship 
was of long standing at Rome, where there 
was a Flamen Pomonalis, who sacrificed to 
her every year for the preservation of the 
fruit. She lived in the time of Procas, 
king of Alba, devoted to the culture of 
gardens, to which she confined herself, and 
shunning all society with the male deities. 
Vertumnus, under various shapes, tried to 
win her hand : sometimes he came as a 
reaper, sometimes as a haymaker, some- 
times as a ploughman or a vine-dresser, a 
soldier and a fisherman, but to equally 
little purpose. At length, under the guise 
of an old woman, he won the confidence 
of the goddess ; and, by enlarging on the 
evils of a single life and the blessings of 
the wedded state, by launching out into 
the praises of Vertumnus, and relating a 
tale of the punishment of female cruelty 
to a lover, he moved the heart of Pomona : 
whereupon, resuming his real form, he ob- 
tained the hand of the no longer reluctant 
nymph. 

Pompeia, Gens, an illustrious plebeian 
family at Rome, divided into two branches, 
the Rufi and Strdbones. A subdivision of 
the Rufi bore the surname of Bithynicus, 
from a victory gained by one of their num- 
ber in Bithynia. From the line of the 
Strabones Pompey the Great was de- 
scended. 

Pompeia, I., daughter of Q. Pompeius, 
and third Avife of Julius Caesar. Clodius 
having introduced himself into her dwell- 
ing, during the festival of the Bona Dea, 
in the disguise of a female musician, Cae- 
sar divorced her on the ground that the 



wife of Caesar ought not only to be clear 
from crime, but also from the very suspi- 
cion of it. — II. Daughter of Pompey the 
Great, and wife of Faustus Sylla. After 
the battle of Thapsus, she fell into the 
hands of Caesar, who generously preserved 
her life and property. — III. A daughter 
of Sextus Pompeius and Scribonia, pro- 
mised in marriage to Metellus, as a pledge 
of peace between her father and the tri- 
umvirs. She was wedded, however, even- 
tually to Scribonius Libo. — IV. Macrina, 
great grand-daughter of Theophanes of 
Miletus, who had been a firm friend of 
Pompey. Tiberius put her to death be- 
cause she belonged to a family that had 
been hostile to Caesar. 

Pompeianus, I., a Roman knight of 
Antioch, raised to offices of the greatest 
trust under Aurelius, whose daughter Lu= 
cilia he married. He lived in great popu- 
larity at Rome, but retired from the court 
when Commodus succeeded to the imperial 
crown. — II. Claudius, a Roman, be- 
trothed to the daughter of Lucilla above 
mentioned. He attempted to slay Com- 
modus, but was arrested by the guards, 
and condemned to death. 

Pompeii, or Pompeia, a city of Cam- 
pania, in the immediate vicinity of Mount 
Vesuvius. The aera of its foundation, as 
well as the greater part of its early history, 
is involved in obscurity ; but the presump- 
tion is, that it was settled by Osci and 
Pelasgi prior to the establishment on this 
coast of the Greek colonies from Eubcea. 
About 440 b. c. it fell into the hands of 
the Samnites, from whom it was taken, 
with their other possessions, by the Romans, 
about eighty years afterwards. Pompeii 
revolted, with the other Campanian towns, 
during the Social War ; and little more is 
known of it till it was visited by an earth- 
quake (a. d. 63), which occasioned great 
devastation. The repairs consequent to 
this disaster were incomplete, as is seen 
by the state of the excavated ruins, when 
the city, with Herculaneum, Stabiae, and 
other towns in its vicinity, was wholly 
overwhelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius, 
a. d. 79. See Herculaneum. 

Pompeius, I., Q. Nepos Rufus, was 
consul b. c. 141, and the first of the Pom- 
peian family who filled that office. Being 
sent into Spain as proconsul, he laid siege 
to Numantia, but without success ; and 
having finally induced the Numantines to 
capitulate on very advantageous terms, 
afterwards denied that any such treaty had 
been made. He was chosen censor b. c. 
ISO. — II. Rufus, son of the preceding, 
joint consul with Sylla, b. c. 88. He was 

T 



482 



POM 



POM 



sent to finish the Marsian war; but the 
army mutinied at the instigation of Pom. 
peius Strabo, whom he was to succeed in 
command, and he was assassinated by the 
soldiers. — III. Cn., surnamed Strabo, from 
his squinting, father of Pompey the Great, 
was one of the principal Roman com- 
manders in the Social War. He brought the 
siege of Asculum to a triumphant issue. 
He also gained a victory over the Marsi, and 
compelled that people, together with the 
Vestini, Marrucini, and Peligni, to make a 
separate peace. But his undecided measures 
at this period enabled the democratic 
party under Cinna to make great progress ; 
and his avarice and cruelty so exasperated 
the soldiers, that when soon afterwards he 
was killed by lightning in his own tent, 
they dragged his corpse from the bier on 
the way to the funeral pile, and treated it 
with the greatest indignity. — IV. Cneius, 
surnamed Magnus from the greatness of 
his exploits, son of Pompeius Strabo and 
Lucilia, was born s. c. 106, a few months 
after the birth of Cicero. As soon as he 
had assumed the manly gown, he entered 
the Roman army, and made his first cam- 
paigns with great distinction under the 
orders of his parent. The beauty of his 
person, the grace and elegance of his man- 
ners, and his winning eloquence, gained 
him, at an early age, the hearts of both 
citizens and soldiers ; and he even, on one 
occasion, possessed sufficient influence to 
save the life of his father, when Cinna 
had gained over some of the soldiery of 
Strabo, and a mutiny ensued. After the 
death of his father, against whom a charge 
was preferred of converting the public 
money to his own use, Pompey, as his 
heir, was obliged to answer it. But he 
pleaded his own cause with so much 
ability and acuteness, and gained so much 
applause, that Antistius, the praetor, who 
had the hearing of the cause, conceived 
a high regard for him, and offered him 
his daughter in marriage. After the 
establishment of Cinna's power at Rome, 
Pompey retired to Picenum, where he 
possessed some property, and where his 
father's memory, though hated by the 
Romans, was regarded with respect and 
affection, owing to the kindness he had dis- 
played to the inhabitants during the long pe- 
riod of his military command in that neigh- 
bourhood. Here Pompey succeeded in rais- 
ing an army of three legions, or about six- 
teen or seventeen thousand men. With this 
force he set out to join Sylla, and after suc- 
cessfully repelling several attacks from the 
adverse party, he effected a junction with 
that commander, who received him in the 



most flattering manner, and saluted him, 
though only twenty-three years of age, 
with the title of imperator. After a brief 
but successful campaign in Sicily, Africa, 
and Spain, he returned to Rome, where 
Sylla saluted him with the appellation of 
Great; and after obtaining a triumph, 
though only a Roman knight, he appeared 
not as a dependant, but as a rival of the 
dictator. After the death of Sylla, he 
supported himself against the remains of 
the Marian faction, headed by Lepidus; 
put an end to the war of Sertorius in Spain, 
and obtained a second triumph, though 
still a private citizen, about b. c. 73. Al- 
though he had yet held none of those civil 
offices through which it was customary to 
pass to the consulship, he was elected joint 
consul with Crassus, b. c. 70. Two years 
after the expiration of this office, being 
appointed proconsul, he cleared the Medi- 
terranean of piratical vessels, which had 
for years crippled the Roman naval power, 
got possession of their fortresses and towns, 
set free a great number of prisoners, and 
took captive 20,000 pirates, to whom he 
assigned the coast-towns of Cilicia and 
other provinces, which had been abandoned 
by their inhabitants, and thus deprived 
them of an opportunity of returning to 
their former course. Meanwhile the war 
against Mithridates had been carried 
on with various fortune ; and although 
Lucullus had pushed the enemy hard, 
yet the latter still found new means 
to continue the contest. Armed by the 
senate with extraordinary powers, Pom- 
pey arrived in Asia b. c. 67 ; and having 
received the command from Lucullus, he 
so totally defeated the enemy that the 
Asiatic monarch escaped with difficulty 
from the field of battle. He then entered 
Armenia ; received the submission of Ti- 
granes ; conquered the Albanians and Ibe- 
rians ; visited countries scarcely known to 
the Romans ; disposed of kingdoms and 
provinces ; received homage from twelve 
crowned heads at once ; entered Syria, and 
pushed his conquests as far as the Red Sea ; 
made Judaea into a Roman province ; and 
returned to Italy with all the pomp of an 
Eastern conqueror. The Romans dreaded 
his approach, but Pompey banished their 
fears by disbanding his army. This modest 
behaviour gained him numerous friends and 
adherents, and he was honoured with a 
triumph. To strengthen himself, he soon 
after united his interest with that of Caesar 
and Crassus, and formed the first trium- 
virate ; an agreement which was completed 
by the marriage of Pompey with Julia, 
daughter of Caesar. This confederacy, 



POM 



POM 



483 



however, was soon broken by the sudden 
death of Julia, and total defeat of Crassus 
in Syria. Pompey dreaded his father-in- 
law, and yet affected to despise him ; and 
by suffering anarchy to prevail in Rome, he 
convinced his fellow-citizens of the necessity 
of investing him with dictatorial power. 
But while the conqueror of Mithridates 
was as a sovereign at Rome, the adherents 
of Caesar demanded that the consulship 
should be given to him, or he should be 
continued in the government of Gaul. 
Cato opposed it ; and when Pompey sent 
for the two legions lent to Caesar, the 
breach became more wide. Caesar then 
crossed the Rubicon, — a declaration of hos- 
tilities, — and Pompey fled from the city, 
and retired to Brundusium with the con- 
suls and part of the senators. His cause 
was popular ; he had been invested with 
discretionary powers; and Cato, by em- 
bracing his cause, and appearing in his 
camp, seemed to indicate that he was the 
assertor of Roman independence. But Cae- 
sar was now master of Rome ; and in sixty 
days all Italy acknowledged his power. 
When he had gained to his cause the west- 
ern parts of the Roman empire, he crossed 
Italy, and arrived in Greece, whither 
Pompey had retired, supported by all the 
powers of the East, and a numerous and 
well-disciplined army. At last the two 
armies engaged in the plains of Pharsalia. 
The result is well known. Pompey was 
out-manoeuvred, his army thrown into 
otal rout, his camp pillaged, and himself 
obliged to fly, leaving the field with only 
his son Sextus and a few followers of rank. 
He set sail from Mytilene, having taken 
on board his wife Cornelia, and made for 
Egypt, intending to claim the hospitality 
of the young King Ptolemy, to whom the 
senate had appointed him guardian. As 
he came near Mount Casius, the Egyptian 
army was seen on the shore, and their fleet 
lying off at some distance, when, presently, 
a boat was observed approaching the ship 
from the land. The persons in the boat 
jnvited him to enter, for the purpose of 
anding ; but, as he was stepping ashore, 
he was stabbed in the sight of his wife and 
son, b. c. 48, in the fifty-ninth year of his 
age. His head and ring were sent to Cae- 
sar, who ordered the head to be burned 
with perfumes in the Roman method. 
Cornelia and her friends instantly put to 
sea, and escaped the pursuit of the Egyptian 
fleet, wTiieh threatened to intercept them. 
Pompey married four different times ; first, 
Antistia, daughter of the praetor Antistius, 
whom he divorced to marry iEmilia, daugh- 
ter-in-law of Sylla, who died in childbed. 



His hird marriage with Julia, daughter 
of Caesar, was a step more of policy than 
affection ; but Julia was deeply attached 
to him, and her death in childbed was the 
signal of war between her husband and 
father. His fourth wife was Cornelia, 
daughter of Metellus Scipio, a woman of 
great virtues and accomplishments. Pom- 
pey left two sons by his first wife, Cneius 
and Sextus, who offered a strenuous re- 
sistance to Caesar, after the death of their 
father ; but they were defeated at the battle 
of Munda, and Cneius left among the 
slain. Sextus fled to Sicily, where he for 
some time supported himself, and defeated 
two lieutenants of Caesar, on whose death 
he demanded the restitution of his father's 
property. His claim was acceded to at the 
instigation of Antony ; but no sooner had 
he obtained it, than he repaired to Sicily, of 
which he made himself master, and raised 
so great a naval power that he struck the 
Roman senate with alarm. He was, how- 
ever, finally defeated in a naval engagement 
by Octavius and Lepidus, and of all his 
numerous fleet, 350 ships, only seventeen 
sail accompanied his flight to Asia. Here 
for a moment he raised seditions ; but An- 
tony ordered him to be put to death, about 
b. c. 35. In allusion to his great naval 
power, Sextus used to style himself " Son 
of Neptune." — V. Trogus. See Tro- 
gus. — Pompeius was the name of numerous 
other persons in Roman history. 

Pompelo, Pampeluna, a city of His- 
pania Tarraconensis, in the territory of the 
Vascones. 

Pompilius, Noma, the second king of 
Rome. (See Numa.) His descendants 
were called Pompilius Sanguis, an expres- 
sion applied by Horace to the Pisos. 

Pomponius, I. Atticus. See Atticus. 
— II. Mela. See Mela. — III. Festus. 
See Festus. — IV. Andronicus, a native 
of Syria, who cam to Rome, and became 
a follower of the Epicurean sect. Dis- 
satisfied with his little success, he after- 
wards retired to Cumae, where he lived in 
great poverty, and composed several works. 
— V. Marclleus, a Latin grammarian in 
the time of Tiberius. He occasionally 
pleaded causes, and is said to have been 
originally a pugilist. — VI. Secundus, a 
Roman tragic poet, who flourished in the 
middle of the first century of our era, and 
died a.d. 60, after having held the office 
of consul. — VII. Sextus, a Roman law- 
yer, who appears to have lived in the 
time of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. 
He attained to high reputation as a ju 
rist, and wrote several works on Juris- 
prudence. 

Y 2 



484 



POM 



PON 



Pomptin^s Paludes. See Pontine Pa- 
ludes. 

Pontia, now Ponza, an island off the 
coast of Latium, and south of the promon- 
tory of Circeii. It received a Roman co- 
lony, a. u.c. 441, and obtained the thanks 
of the Roman senate in the second Punic 
war. It became afterwards the place to 
which the victims of Tiberius and Caligula 
were sent to be murdered. 

Pontic um Mare, the sea of Pontus, 
generally called Euxine. 

Ponticus, I., a poet of Rome, contem- 
porary with Propertius. — II. A man in 
Juvenal's age, fond of boasting of the an- 
tiquity, &c. of his family, without possess- 
ing himself one single virtue. 

Pontifex, the highest Roman sacerdotal 
title. The pontifices were originally four 
in number, afterwards increased to eight, 
called the Majores ; and in the time of 
Sylla seven more were added, called the 
Minores. The chief of the pontifices was 
called the pontifex maximus, and was always 
created by the people, being generally 
chosen from those who had borne the first 
offices in the state. His station was one 
of great dignity and power, as he not only 
had supreme authority in religious rftatters, 
but, in consequence of the close connection 
between the civil government and religion 
of Rome, be had also considerable political 
influence. The title of pontifex maximus 
being for life, Augustus never assumed it 
till the death of Lepidus, after which it 
was always held by himself and his suc- 
cessors to the time of Theodosius. The in- 
signia consisted of the toga prcetexta, and a 
conical woollen cap with a tassel (galerus). 

Pontine Paludes, or Pomptinte Pa- 
ludes, a marshy tract of country in the 
territory of the Volsci. These fens were oc- 
casioned by the quantity of water carried 
into the plain by numberless streams, which 
sometimes stagnated in pools, or lost them- 
selves in the sands. Trajan drained the 
country from Treponti and Terracina, and 
restored the Appian Way, which the ne- 
glect of the marshes in the previous reigns 
had rendered nearly impassable. These 
marshes, formidable at the present day, 
still corrupt the atmosphere for many miles 
round. 

Pontius, a name common to many Ro- 
mans, of whom the most distinguished was 
a commander of the Samnites, who entrap- 
ped the Roman army in the defile of Sam- 
nium called the " Caudine Forks " ( Furcce 
Caudince), and compelled them to pass un- 
der the yoke. He was afterwards defeated 
in his turn, and subjected to the same ig- 
nominy by the Romans. 



Pontus, I., a kingdom of Asia Minor. 
The name implies a political rather than a 
geographical division of territory ; having 
been originally applied to the coast of the 
Euxine, situated between the Colchian ter- 
ritory and the river Halys, but afterwards 
extended to the mountainous districts which 
lie towards Cappadocia and Armenia, and 
including at one time Paphlagonia and part 
of Bithynia. The denomination itself was 
unknown to Herodotus, and even Xeno- 
phon adheres always to the same local dis- 
tinctions of nations and tribes used by He- 
rodotus : such as the Chalybes, Tibareni, 
Mosynoeci, &c. It was first erected into 
a kingdom by Ariobarzanes I., about four 
centuries b. c. ; but it was not till after 
the death of Alexander that the Pontine 
dynasty makes any figure in history ; and 
it reached the acme of its greatness and 
prosperity under Mithridates the Great. 
(See Mithridates.) After the overthrow 
of Mithridates the Great, Pompey annexed 
the greater part of Pontus to Bithynia, and 
the rest he assigned to Deiotarus, tetrarch 
of Galatia, and a zealous ally of Rome ; 
a small portion of Paphlagonia being re- 
served for some native chiefs of that coun- 
try. During the civil wars waged by 
Caesar and Pompey, Pharnaces, son of Mi- 
thridates, succeeded in taking Sinope, Ami- 
sus, and some other towns of Pontus. But 
Julius Caesar, after the defeat of Pompey, 
marched into Pontus, and gained a com- 
plete victory over the army of Pharnaces, 
the facility with which it was obtained 
being expressed by the victor in the ce- 
lebrated words, " Veni, Vidi, Vici. " But the 
intestine troubles of Pontus continued to 
rage without interruption, till the time of 
Nero, when it was reduced to the form of 
a province. It was subsequently divided 
into three parts, Galaticus, Cappadocius, 
Polemoniacus, and under the Byzantine em- 
perors the two former were included under 
the name of Helenopontus, derived from 
Helena, the mother of Constantine. Pon- 
tus was chiefly a mountainous country, 
especially towards the north-east frontier. 
The climate was consequently extremely 
bleak and severe, the soil rugged and bar- 
ren, and the different tribes scattered over 
its surface wild and savage to the last de- 
gree. But the western portion of the coun- 
try, around the Halys, and the valleys of 
the Thermodon and Iris, were rich and fer- 
tile, and abounded in produce of every 
kind. The chief cities of Pontus were, 
Trapezus, Cerasus, Amasia, Comana, Zela, 
and Neocaesarea. — II. Euxinus. See 
Euxinus. — III. A marine deity, identical 
with Oceanus. 



POP 



POR 



485 



Popilius, L, M. Popilius Laenas, con- 
sul b. c. 356, in which year he de- 
feated the Tiburtines, who had made an 
incursion into the Roman territory, and 
had advanced by night to the city gates. 
He obtained the consulship a second time, 
B.C. S53 ; a third time, b.c. 347, in which 
year he defeated the Gauls, and ob- 
tained a triumph ; and two years afterwards 
he was chosen consul for the fourth time. 
— II. M. Laenas, consul b. c. 173. During 
the war with the Ligurians, he marched 
into the friendly territory of the Satelliates, 
whom he defeated and sold into slavery. 
He refused to obey the order of the senate 
to make every restitution in his power ; 
and though he was subsequently brought 
to trial for contumacy, he was acquitted 
by the influence of his brother. ( See Po- 
pilius III.) He accompanied the consul 
Philippus to Macedonia as military tribune, 
B. c. 169. — III. C. Lamas, brother of the 
preceding, attained the consulship b. c. 1 72, 
and only signalised his administration of 
that office by his intrigues in favour of his 
brother when charged with official mis- 
conduct. (See Popilius II.) Not long 
after this he was sent, with two other se- 
nators, to Egypt, on account of the dif- 
ference subsisting between Cleopatra and 
Ptolemy Euergetes on the one hand, and 
Antiochus Epiphanes on the other. An- 
tiochus was at the gates of Alexandria, 
and preparing to lay siege to the city, when 
the Roman deputies arrived ; but so spi- 
rited was the conduct of Popilius on this 
occasion, that Antiochus at once agreed to 
evacuate Egypt. — IV. A tribune, who 
commanded the party which slew Cicero. 
It is said that the orator had defended him 
at one time against a charge of parricide. 
This, however, some regard as a pure in- 
vention of the later grammarians, who 
sought for brilliant themes on which to 
declaim. 

Poplicola. See Publicola. 

Poppaea Sabina, I., daughter of Pop- 
pasus Sabinus, and wife of T. Ollius. She 
lived in the time of the Emperor Clau- 
dius, and was considered one of the most 
beautiful women of her time ; but she 
was no less distinguished for her dissolute 
habits ; and having incurred the jealousy 
of Messalina, was compelled to put herself 
to death. — II. Daughter of the preced- 
ing, whose personal beauty and moral de- 
pravity she had inherited. She was first 
married to Rufus Crispinus, prasfect of 
the praetorian cohorts under Claudius, and 
bore him a daughter ; but abandoned her 
husband for the society of Otho. Either 
through vanity or indiscretion, the charms 



of Poppaea were made a constant theme 
of eulogium by Otho in the presence of 
the emperor Nero, until the curiosity of 
the latter was excited, and he became 
desirous of beholding her. His licentious 
spirit soon acknowledged the power of 
her charms, and the air of modest re- 
serve assumed by this artful woman only 
drew him the more effectually into her 
toils. Otho was put out of the way 
by being sent to Lusitania with the title 
of governor ; and Poppaea now obtained 
over the emperor such an irresistible as- 
cendency, that at. her instigation he even 
murdered his mother Agrippina, and di- 
vorced his wife Octavia to elevate Poppaea 
to the throne. In the third year after her 
marriage, Nero in a fit of anger gave 
Poppaea, who was pregnant, a kick in the 
stomach, which caused her death. By his 
orders her body was embalmed with the 
most costly spices, and deposited in the 
monument of the Julian family. He him- 
self pronounced the funeral oration, in 
which he praised her for her beauty, and 
for being the mother of a divine infant 
( which had died at the age of four months). 
Poppaea was so solicitous about her beauty, 
that she used to bathe every day in the 
milk of 500 she-asses, which were kept for 
that purpose. 

Popp^eus Sabinus, the maternal grand- 
father of the empress Poppaea. He held 
under Tiberius the government of Moesia, 
Achaia, and Macedonia. a. d. 25, he 
obtained the insignia of a triumph for suc- 
cesses over the Thracian tribes; and after at- 
taining to the office of consul, died a.d.35. 

Populonia, or Populanium, a flourish- 
ing maritime town of Etruria, on a pro- 
montory of the same name. 

Porcia, I., a sister of Cato of Utica, 
greatly commended by Cicero. — II. A 
daughter of Cato of Utica, married Bi- 
bulus, and, after his death, Brutus. Brutus 
revealed to her the conspiracy which he and 
other illustrious Romans had formed against 
Julius Caesar. After her husband's death 
she refused to survive him, and ended her 
life by swallowing burning coals, about 
a. d. 42. 

Porcia lex, de civitate, a law enacted 
by M. Porcius, the tribune, a. u. c. 557, 
that no magistrate should punish with 
death, or scourge with rods, a Roman 
citizen, but only permit him to go into 
exile. 

Porcius Latro, a rhetorician, supposed 
by some to have been the author of a de- 
clamation against Cicero, which has come 
down to us, but which others ascribe to 
Sallust or to Vibius Crisp us. He killed 
Y 3 



4S6 



POR 



POS 



himself while labouring under a quartan 
jigue, b. c. 4. 

Porphyrion, son of Coelus and Terra, 
one of the giants who made war against 
Jupiter, by whom, in conjunction with 
Hercules, he was slain. 

Porphyrius, L, a Platonic philosopher 
of Tyre, born a. d. 233, originally called 
Melek, in Syriac "king;" hence sometimes 
called King. He studied eloquence at 
Athens under Longinus, who changed his 
name to Porphyrius, from iropcpvpa, " pur- 
ple," a colour usually worn by kings, and 
afterwards retired to Rome, where he per- 
fected himself under Plotinus. His trea- 
tises against Christianity were supposed to 
have been written in Sicily. He died at 
the age of seventy-one, a. d. 304, being 
universally called the greatest enemy of the 
Christian religion — II. A Latin poet in 
the reign of Constantine the Great. 

Porsenna, or Porsena (called also 
Lars Porsenna), was Lucumo of Clusium, 
and the most powerful of all the Etrurian 
monarchs of his time. Tarquinius Su- 
perbus, after being driven from his throne, 
finding the inability of the Veientians and 
Tarquinians to replace him, applied to 
Porsenna, who raised a large army and 
marched towards Rome. He was met by 
the Romans near the fortress on the Jani- 
culan Hill ; but almost at the first en- 
counter they took to flight, and the Etru- 
rians pursued them impetuously as they 
sought safety by crossing the Pons Sub- 
licius. After a series of brilliant exploits 
and heroic deeds on the part of the Ro- 
mans, in which the names of Codes, Mu- 
tius Sca^vola, and Clcelia are conspicuous, 
Porsenna quitted Rome, entered the Latin 
territories, and attacked Aricia, the chief 
town of Latium. The Aricians, being 
aided by the other Latin cities, and also 
by the Cumasans, under the command of 
Aristodemus, defeated the Etruscans in a 
great battle, and put a stop to their ag- 
gressions. The Romans received the fu- 
gitives from Porsenna's army, and treated 
them with great kindness ; in requital of 
which, Porsenna restored to them the 
lands which he had conquered beyond the 
Tiber. The remains of Porsenna were in- 
terred in a splendid mausoleum near Clu- 
sium. The story of Porsenna has been 
examined with great care by modern lite- 
rati, most of whom are of opinion that the 
war of the Romans with Porsenna was, 
in reality, a great outbreak of the Etruscan 
power upon the nations southward of 
Etruria, in the very front of whom lay the 
Romans. The Roman historians naturally 
enough sought to throw a veil of romance 



over the defeats of their ancestors; but, 
disguise the fact as they will, the result of 
the war was the complete conquest of 
Rome by the invaders, who only restored 
to the Romans their city and territory on 
condition of their renouncing the use of 
iron, except for implements of husbandry. 

Portia and Portius. See Porcia and 
Porcius. 

Portumnalia, festivals of Portumnus 
at Rome. 

Portumnus, a sea-deity. See Meli- 
certa. 

Portjs, king of a part of northern India, 
between the Hydaspes and Acesines, and 
remarkable for his stature, strength, and 
dignity of mien. When Alexander invaded 
India Porus collected his forces on the 
left bank of the Hydaspes to defend the 
passage. The Macedonian monarch, how- 
ever, crossed the river by stratagem, at 
the distance of a day's march above his 
camp, and defeated the son of Porus. In 
a subsequent action he gained a decisive 
victory over Porus himself, who was taken 
prisoner. On being brought into the 
presence of Alexander, all that Porus 
would ask of his conqueror was to be 
treated as a king ; and when Alexander 
replied that this was no more than a king 
must do for his own sake, and bade him 
make some request for himself, his reply 
was still, that all was included in this. 
His expectations could scarcely have 
equalled the conqueror's munificence ; for 
he was not only reinstated in his royal 
dignity, but received a large addition of 
territory. 

Posideuji, L, a promontory in Caria, 
between Miletus and the Iassian Gulf. — 
II. A promontory of Chios, nearest the 
mainland of Ionia. — III. A promontory 
in the northern part of Bithynia, now 
Tschautche-Aghisi, &c. — The name im- 
plies a promontory sacred to Neptune 
(TlocreiS&v). 

Posidon (JloaeiScoi/), the name of Nep- 
tune among the Greeks. See Neptunus. 

Posidonia. See Pjestum. 

Posidonius, I., a Stoic philosopher, 
and the last of that series of Stoics which 
belongs to the history of the Greek phi- 
losophy, was born at Apamasa in Syria 
about b. c. 1 69. After teaching philo- 
sophy at Rhodes with great success, he 
retired to Rome, where he cultivated the 
friendship of Pompey and Cicero, and 
died in his eighty-fourth year. Besides his 
philosophical treatises, Posidonius wrote 
works on geography, history, and astro- 
nomy, of which, however, nothing but the 
titles remains. — II. An astronomer and 



POS 



PRJE 



487 



mathematician of Alexandria, and disciple 
of Zeno, who probably flourished about 
B. c. 260. 

Posthumius Albixus. See Albincs III. 

Posthumus, Marcus Crassus Latianus, 
an officer proclaimed emperor in Gaul, a. d. 
260. He administered justice impartially, 
and defended the frontier against the 
Germans with valour and success. Pos- 
sessed of J;he affections of the people, he 
easily maintained himself against all the ef- 
forts of Gallienus , but he was slain at last 
(267) in a mutiny of his own soldiers, to 
whom he had refused to plunder the city 
of Mentz, in which a rival emperor had 
appeared. 

Postverta, a goddess at Home, who 
presided over the travails of women. 

Pot amides, nymphs, presided over rivers 
and fountains ; from irorayLds, a river. 

PoxA3ios, a borough of Attica, connected 
with the tribe Leontis, where was the 
tomb of Ion, the son of Xanthus. 

Potid^ea, a city of Macedonia, situated 
on the isthmus connecting the peninsula 
of Pallene with the mainland. It was 
founded by the Corinthians, though at 
what period is not apparent; it must, how- 
ever, have existed some time before the 
Persian war, as we know from Herodotus 
that it sent troops to Plataea. After the 
Persian war it became subject to the 
Athenians ; from whom, however, it re- 
volted b. c. 432, but was again taken after 
a siege of two years. It subsequently fell 
under the power of Philip of Macedon ; 
but under Cassander its inhabitants were 
transferred to the new eity Cassandrea, 
after which it fell into decay. 

Potitii. See Pinaril 

PotkLe, Taki, a city of Bceotia, about 
ten stadia south-west of Thebes, famous 
for a grove dedicated to Ceres and Pro- 
serpina. It was here that Glaucus was 
said to have been torn in pieces by his 
infuriated mares. 

Pr^exeste, an ancient city of Latium, 
about twenty-one miles south-east of Rome, 
built by Telegunus, son of Ulysses and 
Circe, or, according to others, by Cteculus, 
son of Vulcan, and celebrated for a mag- 
nificent temple of Fortune, and an oracle 
which continued to be consulted down to 
the period of the early Roman emperors. 
Praeneste first formed an alliance with 
Rome in the war which followed the ex- 
pulsion cf Tarquinius ; but we soon find 
it ranged under the banner of the Latin 
states against the Romans, with whom it 
maintained perpetual hostilities till it was 
finally captured by Sylla, who put the 
inhabitants to the sword. The site of 



Praeneste is occupied by Palesfrina, where 
many statues and other remains of anti- 
quity have been found. 

Pr^tor, a Roman magistrate ranking 
in dignity next to the consuls. Anciently 
the name of praetor was common to all 
the chief magistrates ; but, on account of 
the continual absence of the consuls in 
foreign wars, and their consequent inabi- 
lity to discharge many of their civil duties, 
a new civil magistrate was created to sup- 
ply their place (a. u. c. 389), to whom the 
title of praetor was specially assigned. He 
was at first elected from the patricians, 
but the office was afterwards (a.u.c. 418) 
thrown open also to the plebeians. When 
it was found that a single praetor was in- 
adequate to the due discharge of his duties, 
in consequence of the great influx of 
strangers, another was added (a.u.c. 519) 
to administer justice in cases in which 
they were involved, with the epithet pere- 
gritms attached to his title, to distinguish 
him from the more ancient and honourable 
magistrate, the prcetor vrbanas, as he was 
called. This latter dignitary corresponded 
in many respects to the lord mayors, 
mayors, or provosts of our country, com- 
bining with their functions the judicial 
power of lord chancellor. Besides this he 
performed the duties of the consuls on 
many occasions in their absence, presiding 
in the assemblies of the people, and con- 
vening the senate. So long as the Roman 
empire was confined to Italy, the number 
of pra?tors did not exceed two ; but on the 
reduction of Sicily and Sardinia to the 
form of provinces, two more were added 
to govern them, and again two more were 
created on the subjection of Hither and 
Farther Spain to the Roman yoke. The 
praetors on being elected determined their 
province, like the consuls, by casting lots. 
Under the emperors the powers of the 
praetors were reduced, their principal 
functions being transferred to the praetorian 
praefect ; but the name of the magistrate 
continued to the time of Justinian. 

Pretoria, or Augusta Pretoria, a 
city of Cisalpine Gaul in the territory of 
the Salassi, built by Terentius Varro, and 
considered the extreme point of Italy in 
the north. 

Pr.32to RiiE Cohortes, a body of troops 
among the Romans, distinguished from the 
rest of the army by double pay and su- 
perior privileges ; first -instituted by Au- 
gustus, and called by that name, in imita- 
tion of the select band which attended a 
Roman general in battle. At their first 
institution they were nine in number, three 
being stationed at Rome, and the rest in 
Y 4 



488 



PRI 



the adjacent towns of Italy, and consisted 
of Italian soldiers only. Tiberius assem- 
bled them all at Rome, and placed them 
in a permanent camp ; a measure which, 
while it answered the purpose of keeping 
the citizens in awe, proved dangerous and 
sometimes destructive to his successors. 
The emperor Severus disarmed the old 
guards, and established the praetorian co- 
horts on a new footing, increasing their 
number, and filling them entirely with 
troops draughted from the armies of the 
northern frontier. The command of these 
troops was vested in an officer called the 
praetorian prasfect, who, as the government 
gradually degenerated into a military des- 
potism, rose from the station of simple 
captain of the guards not only to be the 
head of the army, but of the provinces, and 
even of the law. In every department of 
administration he represented the person 
and exercised the authority of the emperor. 
The praetorian bands were deprived of 
all their privileges by Dioclesian, who re- 
placed them by other troops, and were 
finally abolished by Constantine. 

PRiETOiuus, a name ironically applied 
to As. Sempronius Rufus, because disap- 
pointed in his solicitations for the praetor- 
ship. 

Pratinas, a Greek poet of Phlius, con- 
temporary with iEschylus, and usually 
regarded as the inventor of the satiric 
drama. 

Praxagoras, I., a celebrated physician of 
Cos, belonging to the family of the Ascle- 
piadae, born about b. c. 360. His most 
celebrated pupil was Herophilus, and he 
himself was particularly distinguished for 
his skill in anatomy and physiology. Only 
a few fragments of his works remain. — II. 
An Athenian, who lived about a. d. 345, 
and wrote at an early age several historical 
and biographical works, none of which 
remain. 

Praxiteles, a famous sculptor of anti- 
quity, who flourished about b. c. 364 ; 
Cnidus, Andros, and Paros contended for 
the honour of his birth ; but their claims 
are still unsettled. He worked both in 
bronze and marble, and carried his art to 
the greatest perfection. Pliny has left a 
complete list of the works of Praxiteles. 
Of those that have utterly perished, the 
nude and draped, or Coan and Cnidian 
Venus of Praxiteles, fixed each a standard 
which subsequent invention dared scarcely 
to alter. The Venus of Cnidus, in her 
representative the Medicean, still enchants 
the world. 

Priamides, a patronymic applied by 
way of eminence to Paris as the son of 



Priam; but also given to Hector, Deipho- 
bus, and all the other children of the Tro- 
jan monarch. 

Priamus, the last king of Troy, son of 
Laomedon by Strymo, daughter of the 
Scamander, or, according to others, Placia, 
daughter of Atreus or Leucippus. When 
Hercules took the city of Troy, (see 
Laomedon,) Priam was in the number 
of his prisoners, but his sister Hesione 
redeemed him from captivity ; and he 
then exchanged his name of Podarces for 
that of Priam, " ransomed," (see Podar- 
ces,) and was placed on his father's throne 
by Hercules. Priam had married, by his 
father's orders, Arisba, whom now he di- 
vorced for Hecuba, daughter of Dimas, or 
Cisseus, a neighbouring prince, by whom 
he had nineteen children. After he had 
reigned for some time, being seized with a 
desire to recover his sister Hesione, whom 
Hercules had carried into Greece and 
married to Telamon his friend, he manned 
a fleet, and gave the command to his son 
Paris, with orders to bring back Hesione. 
Paris (see Paris) neglected his father's 
injunctions, and carried away Helen, wife 
of Menelaus, king of Sparta. This viola- 
tion of hospitality kindled the flames of 
war. Priam might have averted the im- 
pending blow by the restoration of Helen ; 
but this he refused to do when the am- 
bassadors of the Greeks came to him for 
that purpose. Troy was accordingly be- 
leaguered. The siege was continued for 
ten years, and Priam had the misfortune 
to see the greater part of his sons fall in 
defence of their native city. Hector, the 
eldest of these, was the only one upon 
whom the Trojans now looked for protec- 
tion and support ; but he, too, fell a sacri- 
fice to his own courage, and was slain by 
Achilles. Priam thereupon resolved to 
go in person to the Grecian camp, and 
ransom the body of his son. His meeting 
with Achilles was solemn and affecting, 
and a truce of twelve days was agreed upon 
to allow time for the performance of the 
funeral obsequies. When Troy was be- 
trayed into the hands of the Greeks by 
Antenor and ZEneas, Priam, resolving to 
die in the defence of his country, put on 
his armour, and advanced to meet the 
Greeks ; but Hecuba, by her tears and 
entreaties, detained him near an altar of 
Jupiter, where he was found and slain by 
Neoptolemus, son of Achilles. 

Priapus, I., a rural deity of the Greeks 
and Romans, fabled to have been the son 
of Venus by Bacchus, whom she met on 
his return from his Indian expedition at 
the Lampsacene town Aparnis. Owing 



PRI 



PRO 



489 



to the malignity of Juno, he was born so [ 
deformed that his mother was struck with j 
horror and renounced (^a.ivv,pvelro) him. j 
(See Aparnis.) Others said that he 
was the son of Bacchus by Chione, or 
a Xaiad ; others that he had a long- | 
eared father, Pan or a satyr, perhaps, ' 
or it may be his own sacred beast, the j 
ass ; others gave him Mercury or Ado- ; 
nis, or even Jove himself for a sire. 
His worship was introduced at a com- 
paratively late period into the Grecian 
mythology ; and his favourite city was | 
Lampsacus. on the Hellespont, famous for 
its vineyards. He was looked upon as j 
the god of fruitfulness in general ; hence j 
fishermen made offerings to him, as the ! 
deity presiding over the fisheries ; and in 
the Anthology, Priapus of the haven (Aiue- : 
viras) is introduced, giving a pleasing de- 
scription of the spring, and inviting the 
mariners to put to sea. Priapus was 
usually represented with a gardener's 
knife in his hand, a cornucopia in his arms, 
and his figure distinguished by other em- 
blems of fruitfulness. The gardens and 
pleasure grounds of the Romans were 
adorned by his statues. — II. Karaboa, a 
town of 3Iysia, not far from Lampsacus, 
which had a harbour on the Propontis, j 
deriving its name from the god Priapus, 
who was worshipped here with peculiar 
honours. 

Priexe, Samson- Kalesi, a maritime city 
of Caria, north of the mouth of the 
Mseander, at the foot of Mount Mycale. 
Friend was an Ionian colony, and one of ! 
the twelve confederate cities of the Ionian 
league. It was the native place of Bias, 
one of the seven sages of Greece. 

Priscianus, an eminent grammarian, 
born at Caesarea in Palestine. He went ' 
to Constantinople, where he taught about 
a. d. 525, and composed various works on 
grammar, several of which are extant. 

Pristis, the name of one of the ships 
engaged in the naval combat exhibited by 
JEneas at the anniversary of his father's 
death. It was commanded by Mnestheus. 

Priverxum. Piperno Vecchio, a city of 
Latium, in the territory of the Volsci. 
Virgil makes it the birth-place of Camilla. 
The inhabitants of this town made several 
incursions upon the Roman colonies of 
Setia and Norba : but they were finally re- 
duced, and became a Roman colony. 

Priverxus, a Rutulian killed by Capys 
in the wars between .Eneas and Turnus. 

Probus, M. Aurelius Severus, I., a 
native of Sirmium in Pannonia, son of 
Maximus, a tribune of Egypt, was ap- 
pointed to the same office in his twentv- 

1 



second year, and distinguished himself so 
much by probity, valour, and moderation, 
that at the death of the emperor Tacitus 
he was invested with the imperial purple 
by his soldiers, and his election universally 
approved by the Roman senate and peo- 
ple. He vanquished the Germans on the 
Rhine and the Danube, and restored peace 
and order to every province. To check 
the invasions of the barbarians Probus 
built a stone wall nearly 200 miles in 
length, from the Danube to the Rhine, 
recruited the Roman armies from the 
German nations, settled foreign colonies 
in various parts of the empire, and taught 
them the science of agriculture. Pie pe- 
rished in a mutiny of his troops a. u. 2S2. 
— II. JEmilius, a grammarian in the age 
of Theodosius, to whom the " Lives of 
excellent Commanders," written by Nepos, 
have been sometimes attributed. 

Procas, a king of Alba, son of Aven- 
tinus, and father of Amulius and Nu- 
mitor. 

Prochtta, Procida, an island off the 
coast of Campania, and adjacent to JEnaria. 

Procles, a son of Aristodemus and Ar- 
gia, and twin-brother of Eurysthenes. 
See Eurysthexes. 

PROCLimE, the descendants of Procles, 
who sat on the throne of Sparta together 
with the Eurysthenidae. See Eurys- 
thexes. 

Proclus, a celebrated philosopher of the 
Xew- Platonic sect, born at Constantinople 
a. t>. 412. He spent his youth at Xan- 
thus, in Lycia, a city devoted to Apollo 
and Minerva, where his parents resided ; 
and from this circumstance he was called 
" the Lycian :" thence he removed to Alex- 
andria, where he attended the lectures of 
Olympiodorus, a celebrated Pythagorean, 
and thence to Athens, where he became 
the disciple of the Platonist Syrianus, 
whom he succeeded in the rectorship of 
the Platonic school at Athens. He died 
a. d. 485, with a reputation for wisdom 
and even for miraculous powers approach- 
ing adoration, leaving behind him a crowd 
of followers. 

Procxe. See Philomela. 

Procoxxesus (or the Isle of Stops'), an 
island and city of Asia Minor to the north- 
east of Cyzicus, celebrated for its marble 
quarries. It is now Marmora, whence the 
modern name of the Propontis is derived 
( Sea of Alarmora). The marble was white, 
with black streaks intermixed. 

Procopius, I., a celebrated officer born 
at Cilicia a. d. 324. After he had signal- 
ised himself under Julian, to whom he 
was related, and his successor, he retired 
Y 5 



490 PRO 

from the Roman provinces among the bar- 
barians in the Thracian Chersonesus, and 
some time after made his appearance at 
Constantinople, when Valens had marched 
into the East, and proclaimed himself 
master of the Eastern empire. His usurp- 
ation was universally acknowledged. But 
fortune changed ; and being defeated in 
Phrygia, he was abandoned by his army, 
and his head cut off and carried to Valen- 
tinian in Gaul, a. d. 366. — II. One of the 
most celebrated historians of the Eastern 
empire, was born at Caesarea in Palestine, 
and exercised at Constantinople the pro- 
fession of rhetorician and sophist. He be- 
came secretary and counsellor of Belisarius, 
whom he accompanied in his several expe- 
ditions. He was afterwards sent to Syra- 
cuse, on some business relative to the army, 
and in a. d. 556 he was employed usefully 
in the campaign of Belisarius against the 
Goths in Italy. Subsequently to 559 he 
was named a senator, and about 562 prefect 
of Constantinople, but was dismissed by 
Justinian. He died at an advanced age. 
The works of Procopius form part of the 
collection of the Byzantine historians. 

Procris, a daughter of Erechtheus, king 
of Athens, and wife of Cephalus. 

Procrustes, called also Damastes and 
Polypemon, a famous robber of Attica. 
He compelled travellers to lie down on a 
couch, and if their length exceeded that of 
the couch, he lopped off as much of their 
limbs as would suffice to make the length 
equal. If they were shorter than the 
couch, he stretched them to the requisite 
length. Theseus proceeded against and 
slew him. 

Proculeius, a Roman knight, and the 
intimate friend of Augustus, who held 
him in such high esteem as to entertain 
thoughts at one time of making him his 
son-in-law. When his brothers, L. Lici- 
nius and M. Terentius, had lost their es- 
tates for siding with the party of Pompey, 
Proculeius generously shared his own with 
them. He was sent by Augustus to Cleo- 
patra to endeavour to bring her alive into 
his presence. He destroyed himself when 
suffering under a severe malady. 

Proculus, I. Julius, a Roman, who, 
after the death of Romulus, declared that 
he had seen him in appearance more than 
human, and that he had ordered him to 
bid the Romans offer him sacrifices under 
the name of Quirinus, and to rest assured 
that Rome was destined by the gods to 
become the capital of the world. — II. A j 
Roman elegiac poet, mentioned by Ovid J 
as an imitator of Callimachus. — III. A i 
Roman lawyer mentioned in the Pandects. 



PRO 

He is supposed by some to have been the 
same with the Proculus of whom Tacitus 
speaks as praetorian prasfect in the reign 
of Otho. He gave name to the legal party 
termed Proculianu 

Procyoii, a constellation, so called from 
its rising just before the dog-star (TlpoKvcov, 
from irp6, " before" " in front of," and kvwv, 
" a dog ") ; whence its Latin name of Ante- 
canis or Ante- Canem. 

Prodicus, a sophist and rhetorician of 
lulls in the island of Ceos, contemporary 
with Democritus and Gorgias of Leontini, 
and a disciple of Protagoras. He flou- 
rished in the 86th Olympiad, and had, 
among other disciples, Socrates, Euripides, 
Theramenes, and Isocrates. He was em- 
ployed in several public situations ; but 
was at last put to death by the Athenians, 
on pretence that he corrupted the morals 
of their youth. 

Prcetides, a name given to the three 
daughters of Prcetus, king of Argolis, Iphi- 
noe, Iphianassa, Lycippe, who became in- 
sane for neglecting the worship of Bacchus, 
or, according to others, for preferring them- 
selves to Juno. Prcetus applied to Melampus 
to cure his daughters of their insanity, but 
refused to employ him, when he demanded 
the third part of his kingdom as a reward. 
The insanity, however, becoming con- 
tagious, the monarch was at last obliged 
to comply with his demand, and moreover 
to give him one of his daughters in mar- 
riage. Some have called them Cyrianassa, 
Hipponoe", and Lysippe. 

Prcetus, a king of Argos, son of Abas 
and Ocalea, and twin brother of \crisius, 
with whom he quarrelled evenbeu^ birth. 
This dissension increased with their years : 
Acrisius succeeded his father, (see Acri- 
sius,) and Prcetus retired to the court of 
Jobates, king of Lycia, where he married 
Stenobcea, called by some Antea or An- 
tiope. He afterwards returned to Argolis, 
accompanied by Stenobcea, who became 
by him mother of the Prcetides, and of 
Megapenthes, who, after his father's death, 
succeeded to the throne of Tirynthus. See 
Stenobcea. 

Progne. See Philomela. 

Prometheus, a son of Iapetus by Cly- 
mene, one of the Oceanides, brother of 
Atlas, Mencetius, and Epimetheus, and 
fabled to have surpassed all mankind 
in sagacity. He deceived even Jupiter 
himself, who, to punish Prometheus, and 
the rest of mankind, took fire away 
from the earth ; but the son of Iapetus 
climbed the heavens by the assistance of 
Minerva, and stole fire from the chariot of 
the Sun. This provoked Jupiter the more, 



PRO 



PRO 



491 



who resorted tc a stratagem to take ven- 
geance on Prometheus. (See Pandora.) 
Prometheus took no notice of Pandora or 
her box, but made his brother Epimetheus 
marry her ; whereupon the god, now more 
irritated, ordered Mercury, or Vulcan, 
to carry this artful mortal to Mt. Cauca- 
sus, and tie him to a rock, where for 
30,000 years a vulture was to feed on his 
liver, which was never to diminish. He 
was, however, delivered about 30 years 
afterwards by Hercules, who killed the 
bird of prey. To Prometheus mankind 
are indebted for the invention of many 
useful arts. He taught them the use of 
plants, and from him they received the 
knowledge of taming horses and various 
other animals. 

Pkomethis, and Promethides, a pa- 
tronymic applied to Deucalion, son of 
Prometheus. 

Pronapides, an ancient Greek poet of 
Athens, and the reputed preceptor of 
Homer. 

Pro nuba, a surname of Juno, because 
she presided over marriages. 

Propertius, Sextus Aurelius, one of 
the most celebrated elegiac poets of an- 
tiquity, was born in Umbria, on the con- 
fines of Etruria, e. c. 53. His father was 
a Roman knight, whom Augustus pro- 
scribed, because he had followed the in- 
terest of Antony. Little is known of the 
life of Propertius, except that on the con- 
clusion of the civil wars he found a patron 
in Maecenas, who introduced him to Au- 
gustus, and that he enjoyed the friendship 
of Gallus, Ovid, and Virgil. The time of 
his death is absolutely unknown. 

Propontis, a name given by the Greeks 
to that minor basin which lies between the 
/Egean and Euxine, and communicates 
with those seas by means of two narrow 
straits, the Hellespont and Bosporus. 
Modern navigators reckon about 120 miles 
from one strait to another ; while its great- 
est breadth, from the European to the 
Asiatic coast, does not exceed 40 miles. 
It received its ancient name from the cir- 
cumstance of its lying in front of, or before 
the Pontus Euxinus (irpb USvtov). The 
modern appellation is the Sea of Marmora, 
from the modern name of the island Pro- 
connesus. 

Proserpina, the Latin form of Perse- 
phone, the name of a Grecian goddess, 
sprung from Jupiter and Ceres. She was 
stolen from her mother by Pluto, who, 
enamoured of her beauty, carried her off 
from the plains of Enna in Sicily, while 
sporting with her companions, to the in- 
fernal regions, where she became his queen. 



The wanderings of Ceres in search of her 
daughter were much celebrated by the 
ancient poets. When she at last discovered 
the place of her concealment, a com- 
promise was entered into, by which Pro- 
serpine was allowed to spend two thirds 
of the year with her parents, and the rest 
with Pluto in his empire. See Ceres. 

Protagoras, a Greek sophist, born at 
Abdera, b. c. 488. He was originally a 
porter, but, having heard the lectures of 
Democritus, abandoned his occupation, and 
attained such eminence, as to become a 
teacher at Athens ; from which city he was 
ultimately banished on the charge of 
atheism. He then went to Epirus, where 
he resided several years ; and died on his 
voyage to Sicily. 

Protesilaus, a king of part of Thessaly, 
son of Iphiclus, originally called Iolaus, 
grandson of Phylacus, and brother of 
Alcimede, the mother of Jason. He mar- 
ried Laodamia, the daughter of Acastus, 
and, some time after, departed with the 
rest of the Greeks for the Trojan war. He 
was the first of the Greeks who set foot on 
the Trojan shore, and was killed as soon 
as he had leaped from his ship. His wife 
Laodamia destroyed herself when she heard 
of his death. (See Laodamia.) Protesi- 
laus has received the patronymic of Phyla- 
cides, either because he was descended from 
Phylacus, or because he was a native of 
Phylace. 

Proteus, a sea-deity, son of Oceanus 
and Tethys, or, according to some, of Nep- 
tune and Phoenice. Like Nereus and 
Phorcys, he received the gift of prophecy 
from Neptune ; and he usually resided in 
the Carpathian sea, reposing himself oc- 
casionally on the sea-shore. When con- 
sulted as to the future, he often refused 
to give answers, and, by immediately as- 
suming different shapes, eluded the grasp 
of the enquirer. When Menelaiis was 
wind-bound at the island of Pharos, off the 
coast of Egypt, and he and his crew were 
suffering from want of food, by direction 
of Erdothea, daughter of Proteus, he dis- 
guised himself in a seal skin, and seized 
the god, who transformed himself into a 
lion, a serpent, a pard, a boar, water, and 
a tree ; but at length, finding he could not 
escape, he resumed his own form, and 
revealed to Menelaiis the remedy for his 
distress. Some suppose that he was ori- 
ginally a king of Egypt, known by the 
name of Cetes, and assert that he had two 
sons, Telegonus and Polygonus, both 
killed by Hercules, and also some daugh- 
ters, among whom were Cabira, Idothea 
and Rhetia. 

y 6 



492 



PRO 



PSA 



Protogenes, an eminent Grecian painter, 
who flourished ahout 336 b. c, was a na- 
tive of Caunus, in Caria, a city subject to 
Rhodes. A considerable part of his life 
was passed in obscurity, but he was at 
length brought into notice by Apelles 
giving a large price for one of his pictures. 
On the siege of Rhodes by Demetrius 
Poliorcetes, Protogenes is said to have con- 
tinued tranquilly working at his house in 
the suburbs, and being asked by Deme- 
trius why he ventured to remain without 
the walls of the city, he answered, that he 
well knew that the king was at war with the 
Rhodians, but not with the arts ; an answer 
which so pleased Demetrius, that he gave 
him a guard for his protection. 

Proxenus, a Boeotian, one of the com- 
manders of the Greek forces in the army 
of Cyrus the younger. He was put to 
death with his fellow commanders by Ar- 
taxerxes, and was succeeded by Xenophon. 

Prudentius, Aurelius Clemens, a 
Latin poet, who flourished a. d. 392, and 
was successively a soldier, advocate, and 
judge. At the age of fifty-seven he aban- 
doned the world to pass the remainder of 
his days in devotion. His poems are all 
theological. 

Prusa, a city of Bithynia, at the foot 
of Mt. Olympus, and hence called Prusa 
ad Olympum, founded by Hannibal when 
he resided at the court of Prusias, from 
whom the name of the city seems evidently 
derived. It flourished under the Roman 
empire, but under the Greek emperors it 
suffered much from the wars carried on 
against the Turks, and it finally remained 
in the hands of the descendants of Osman, 
who made it the capital of their empire, 
under the corrupted name of Brusa or 
Broussa. 

Prusias, I., king of Bithynia, son of 
Zielas, began to reign about b. c. 228, and 
was still reigning b. c. 1 90, at the time of 
the war between the Romans and An- 
tiochus. b.c. 216, Prusias defeated the 
Gauls in a great battle. Nine years later 
he invaded the territories of Attalus I., 
and he was included in the treaty with 
Philip in b. c. 205. — II. The second of 
the name appears to have ascended the 
throne of Bithynia between b. c. 1 83 and 
b.c. 179. He married the sister of Per- 
seus, king of Macedon, was surnamed 6 
Kvvrjyos, or The Hunter, and was long en- 
gaged in war with Eumenes, king of Per- 
gamus. He is commonly supposed to 
have been the monarch who abandoned 
Hannibal when the latter was sought after 
by the Romans ; though Strabo assigns this 
act to Prusias I. He extended consider- 



j ably the limits of the Bithynian empire, 
I by the accession of some important towns 
| conceded to him by his ally Philip of 
I Macedon, and several advantages gained 
over the Byzantines and king Eumenes. 
But the latter was finally able to overcome 
his antagonist, by stirring up against him 
his own son Nicomedes, who, after draw- 
ing the troops from their allegiance to his 
father, caused him to be assassinated, b. c. 
149. 

Prytanes, I., certain magistrates at 
Athens, who presided over the senate, and 
had the privilege of assembling it when 
they pleased, festival days excepted. They 
generally met in a large hall, called pryta- 
neum, and were elected from the senators. 
They presided originally for thirty-five 
days, afterwards for one full month. — II. 
Some of the principal magistrates of Co- 
rinth were also called Prytanes. 

Psammenitus, the last king of the 
twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, son 
of Amasis, whom he succeeded on the 
throne at the very moment that Cambyses 
was marching against Egypt to dethrone 
him. Psammenitus met Cambyses on 
the frontiers, near the Pelusiac branch of 
the Nile, with all his forces, Egyptians, 
Greeks, and Carians, but was totally de- 
feated in a bloody battle. Shutting him- 
self up in Memphis, he was besieged here 
by Cambyses, and was finally betrayed 
and taken prisoner. All Egypt thereupon 
fell under the Persian power, and the 
reign of Psammenitus ended after a dura- 
tion of only six months. The greatest 
outrages were heaped upon the unfortunate 
monarch and his family ; but the firmness 
with which he endured them all touched 
at last even the ferocious Cambyses with 
compassion. Psammenitus was thereupon 
retained at court, treated with honour, and 
finally sent to Susa along with 6000 Egyp- 
tian captives. Having been accused, how- 
ever, subsequently, of attempting to stir 
up a revolt, he was compelled to drink 
bull's blood, and ended his days b. c- 
525. 

Psammetichus, I., a native of Sais, who 
raised himself to the Egyptian throne b. c. 
656. He had been a member of the 
dodecarchy, or government of twelve so- 
vereign princes, among whom the govern- 
ment had been divided b. c. 671. Quarrels 
springing up among them, they expelled 
him, but he soon after returned, and, aided 
by Greek mercenaries, put his rivals to 
flight. In consideration of the fidelity 
and military services of the strangers who 
had helped him to his throne, he kept 
many of them about him as a standing 



PSA 



PTO 



493 



army, and honoured them with his confi- 
dence. At this the warrior caste took 
umbrage, and, to the number of 200,000, 
retired into Ethiopia. In his reign com- 
merce flourished, and strangers were al- 
lowed freely to visit the Egyptian ports. 
— II. A son of Gordius, brother of Peri- 
ander, who held the tyranny at Corinth 
for three years, b. c. 584. 

PsAMMis, or Psammuthis, a king of 
Egypt who succeeded Necho, b. c. 601, 
and perished in the sixth year of his reign 
immediately after an expedition into 
Ethiopia. 

Psaphis, a town on the confines of At- 
tica and Bceotia, where was an oracle of 
Amphiaraus. 

Psophis, an ancient and strongly forti- 
fied city of Arcadia, at .the foot of the 
chain of Erymanthus, from which de- 
scended a river of the same name, which 
flowed near the city, and, after receiving 
another small stream called Aroanius, 
joined the Alpheus on the borders of Elis. 
Psophis itself had previously borne the 
names of Erymanthus and Phegea. At 
the time of the Social "War, it was in the 
possession of the Eleans. It was after- 
wards taken by Philip, king of Macedon, 
who made it over to the Achasans. The 
remains of Psophis are to be seen near the 
Khan of Tripotam, so called from the 
junction of three rivers. 

Psvche, in mythology, a nymph whom 
Cupid married, after she had been perse- 
cuted by Venus. The word signifies the 
squI, of which Psyche was considered the 
personification. This beautiful allegory 
is first known to us by the romance of 
Apuleius : but it is presumed to be of 
much earlier origin from its occurrence in 
relics of art. Lafontaine made it the sub- 
ject of a pastoral, and Mrs. Tighe recently 
of a poem. 

Psylli, a people of Libya near the 
Syrtes, expert in curing the venomous bite 
of serpents. They were destroyed by the 
Nasamones. 

Pteleum, a town of Thessaly on the 
borders of Boeotia. 

Pteuia, a small territory, forming part 
of Cappadoeia, or, more properly speaking, 
of Paphlagonia, in the vicinity of the city 
of Sinope. Here the first battle took 
place between Croesus and Cyrus. 

Ptolem^eus, L, surnamed Soter, and 
sometimes Lagi (i. e. son of Lagus), king 
of Egypt, and son of Arsinoe, who, when 
pregnant by Philip of Macedonia, married 
Lagus. (See Lagus.) Ptolemy was edu- 
cated in the court of the king of Macedon, 
and when Alexander invaded Asia, he at-' 



tended him as one of his generals. After 
the conqueror's death, Ptolemy obtained 
the government of Egypt, with Libya, and 
part of the neighbouring territories of 
Arabia, and soon made himself master of 
Ccele- Syria, Phoenicia, and the neighbour- 
ing coast of Syria. When he had re- 
duced Jerusalem, he carried above 100,000 
prisoners to Alexandria, which became the 
capital of his dominions ; and after he had 
rendered these prisoners the most faithful 
of his subjects by his liberality, and the 
grant of privileges, he assumed the title of 
king of Egypt. From the assistance he 
gave to the people of Rhodes against their 
common enemies, he received the name of 
Soter. His great ambition was to form a 
state on the model of Greece, and with 
this view he beautified Alexandria, and 
laid the foundation of its celebrated library. 
He died in his eighty-fourth year, after a 
reign of thirty- nine years, about b. c. 284, 
and was succeeded by his son Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, who had been his partner on 
the throne the last ten years of his reign. 
All his successors were called Ptolemies 
from him. — II. Son of Ptolemy the first, 
called Philadelphus by antiphrasis, because 
he killed one of his brothers and banished 
another, succeeded his father on the Egyp- 
tian throne, b.c. 284. While he strengthened 
himself by alliances with foreign powers, 
the internal peace' of his kingdom was dis- 
turbed by the revolt of Magus, his brother, 
king of Cyrene ; but the death of the rebel- 
lious prince re-established peace for some 
time. Philadelphus died in his sixty - 
fourth year, b. c. 246, leaving two sons and 
a daughter by Arsinoe, daughter of Lysi- 
machus. He had afterwards married his 
sister Arsinoe, to whose memory he began 
to erect a celebrated monument. (See Di- 
nocrates. ) During the whole of his 
reign, Philadelphus was employed in ex- 
citing industry, and in encouraging the 
liberal arts and useful knowledge among 
his subjects. At his court were enter- 
tained the astronomer-poet Aratus ; the 
grammarians Aristophanes and Aristar- 
chus ; Theocritus, and Lycophron the 
celebrated commentator ; the historian 
Manetho ; the mathematicians Conon, Eu- 
clid, and Hipparchus ; Callimachus and 
Zenodotus, the latter famous for his notes 
on Homer. By his order the Septuagint 
translation of the Hebrew Scriptures was 
prepared ; the lighthouse of the Pharos 
erected, and the canal between the Nile 
and the Red Sea cleared out. — III. The 
third of the name succeeded his father 
Philadelphus on the Egyptian throne, b.c. 
245. He early engaged in a war against 



494 



PTO 



PTO 



Antiochus Theos for his unkindness to 
Berenice, the Egyptian king's sister, whom 
he had married with the consent of Phila- 
delphus. With the most rapid success he 
conquered Syria and Cilicia, and advanced 
as far as Bactriana and the confines of 
India ; but a sedition at home stopped his 
progress, and he returned to Egypt loaded 
with the spoils of conquered nations. 
Among the immense riches which he 
brought, were many statues of the Egyp- 
tian gods, which Cambyses had carried 
away into Persia when he conquered 
Egypt. These were restored to the tem- 
ples, and the Egyptians called their so- 
vereign Euergetes (or Benefactor), in ac- 
knowledgment of his attention, beneficence, 
and religious zeal for the gods of his coun- 
try. The last years of Ptolemy's reign 
were passed in peace, if we except the re- 
fusal of the Jews to pay the tribute of 
twenty silver talents which their ancestors 
had always paid to the Egyptian monarchs. 
Euergetes died b. c. 221, after a reign of 
twenty-five years ; and, like his two pre- 
decessors, was the patron of learning. — 
IV. The fourth of the name succeeded 
his father Euergetes, and received the sur- 
name of Philopator by antiphrasis, because, 
according to some, he destroyed his father 
by poison. He began his reign with acts 
of great cruelty, and successively sacri- 
ficed to his avarice his mother, wife, sister, 
and brother. He received the name of 
Trjphon from his extravagance and de- 
bauchery ; and that of Gallus, because he 
appeared in the streets of Alexandria like 
one of the bacchanals, and with all the 
gestures of the priests of Cybele. Philo- 
pator at last, weakened and enervated by 
intemperance, died in his thirty-seventh 
year, after a reign of seventeen years, b. c. 
204. — V. The fifth, succeeded his father 
Philopator as king of Egypt, though only 
in his fourth year. The supreme power 
was at first wielded by Sosicius and Aris- 
tomenes ; but the nation, to avoid the 
dangers impending from the attacks of the 
Macedonian and Syrian monarchs, en- 
trusted the regency to the senate of Rome, 
B. c. 202. On his attaining his majority, 
b. d 190, he received the surname of Epi- 
phanes, " Illustrious ; " but he was no 
sooner delivered from his shackles, than 
he displayed the vices of his father. His 
cruelties raised seditions among his sub- 
jects ; and after a reign of twenty-four 
years, b. c. 1 80, he was poisoned by his mi- 
nisters, whom he had threatened to rob of 
their possessions, to carry on a war against 
Seleucus, king of Syria. He married 
Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus. — VI. 



The sixth, surname d Philometor by anti- 
phrasis, from his hatred to his mother 
Cleopatra; succeeded his father Epiphanes 
on the Egyptian throne, b. c. 1 80. He 
was in the sixth year of his age when he 
ascended the throne, and during his mi- 
nority the kingdom was governed by his 
mother, and at her death by a eunuch, 
who was one of his favourites. He made 
war against Antiochus Epiphanes, king of 
Syria, to recover the provinces of Palestine 
and Coelesyria, which were part of the 
Egyptian dominions, and, after several 
successes, he fell into the hands of his 
enemy, who detained him in confinement. 
During the captivity of Philometor, the 
Egyptians raised to the throne his younger 
brother Ptolemy Euergetes, or Physcon, 
also son of Epiphanes ; but he was no 
sooner established in his power than An- 
tiochus turned his arms against Egypt, 
drove out the usurper, and restored Phi- 
lometor to all his rights and privileges as 
king of Egypt. This artful behaviour of 
Antiochus was soon comprehended by 
Philometor ; and when he saw that Pelu- 
sium, the key of Egypt, had remained in 
the hands of his Syrian ally, he recalled 
his brother Physcon, made him partner 
on the throne, and concerted with him 
how to repel their common enemy. The 
death of Philometor, b. c. 145, left Phys- 
con master of Egypt and all the dependent 
provinces. — VII. The seventh of the 
name, surnamed Phi/scon, from the pro- 
minence of his belly, ascended the throne 
of Egypt after the death of his brother 
Philometor ; and as he had reigned for 
some time conjointly with him (see 
Ptolem^eus VI. ) his succession was ap- 
proved, though the wife and son of the 
deceased monarch laid claims to the crown. 
It was at last agreed that Physcon should 
marry the queen, and her son succeed to 
the throne at his death. The nuptials 
were celebrated, but on that very day the 
tyrant murdered Cleopatra's son in her 
arms. A series of barbarities rendered 
him odious, and the Alexandrians stig- 
matised him with the appellation of Ka- 
kergetes, " Evil-doer." The king, at last 
having repudiated Cleopatra, married 
her daughter by Philometor, called also 
Cleopatra ; but being without friends or 
support in Egypt, he fled to Cyprus ; and 
Cleopatra, the divorced queen, ascended 
the throne. Soon after he invaded Egypt 
with an army, and having obtained a vic- 
tory over the forces of Cleopatra, was re- 
stored to his throne, where he reigned for 
some time, hated by his subjects, and feared 
by his enemies. He died at Alexandria, in 



PTO 



PTO 



495 



his sixty-seventh year, after a reign of twen- 
ty-nine years, about b.c. 116. — VIII. Sur- 
named Lathyrus, from an excrescence on 
the nose, and sometimes Soter II., b.c. 116, 
succeeded his father Physcon, as king of 
Egypt. He had no sooner ascended the 
throne than his mother Cleopatra, who 
reigned conjointly with him, expelled him 
to Cyprus, and placed the crown on the 
head of his brother Ptolemy Alexander, her 
favourite son. Lathyrus, banished from 
Egypt, became king of Cyprus, where he 
continued till the death of his brother Alex- 
ander restored him to his native dominions. 
He died b.c. 81, after a reign of thirty-five 
years since the death of his father Physcon, 
eleven of which he passed with his mother 
Cleopatra on the Egyptian throne, eighteen 
in Cyprus, and seven after his mother's 
death; and was succeeded by his only 
daughter Cleopatra, whom Alexander, son 
of Ptolemy Alexander, by means of the 
dictator Sylla, soon after married and mur- 
dered. — IX. The ninth, called also Alex- 
ander Ptolemy I., was raised to the throne 
by his mother Cleopatra, in preference to 
his brother, and conjointly with her. Cleo- 
patra expelled, but afterwards recalled 
him ; and Alexander, to prevent being ex- 
pelled a second time, put her to death ; 
for which unnatural action he was himself 
murdered by one of his subjects. — X. The 
tenth, or Alexander Ptolemy II., was son 
of the preceding. He was educated in 
the island of Cos, and, having fallen into 
the hands of Mithridates, escaped subse- 
quently to Sylla. He was murdered by 
his own subjects. — XI. The eleventh, or 
Alexander Ptolemy III., was king of 
Egypt after his brother Alexander, the 
last mentioned. After a peaceful reign he 
was banished by his subjects, and died at 
Tyre b. c. 65, leaving his kingdom to the 
Romans. — XII., surnamed Auhtes, be- 
cause he played skilfully on the flute, the 
illegitimate son of Lathyrus, ascended the 
throne of Egypt at the death of Alexander 
the Third. He suffered the Romans quietly 
to take possession of Cyprus ; but the Egyp- 
tians revolted, and Auletes was obliged to 
fly from his kingdom, and seek protection 
among the most powerful of his allies. 
During his absence from Alexandria, his 
daughter Berenice made herself absolute, 
and established herself on the throne by 
marrying Archelaus, priest of Bellona's 
temple at Comana, but was soon driven 
from Egypt by Gabinius, who marched 
at the head of a Roman army, to re- 
place Auletes on his throne. Auletes was 
no sooner restored than he sacrificed his 
daughter Berenice ; but he died four years 



after his restoration, about b.c. 51, leav- 
ing two sons and two daughters, one of 

whom was the celebrated Cleopatra 

XI II., son of Ptolemy Auletes, ascended 
the throne of Egypt, conjointly with his 
sister Cleopatra, whom he had married 
according to the directions of his father 
Auletes. He was placed under the care 
and protection of Pompey the Great, but 
the wickedness and avarice of his ministers 
soon obliged him to reign independent. 
When his guardian, after the fatal battle 
of Pharsalia, came to the shores of Egypt 
and claimed his protection, he refused to 
grant the required assistance, and basely 
murdered Pompey after he had brought 
him to shore under the mask of friendship. 
When Ca?sar arrived at Alexandria, he 
found the king of Egypt as faithless to his 
cause as to that of his fallen enemy. He 
had confirmed Ptolemy and Cleopatra in 
the possession of Egypt, but Ptolemy 
having refused to acknowledge Ca?sar as a 
mediator, the Roman general enforced his 
authority by arms, and three victories were 
obtained over the Egyptian forces. Ptolemy 
was for some time a prisoner in the hands 
of Caesar, but he once more headed his 
armies, and being defeated in an engage- 
ment, was drowned in the Nile as he at- 
tempted to save his life by flight, about 
b. c. 46, three years and eight months 
after the death of Auletes. Cleopatra, 
•at the death of her brother, became sole 
mistress of Egypt ; but as the Egyptians 
were no friends to female government, 
Caesar obliged her to marry her younger 
brother Ptolemy, then in his eleventh year. 
— XIV. Apion, king of Cyrene, illegiti- 
mate son of Ptolemy Physcon. He died 
after a reign of twenty years ; and as he 
had no children he made the Romans heirs 
of his dominions. — XV. Ceraunus, son of 
Ptolemy Soter by Eurydice, daughter of 
Antipater. Unable to succeed to the 
throne of Egypt, he fled to the court of 
Seleucus, king of Macedonia, whom he 
perfidiously murdered, and ascended his 
throne B.C. 280. Three different claimants 
to the throne were speedily removed. 
Soon afterwards a barbarian army of Gauls 
having claimed a tribute from him, Cerau- 
nus immediately marched to meet them 
in the field. The battle Avas long and 
bloody ; but Ceraunus was thrown down 
from his elephant, and taken prisoner by 
the enemy, who immediately tore his 
body to pieces. He had been king of 
Macedonia only eighteen months. — 
XVI. An illegitimate son of Ptolemy 
Lathyrus, king of Cyprus. Cato being 
sent against Ptolemy by the senate, pro- 



496 



PTO 



PUP 



posed to the monarch to retire from the 
throne, and to pass the rest of his days as 
high-priest in the temple of Venus at 
Paphos ; but Ptolemy refused, and on the 
approach of the enemy cut himself off by 
poison. — XVII. A son of Pyrrhus, king 
of Epirus, by Antigone, the daughter of 
Berenice. He was left governor of Epirus 
when Pyrrhus went to Italy to assist the 
Tarentines against the Romans, where he 
presided with great prudence and modera- 
tion. He was killed, bravely fighting, in 
the expedition which Pyrrhus undertook 
against Sparta and Argos. — XVIII. Clau- 
dius, a celebrated astronomer, chronologer, 
musical writer, and geographer of anti- 
quity, was born, as is supposed, at Pelu- 
sium, in Egypt, about a. d. 70. He re- 
sided at Alexandria, where he had an 
observatory ; but it is evident from his 
cosmography, that he was also a traveller, 
and had visited many of the countries 
which he has described. He corrected 
Hipparchus's catalogue of fixed stars, and 
formed tables of the planetary motions. 
The scattered observations of the ancients 
were first collected by him, and reduced 
to a system, known under the name of the 
Ptolemaic, which makes the earth the cen- 
tre of the solar system. — XIX. A native 
of Ascalon, who followed the profession of 
a grammarian at Rome before the time of 
Herodian, by whom he is cited. He wrote 
a work on Synonymes, and some other 
works, fragments of which remain. — Nu- 
merous other persons of the name of 
Ptolemy are mentioned by ancient writers. 

Ptolemais, I., a seaport town of Phoe- 
nicia. (See Ace.) — II. A city on the 
coast of Cyrenaica in Africa, and the port 
of Barce, which suffered so severely from 
want of water, that the inhabitants were 
obliged to abandon it. The ruins are called 
at the present day Ptolemata. — III. A city 
of Egypt, in the northern part of Thebais, 
north-east of Abydus, founded, or more pro- 
bably re-established, by one of the Ptole- 
mies on the site of some more ancient city. 
— IV. A fortified port, near the inland sea 
Monoleus, on the western coast of the 
Sinus Arabicus, established by Eumedes, a 
commander of Ptolemy Philadelphus. It 
was originally a small promontory ; but 
the spot was selected on account of the 
large forest in the vicinity, which fui'nished 
valuable naval timber for the fleets of the 
Ptolemies. 

Publicola, a name given to Publius 
Valerius from his great popularity. (See 
Valerius.) Niebuhr, however, dissents 
from this etymology, and alleges that the 
term is equivalent to publicus, or 8t][xotik6s. 



Publius, L, a prasnomen, common 
among the Romans. — II. Syrus, a Syrian 
mimic poet, who flourished about b. c. 44. 
He had been originally a slave, and was 
sold to a Roman patrician, Domitius, who 
gave him his freedom when of age. His 
Mimes are distinguished for moral sen- 
tences. 

Pulcheria, I., sister of Theodosius the 
Great, and celebrated for her piety and 
virtues. — II. A Roman empress, daughter 
of Arcadius, and sister of Theodosius the 
younger. She was created Augusta a', d. 
414, and shared the imperial power with 
her brother, after whose death (a. d. 450) 
she gave her hand to Marcianus. (See 
Marcianus I.) She died a. d. 454, and 
was interred at Ravenna, where her tomb 
is still to be seen. 

Pulchrum Promontorium, the same 
with Hermaeum Promontorium. (See 
Herm^um.) 

Punicum Bellum, the name given to 
the wars between Rome and Carthage. 
The Punic wars were three in number. 
The first took its rise from the affair of the 
Mamertini, who, when the Syracusans and 
Carthaginians had united to punish them 
for their grievous delinquencies, applied to 
the Romans for support. It began b. c. 
264, and was ended b. c. 241 by the naval 
battle fought off the iEgates Insulae ; and 
it was also memorable for the naval victory 
of Duillius, the first ever gained by the 
Romans. (See Carthago. — Duillius. — 
tEgates.) The second Punic war began 
218 b. c, in which year Hannibal marched 
a numerous army of 90,000 foot and 1 2,000 
horses towards Italy, resolved to carry on 
the war to the gates of Rome. He crossed 
the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, 
with uncommon celerity ; and the Roman 
consuls w-ho were stationed to stop his pro- 
gress were severally defeated. The battles 
of Trebia, of Ticinus, and of the lake of 
Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted 
seventeen years, and ended b. c. 201 . The 
third Punic war began b. c. 1 49, and was 
terminated by the fall of Carthage, b.c. 
146. 

Pupienus, Marcus Claudius Maximus, 
sometimes called Maximus, a man of ob- 
scure family, who raised himself by merit 
to the highest offices in the army, and gra- 
dually became praetor, consul, prefect of 
Rome, and governor of the provinces. 
After the death of the Gordians, he was 
elected with Balbinus to the imperial 
throne; but was slain a.«. 236, by the 
praetorian guards, while meditating the 
invasion of Persia. Balbinus shared his 
fate. 



PUP 



PYL 



497 



Pnppitis, a tragic poet in the age of J. 
Caesar, famous for his power in exciting 
emotion* 

PurpurarLe, islands off the coast of 
Mauritania, so called from the manufac- 
ture of purple dye established in them. 
They answer at the present day to Madeira 
and the adjacent isles* 

Puteoli, now Pozzuoli, a maritime city 
of Campania, not far from the Lucrine 
Lake, founded by a colony from Cumae. 
Its Greek name was Dicaaarchia ; but the 
Romans gave it the name of Puteoli, pro- 
bably from the number of its walls, or per- 
haps from the stench which was emitted 
by the sulphureous and aluminous springs 
in the neighbourhood. The harbour of 
Puteoli was spacious and of peculiar con- 
struction, being formed of vast piles of 
mortar and sand, which, owing to the 
strongly cementing properties of the latter 
material, became very solid and compact 
masses ; and these, being sunk in the sea, 
afforded secure anchorage for any number 
of vessels. Puteoli became a Roman 
colony a. u. c. 558, was re-colonized by 
Augustus, and again, for the third time, 
by Nero. It espoused the cause of Ves- 
pasian with great zeal, from which cir- 
cumstance, according to an inscription, it 
obtained the title of Colonia Flavia. 
Puteoli was much frequented by the 
Romans for its mineral waters aud hot 
baths ; and near it Cicero had a villa called 
Puteolanum. 

Puticulje, a place on the Esquiline hill, 
without the gate, where the meanest of the 
Roman populace were buried ; so called 
because the dead bodies were deposited in 
graves or pits, in puteis. See Esquiline. 

Pyanepsia, an Athenian festival, cele- 
brated in honour of Theseus and his com- 
panions, who, after their return from 
Crete, were entertained with all manner 
of fruits, and particularly pulse (ei|/e?z/ 
triava). Some suppose that it was ob- 
served in commemoration of the Hera- 
clidaa, who had been entertained with 
pulse by the Athenians. 

Pydna, called also Cydna and Citron, 
now Kitros, a city of Macedonia, on the 
western coast of the Sinus Thermai'cus, 
above Dium. It was originally a Greek 
city, and was some time in the possession 
of the Athenians, but it was taken by 
Philip of Macedon, and given to Olyn- 
thus. Pydna is famous for the decisive 
victory gained in its neighbourhood by 
Paulus iEmilius over the Macedonian 
army under Perseus, which put an end to 
that ancient empire, b. c. 168. 

Pygm^ei, a nation of dwarfs dwelling 



somewhere near the shores of the ocean, 
and maintaining perpetual wars with the 
cranes ; of which Athena?us gives the 
mythological origin. Ctesias the Greek 
historian, as quoted by Photius, repre- 
sented a nation of them as inhabiting 
India, and attending its king on his mili- 
tary expeditions. Other ancients believed 
them to inhabit the Indian islands ; and 
Aristotle places them in Ethiopia, Pliny 
in Transgangetic India. Some modern 
lovers of the marvellous have constructed 
these stories from legends of pigmy nations 
inhabiting the northernmost part of the 
earth. These numerous fables appear to 
originate partly, as Strabo long ago ob- 
served, in the stunted growth of particular 
races, under the sufferings of a severe 
climate or great privations; thus the Es- 
quimaux or Laplanders furnished the 
ancient Northmen with their legendary 
" Dwergar," or nations of malicious 
dwarfs. Some of the low-caste races 
which inhabit the forests of interior Hin- 
dostan are feeble and puny enough to have 
given origin to the account of Ctesias ; 
while the pygmies of the Malay Archi- 
pelago and the interior of Africa were pro- 
bably apes. 

Pygmalion, I. a king of Tyre, son of 
Belus, and brother of the celebrated Dido, 
whose husband Sichaeus he put to death. 
Dido, to avoid further acts of cruelty, fled 
to the coast of Africa, where she founded 
Carthage. Pygmalion died in his 56th 
year. — II. A celebrated statuary of the 
island of Cyprus. Having become en- 
amoured of a beautiful statue of marble he 
had made, Venus, at his earnest request, 
endued it with life, whereupon the artist 
married it, and became the father of Pa- 
phus, who founded the city of that name 
in Cyprus. 

Pylades, I. a son of Strophius, king of 
Phocis, by one of the sisters of Agamem- 
non. He was educated together with his 
cousin Orestes, with whom he formed a 
most intimate friendship, and whom he 
aided in avenging the murder of Agamem- 
non by the punishment of Clytsemnestra 
and JEgisthus. He received in marriage 
the hand of Electra, the sister of Orestes, 
by whom he had two sons, Medon and 
Strophius. The friendship of Orestes and 
Pylades became proverbial. (See Orestes.) 
— II. A celebrated actor in the reign of 
Augustus, banished by that emperor for 
pointing with his finger to one of the 
audience who had hissed him, and thus 
making him known to all. 

Pyl^e (IIuAcu), a general name among 
the Greeks for any narrow pass. The 



498 



PYL 



PYR 



most remarkable were the following : — I. 
Pylae Albania?, one of the principal passes 
of Mount Caucasus. — II. Amanica?, a pass 
through the range of Mount Amanus, be- 
tween Cilicia Campestris and Syria. Da- 
rius marched through this pass to the 
battle-field of Issus. — III. Caspia?. (See 
CAsn^s Port^.) — IV. Pyla? Caucasia?. 
(See Caucasus.) — V. Cilicia?, a pass of 
Cilicia, in the range of Mount Taurus, 
through which flows the river Sarus. 

Pyl agorae, a name given to the Am- 
phictyonic Council, because they always 
assembled at Pylae, near the temple of 
Delphi. 

Pylos, I. an ancient city of Elis, about 
eighty stadia to the east of the city of Elis, 
and which disputed with two other towns 
of the same name the honour of being the 
capital of Nestor's dominions ; these were 
Pylos of Triphylia, and theMessenianPylos. 
It was originally founded by Pylus, son of 
Cleson, king of Megara ; but was destroyed 
by Hercules, and afterwards restored by 
the Eleans. — II. A city of Elis, in the dis- 
trict of Triphylia, thirty stadia from the 
coast, and near a small river, once called 
Amathus and Pamisus, but subsequently 
Mamaus and Arcadicus. — III. A city on 
the western coast of Messenia, situated at 
the foot of Mount iEgaleus, now Geranio 
or Agio Elia, off which lay the island of 
Sphacteria. It was deserted by its inha- 
bitants after the Messenian war, but was 
subsequently restored ; and in the time 
of Pausanias it was inhabited, and com- 
prised among other monuments a temple 
of Minerva Coryphasia, and a monument 
of Nestor. The site of Pylos is occupied 
by the modern Navarino, famous for the 
defeat of the Turkish fleet by Admiral 
Codrington, 1827. 

Pyra, a part of Mount CEta, on which 
the body of Hercules was burnt. 

Pyracmon, one of Vulcan's workmen ; 
from irvp, " fire," and ofc/xwy, " anvil." 

Pyramides*, celebrated monuments of 
massive masonry, which, from a square 
base, rise by regular gradations, till they 
terminate in a point, but so that the width 
of the base always exceeds the perpendi- 
cular height. The pyramids commence 
immediately south of Cairo, but on the 
opposite bank of the Nile, and extend in 

* Chambers and galleries have been explored in 
6ome of the principal pyramids. Belzoni was the 
first wl ose investigations of the pyramids excited 
general attention ; but more recently the researches 
of Colonel Howard Vyse have been attended with 
greater success. The latter gentleman has opened 
and explored four new chambers in the great 
pyramid ; he also opened the third pyramid of 
Ghizeh, of the previous opening of which no tra- 
dition exists. 



an uninterrupted range for many miles in a 
southerly direction, parallel with the banks 
of the river. The three largest are situ- 
ated in the vicinity of Ghizeh, not far 
from Cairo ; and of these the loftiest is 
called the pyramid of Cheops, from the 
prince by whom it is supposed to have 
been erected. The sides of its base, which 
are in the line of the four cardinal points, 
measure at the foundation 763-4 feet; so 
that it occupies a space of more than 
thirteen acres. Its perpendicular height 
is 480 feet, being consequently 43 feet 
higher than St. Peter's at Rome, and 136 
feet higher than St. Paul's. According to 
the information communicated to Hero- 
dotus by the priests, 100,000 men were 
employed for twenty years in the con- 
struction of this prodigious edifice ; and 
ten years were employed in constructing a 
causeway by which to convey the stones to 
the place, and in their conveyance. The 
other pyramids are of inferior dimensions ; 
but they are mostly all, notwithstanding, 
of vast magnitude — instar montium eductce; 
they are not all of stone, some of them 
being of brick. Many learned disserta- 
tions have been written, and many fanciful 
and a few ingenious conjectures have been 
framed, to account for the original use and 
object of these imperishable structures. 
But the difficulty of the subject is such, 
that hitherto no satisfactory conclusion has 
been arrived at. Even in the remotest 
antiquity their origin was matter of doubt, 
and nothing certain was known with re- 
spect to them or their founders. On the 
whole, however, it would seem to be most 
probable that they were intimately con- 
nected with the religion of the ancient 
Egyptians ; and that they were at once a 
species of tombs and temples, but partici- 
pating more of the latter than of the for- 
mer character. The pyramids were es- 
teemed by the ancients as one of the seven 
wonders of the world, and most deservedly ; 
for it is impossible to look at these stu- 
pendous structures without being over- 
whelmed with a sense of their sublimity. 
They are associated, too, with some of the 
most interesting events in the history of 
the human race. Herodotus, Plato, and 
Pythagoras beheld them with wonder and 
admiration ; Alexander the Great and 
Napoleon marshalled their hosts under 
their shadow ; and they are probably des- 
tined to survive long after the proudest 
monuments of the present generation have 
crumbled into dust. The etymology of 
the wora pyramid is involved in as great 
obscurity as the object of the structure s 
themselves. The most usual derivations 



PYR 



PYR 



499 



that have been assigned to the term almost 
all proceed on the supposition that it is 
of Greek origin, than which nothing can 
be more erroneous. Perhaps the most 
probable conjecture is that of De Sacy, 
which is as follows : — The is in irvpa/j-is he 
regards as a Greek termination ; the first 
syllable iru he holds to be the Greek ver- 
sion of the Egyptian article pi (and so 
written by the Greeks from their wish to 
derive the word from irvp, fire) ; and he 
refers the syllable pap to the root ram, 
which, in the Egyptian language, signified 
separating, or setting apart from common 
use : consequently, the word pyramid will 
denote a sacred place or edifice set apart for 
some religious purpose. 

Pyramus, I. a youth of Babylon, be- 
tween whom and a beautiful maiden, 
named Thisbe, also a native of Babylon, 
a strong attachment subsisted. Their 
parents, however, being averse to their 
union, they adopted the expedient of re- 
ceiving each other's addresses through the 
chink of a wall which separated their 
dwellings. In the sequel, they arranged 
a meeting at the tomb of Ninus, under a 
white mulberry-tree. Thisbe, enveloped 
in a veil, arrived first at the appointed 
place ; but, terrified at the appearance of a 
lioness, she fled precipitately, and in her 
flight dropped her veil, which, lying in 
the animal's path, was rent by it, and 
smeared with the blood that stained the 
jaws of the lioness from the recent destruc- 
tion of some cattle. Pyramus, coming 
soon after to the appointed place, beheld 
the torn and bloody veil, and, concluding 
that Thisbe had been destroyed by some 
savage beast, slew himself in despair. 
Thisbe, returning after a short interval to 
the spot where she had encountered the 
lioness, beheld the bleeding form of Pyra- 
mus, and threw herself upon the fatal 
sword, still warm with the blood of her 
lover. According to the poets, the mul- 
berry that overhung the fatal scene changed 
the hue of its fruit from snow-white to a 
blood-red colour. — II. Geihoon, a river of 
Cilicia, rising on Mt. Taurus, and falling 
into the Pamphylian sea. 

Pvren^ei, a mountain, or long ridge of 
high mountains separating Gaul from Spain, 
and extending from the Atlantic to the 
Mediterranean sea. The name was com- 
monly supposed to be derived from the 
Greek term trvp, "fire," and various expla- 
nations were attempted to be given of this 
etymology. The true derivation, however, 
is evidently the Celtic Pyren or Pyrn, 
" a high mountain," and from this same 
may in like manner be deduced the name 



of Mount Brenner in the Tyrol ; that of 
Pyern, in upper Austria, that of Fernor, 
in the Tyrol, and many others. The 
range of the Pyrenees is about 294 miles 
in length. These mountains are steep, 
difficult of access, and only passable at five 
places: — 1st, From Languedoc to Catalo- 
nia ; 2d, from Comminge into Aragon ; 
3d, at Taraffa ; 4th, at Maya and Pampe- 
luna, in Navarre ; and 5th, at Sebastian, in 
Biscay, which is the easiest of all. See 
Pvrene. 

Pyrene, daughter of Bebrycius, king 
of the southern parts of Spain. Hercules 
offered violence to her, before he went 
to attack Geryon ; and to avoid the fury 
of her father, she fled to the northern 
part of the country, and passed the remain- 
der of her days on the mountains which 
were fabled to have been called from her 
Pyrenaei. 

Pyrgi, a town of Etruria, mentioned 
by Virgil, &c. 

Pyrgoteles, a celebrated engraver on 
gems in the age of Alexander the Great. 
He had the exclusive privilege of en- 
graving the conqueror, as Lysippus was 
the only sculptor who was permitted to 
make statues of him. 

Pyrrha, I. a daughter of Epimetheus 
and Pandora, wife of Deucalion, and 
mother of Amphictyon, Hellen, and Pro- 
togenea. (See Deucalion.) — II. Cape 
Ankistri, a promontory of Thessaly, on 
the western coast of the Sinus Pagasaeus, 
and a short distance below Demetrias. 
The rocks in its vicinity were called Deu- 
calion. 

Pyrrhicha, or Pyrrhic Dance, a spe- 
cies of warlike dance, said to have been 
invented by Pyrrhus to grace the funeral 
of his father Achilles, though this point is 
involved in obscurity. This dance con- 
sisted chiefly in such an adroit and nimble 
turning of the body as represented an at- 
tempt to avoid the strokes of an enemy in 
battle, and the motions necessary to per- 
form it were looked upon as a kind of 
training for the field of battle. This dance 
is supposed to be described by Homer as 
engraved on the shield of Achilles. Lord 
Byron describes the Suliotes as still per- 
forming it ( Childe Harold) ; and in the 
famous ode on the aspirations of Greece 
after liberty, he exclaims — 

" You have the Pyrrhic dance as yet, 
Where is the Pyrrhic phalanx gone ? 
Of two such lessons why forget 
The nobler and the manlier one ?" 

Pvrrhidje, a patronymic given to the 
successors of Neoptolemus in Epirus. 
Pyrrho, a celebrated philosopher of 



500 



PYR 



PYR 



Elis, and founder of the sect called Scep- 
tics, or Pyrrhonists, flourished about b. c. 
340. He was originally a painter, but 
afterwards became a disciple of Anaxar- 
chus, whom he accompanied to India in 
the train of Alexander the Great, and while 
there obtained a knowledge of the doc- 
trines of the Brahmins, Gymnosophists, 
Magi, and other Eastern philosophers. 
On the return of Pyrrho to Greece, the 
inhabitants of Elea made him their high 
priest, and the Athenians gave him the 
rights of citizenship. The tenets of the 
Pyrrhonists which have come to us only 
through the reports of unfriendly writers, 
are said to have been so absurdly sceptical, 
that they would not put even as much 
confidence in the senses as was necessary 
for the preservation of their existence; but 
this seems partly refuted by the age at 
which Pyrrho himself died, which was 
ninety years. 

Pvrrhus, I., a son of Achilles and 
Dei'damia, daughter of king Lycomedes, 
so called from the yellowness of his hair. 
He was also called Neoptolemus, or new 
warrior, because he came to the Trojan 
war in the last years of the celebrated 
siege of the capital of Troas. He was 
brought up and remained in the court of 
his maternal grandfather until after his 
father's death. The Greeks then, accord- 
ing to an oracle, which had declared that 
Troy could not be taken unless one of the 
descendants of iEacus were among the be- 
siegers, despatched Ulysses and Phoenix to 
Scyros for the young prince. He had no 
sooner arrived before Troy, than, having 
paid a visit to the tomb of Achilles, he 
was appointed to accompany Ulysses in 
his expedition to Lemnos, for the purpose 
of prevailing on Philoctetes to repair with 
the arrows of Hercules to the scene of 
action. Pyrrhus greatly signalised him- 
self during the siege, and was the first, 
according to some accounts, that entered 
the wooden horse. After breaking down 
the gates of Priam's palace, he pursued 
the unhappy monarch to the altar of Ju- 
piter, where, according to some accounts, 
he put him to death ; while, according 
to others, he dragged him by the hair 
to the tomb of Achilles, where he sacri- 
ficed him to the manes of his father. 
Pyrrhus is also among the number of 
those to whom the precipitation of the 
young Astyanax from the summit of a 
tower is attrihuted ; and it was he that 
immolated Polyxena to his father's shade. 
In the division of the captives after the 
termination of the war, Andromache, the 
widow of Hector, and Helenus, the bro- 



ther of the latter, were assigned to Pyr- 
rhus. After some time had elapsed, he 
gave up Andromache to Helenus, and 
sought and ohtained the hand of Her- 
mione, daughter of Menelaus and Helen ; 
but he was slain for this by Orestes, son 
of Agamemnon. — II. A king of Epirus, 
son of iEacides and Phthia, and descended 
from Achilles on the mother's side. When 
his father was banished from his kingdom, 
Pyrrhus, then an infant, was carried to 
the court of Glautias, king of Illyricum, 
who educated him with great care ; and 
when Cassander, king of Macedonia, wished 
to despatch him, Glautias net only refused to 
deliver him up, but even went with an army 
and placed him on the throne of Epirus, 
though only twelve years of age. About 
five years afterwards, Pyrrhus was expelled 
from his throne by Xeoptolemus, who had 
usurped it after the death of iEacides, and 
applied to his brother-in-law Demetrius 
for assistance. He accompanied Deme- 
trius at the battle of Ipsus, and afterwards 
passed into Egypt, where, by his marriage 
with Antigone, daughter of Berenice, he 
soon obtained a sufficient force to enable 
him to recover his throne. To remove all 
causes of quarrel, however, he took the 
usurper to share with him the royalty, but 
some time after he put him to death, 
under pretence that he had attempted to 
poison him. In the subsequent years of 
his reign Pyrrhus engaged in the quarrels 
which disturbed the peace of the Mace- 
donian monarchy ; and he was meditating 
new conquests, when the Tarentines in- 
vited him to Italy to assist them against 
the Romans. Ambitious of equalling in 
the west the conquests of his cousin Alex- 
ander in the east, he readily complied with 
the request of the Tarentines, and imme- 
diately dispatched a body of 3000 men to 
their relief, under the command of Cineas, 
his favourite general. Pyrrhus himself 
soon followed with 20,000 foot, 3000 horse, 
2000 archers, 500 slingers, and twenty ele- 
phants. His fleet being dispersed by a 
storm, and his own ship in great danger, 
he threw himself into the sea and swam on 
shore. Having collected about 2000 of 
his troops, he advanced towards Tarentum, 
where he was received by Cineas, and soon 
after joined by the greatest part of his 
army. In his first battle with the Romans 
he obtained the victory, but for this he 
was more particularly indebted to his ele- 
phants, whose bulk and uncommon ap- 
pearance astonished the Romans. The 
number of the slain was equal on both 
sides ; and the conqueror said that such 
another victory would totally ruin him. 



PYT 



PYT 



501 



A second battle was soon after fought near 
Asculum ; and the valour was so con- 
spicuous on both sides, that the Romans 
and their enemies reciprocally claimed the 
victory. Pyrrhus still continued the war 
in favour of the Tarentines, when he was 
invited into Sicily by the inhabitants, who 
laboured under the yoke of Carthage and 
the cruelty of their own petty tyrants. 
His fondness for novelty soon determined 
him to quit Italy. He left a garrison at 
Tarentum, and crossed over to Sicily, 
where he obtained two victories over the 
Carthaginians, and took many of their 
towns. He then formed the project of 
invading Africa ; but his popularity soon 
vanished. His troops became insolent, 
and he showed himself so oppressive, that 
his return to Italy was deemed a fortunate 
event for all Sicily. He had no sooner 
arrived at Tarentum than he renewed hos- 
tilities with the Romans with great acri- 
mony ; but when his army of 80,000 men 
had been defeated by 20,000 of the enemy 
under Curius, he left Italy with precipita- 
tion, b. c. 274, ashamed of the enterprise, 
and mortified by the victories which had 
been obtained over one of the descendants 
of Achilles. In Epirus he began to repair 
his military character by attacking An- 
tigonus, who was then on the Macedonian 
throne. He gained some advantages over 
his enemy, and was at last restored to the 
throne of Macedonia. He afterwards 
marched against Sparta at the request of 
Cleonymus ; and retired to Argos, whither 
the treachery of Aristeus invited him. The 
combat which ensued - was obstinate and 
bloody : the monarch was attacked by one 
of the enemy, but as he was going to run 
him through, the mother of the Argive, 
who saw her son's danger from the top of 
a house, threw down a tile, and brought 
Pyrrhus to the ground. His head was 
cut off and carried to Antigonus, who gave 
his remains a magnificent funeral, and pre- 
sented his ashes to his son Helenus, b. c. 
272. — III. A king of Epirus, son of 
Ptolemy, murdered by the people of Am- 
bracia, and succeeded by his daughter Lau- 
damia. — IV. A son of Daedalus. 

Pythagoras, one of the most celebrated 
philosophers of antiquity, and the founder 
of the Italic school, was the son of Mne- 
sarchus, an engraver of Samos, and born at 
Sidon, in Phoenicia, about b. c. 580, while 
his parents were travelling in that country. 
He first made himself known in Greece at 
the Olympic games, where he obtained, in 
his eighteenth year, the prize for wrest- 
ling ; and, after travelling through Egypt 
and the East in search of instruction, 



finally fixed his abode at Crotona, one of 
the Dorian colonies in the south of Italy. 
He here attached to himself a large num- 
ber of youths of noble descent, whom he 
formed into a secret fraternity for religious 
and political as well as philosophical pur- 
poses ; and by their assistance produced 
many beneficial changes in the institutions 
of Croton and the other Graaco- Italian 
cities. After a life of great persecution, 
he died at Metapontum, in the temple of 
the Muses, where, according to tradition, 
he perished from want of sustenance, at 
eighty years of age. Of the strictly phi- 
losophical tenets of the Pythagoreans very 
imperfect records are preserved. Many of 
the doctrines ordinarily imputed to them 
are evidently the fabrication of the later 
Pythagoreans, a class of visionaries who 
lived during the decline of the Roman 
empire. The doctrine of metempsychosis, 
or the transmigration of souls through 
different orders of animal existence, is the 
main feature by which the Pythagorean 
philosophy is popularly known. It is, 
however, by no means certain that the 
genuine Pythagoreans held this doctrine 
in a literal sense. It may have been only 
a mythical way of communicating their 
belief in the individuality and post mortem 
duration of the soul. The disciples of 
Pythagoras paid a superstitious regard to 
his memory, erected statues in honour 
of him, converted his house in Crotona 
into a temple of Ceres, and appealed to 
him as a divinity, swearing by his name. 
Pythagoras had a daughter, named Damo. 
There is now extant a poetical compo- 
sition ascribed to the philosopher, entitled 
Golden Verses of Pythagoras ; but many 
hold them to be supposititious. He dis- 
tinguished himself by his discoveries in 
geometry, astronomy, and mathematics ; 
and was the first who assumed the title of 
philosopher. 

Pytheas, a celebrated ancient astrono- 
mer, philosopher, and mathematician, 
born at Massilia, now Marseilles, in the 
time of Alexander the Great. He was a 
great traveller, and is said not only to 
have explored the coast as far as Cadiz, 
but to have sailed from thence to the 
Ultima Thule, or Iceland, where he made 
some astronomical observations. 

Pythia, I., a priestess of Apollo at 
Delphi. (See Delphi, Oraculum.) — II. 
One of the four great national festivals of 
Greece, celebrated every fifth year in ho- 
nour of Apollo, near Delphi. Their insti- 
tution is variously referred to Amphictyon, 
son of Deucalion, founder of the council 
of Amphictyons, and Diomede, son of 



502 



PYT 



QUI 



Tydeus ; but the most common legend is, 
that they were founded by Apollo himself, 
after he had overcome the dragon Python. 
The contests were the same as those at 
Olympia, and the victors were rewarded 
with apples and garlands of laurel. 

Pythias or Phinteas, a Pythagorean 
philosopher, intimate with Damon. See 
Phinteas. 

Pythius, I., a Syracusan, who defraud- 
ed Canius, a Roman knight, to whom he 
had sold his gardens, &c. — II. A sur- 
name of Apollo, which he received for 
*his having conquered the serpent Python, 
or because he was worshipped at Delphi, 
called also Pytho. See Pytho. 

Pytho, the ancient name of the town of 
Delphi. See Delphi. 

Python, a celebrated serpent sprung 
from the mud and stagnated waters which 
remained on the surface of the earth after 
the deluge of Deucalion. This monster 
abode in the vicinity of Delphi, and de- 
stroyed the people and cattle of the sur- 
rounding country. Apollo, on coming to 
Delphi, slew the serpent with his arrows ; 
and as it lay expiring, the exulting victor 
cried, " Now rot (irvdev) there on the 
man-feeding earth ; " and hence, says the 
legend, the place and oracle received the 
appellation of Pytho. The Pythian 
games were fabled to have been established 
in commemoration of this victory. See 
Pythia. 

Pythonissa, a name given to the priest- 
ess of Apollo's temple at Delphi ; more 
generally called Pythia (see Pythia), and 
commonly applied to women who ex- 
plained futurity. 

Pythofolis, or Nysa, A r asli, a city of 
Caria, in the valley of the Maeander. 
Strabo studied here. 



a 

Quadi, a German nation, whose terri- 
tory was bounded on the south by the 
Danube, on the east by the river Gran 
and the Jazyges, on the north by the Car- 
pates and Sudetes, and on the west by the 
Marcomanni. Along with the Marco- 
manni, they waged war against the Ro- 
mans ; and though the emperor Marcus 
Antoninus proceeded against them in per- 
son, and repressed their inroads, they soon 
after renewed hostilities with increased 
vigour. Their name disappears from his- 
tory about the fifth century. 

Quadratus, a surname of Mercury, be- 
cause some of his statues were square. 

Quaorifrons or Quadriceps, a sur- 



name of Janus, because he was represented 
with four faces. 

Quaestor, a Roman magistrate whose 
office it was to collect the public revenue, 
whence their name (from quaero, / seek) 
was derived. Two quaestors were originally 
chosen by the kings in the earliest times 
of the city ; and after their expulsion the ap- 
pointment remained in the hands of the con- 
suls till the year a. c. 307, when they began 
to be elected by the people at the Comitia 
Tributa. Soon after this two more quaes- 
tors were appointed to attend the consuls 
in war ; and from this time they might be 
chosen indifferently from plebeians and 
patricians, the former class having been 
previously excluded. As the Roman em- 
pire was extended over all Italy and the 
other countries that finally owned its sway, 
the number of quaestors was increased, so 
that one was appointed to each consul or 
praetor when he went to his province ; and 
this was done generally by lot, but some- 
times the superior magistrate was allowed 
to choose his own quaestor. The quaestor- 
ship was the first step of preferment which 
gave admission into the senate ; but it was 
sometimes held by those who had been 
consuls. Under the emperors the office 
underwent many changes; Augustus de- 
prived them of the charge of the treasury, 
which he imposed on the praetors, and 
gave them the superintendence of the 
public records ; but the former office was 
restored to them by Claudius. 

Quinctilii. See Luperci. 

QuindecejivIri, Roman magistrates, 
whose duty it was to take care of the 
Sibylline books, and consult them on 
critical occasions when the senate deemed 
their advice necessary. They were ex- 
empted from the privilege of serving in 
the army, and from other offices in the 
city; and their priesthood, which was 
probably in service of Apollo, lasted for 
life. Their number, as their name imports, 
was fifteen by Sylla's appointment ; but 
originally they had been ten, an equal 
number being elected from patricians and 
plebeians ; and by J. Caesar they were 
raised to sixteen. 

Quinquatrus, in Roman Classical An- 
tiquities, the feast of Minerva, which began 
on the 14th of the Kal. of April, and lasted 
five days ; on all the days except the first, 
there were gladiatorial exhibitions ; and on 
the last, a ceremony was performed called 
tubilustrium or " purification of trum- 
pets," the invention of which was attri- 
buted to the goddess. It is in allusion to 
the well-known attributes of the goddess 
that Juvenal makes this the season in which 



QUI 



RAU 



503 



her youthful votaries pray for forensic suc- 
cess. 

Eloquium et famara Demostlienis et Ciceronis 
Incipit optare, et totis Quinquatribus optat. 

Another festival of Minerva, called the 
Quinquatrus Minuscula, was celebrated on 
the Ides of June with great pomp by the 
tibicines, or flute players. 

QlTINQUENNALIA, Or L.UDI QuiNQUEN- 

nales, public games celebrated every five 
years. They were instituted by the em- 
perors in commemoration of different 
events of their respective reigns. Medals 
struck on these occasions have been dis- 
covered, bearing the date of the reign of 
Posthumus. 

Quintia prata, a place on the borders 
of the Tiber near Rome, cultivated by the 
great Cincinnatus. 

Quintilianus, Marcus Fabius, a cele- 
brated Roman rhetorician, born at Cala- 
gurris, a city of Hispania Tarraconensis, 
a. d. 42. After the death of Nero, his 
father, who was also a professor of rhetoric, 
conveyed him to Rome, where he devoted 
himself to the same pursuits, and opened 
a shool of rhetoric under Vespasian. Flavia 
Domitilla, niece of Domitian, and Pliny 
the younger, were among the number of 
his pupils. He obtained the distinction 
of the laticlave, or senatorian dress, and 
under Domitian he was nominated consul. 
He had professed rhetoric for the space of 
twenty years, when he retired from active 
life, and composed, between 92 and 94 a.d., 
his " Institutes of the Orator," universally 
regarded as the most complete system of 
oratory extant. The year of his death is 
unknown, but it was subsequent to 1 18 a.d. 

Quintus I., Curtius Rufus, a Latin 
historian who wrote the history of Alex- 
ander the Great, in ten books, the first 
two of which are lost. The exact period 
in which he flourished is not known ; for 
though his style would indicate that he 
lived in one of the best periods of the 
Latin language, no writer of any earlier 
date than the twelfth century has made 
any mention of him. — II. Cai,aber, a 
Greek poet, who wrote a supplement to 
Homer's Iliad. He is supposed to have 
lived in the fifth century, and to have been a 
native of Smyrna, hence he is sometimes 
called SmynicEus. His poem was first 
brought to light by Cardinal Bessarion, 
who found it in the church of St. Nicolas, 
near Otranto, in Calabria, whence he has 
obtained the name of Calaber. 

QuiejnalTa, festivals in honour of Ro- 
mulus, surnamed Quirinics, celebrated on 
the 13 th of the calends of March. 



Quirinalis, originally called Agonius, 
afterwards Collinus, one of the seven 
hilis on which Rome stood, added to the 
city by Servius Tullius. It derived its 
name from the inhabitants of Cures, who 
settled there under their king Tatius. 
On it were the temple of the deified Romu- 
lus, Sallust's house and gardens, which 
extended over the Pincian hill, or Collis 
Hortulorum, the Campus Sceleratus, and 
the baths of Constantine. It is now called 
Monte Cavallo, a corruption from Mons 
Caballus, a name applied at a later period 
to the Quirinal hiil, from two marble 
statues of a horse which were placed on it. 

Quirinus, a name given to Mars and 
Janus, and to Romulus after his deification. 
The term signifies "warrior," and is derived 
from the Sabine word Quiris or Curis, " a 
spear. " 

Quirites, a name given to the Roman 
citizens, because they admitted into their 
city the inhabitants of the Sabine town 
Cures, called Quirites. 



R. 

Rabirius, C, I. a R.oman knight ac- 
cused, it is said, at the instigation of Julius 
Ccesar, of having slain in a sedition, 36 
years before, A. Saturninus. He was de- 
fended by Cicero, and escaped only by 
Metellus taking down the standard from 
the Janiculum, and thus dissolving the 
assembly. — II. Adopted son of the pre- 
ceding, accused, together with Gabinius, of 
having received a large sum of money for 
restoring Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt ; 
but he was defended by Cicero, and ac- 
quitted, though with difficulty. — III. A 
Latin poet in the age of Augustus, who 
wrote a poem on the victory the emperor 
had gained over Antony at Actium. 

Ramnes, or Rhamnenses, the name of 
the first century of the 300 horsemen who 
constituted the cavalry of Rome under the 
early kings. Most probably the name was 
also applied at first to the original century 
of patrician houses established by Ro- 
mulus, and distinguished from the Tati- 
enses and Luceres; whose names, in like 
manner, must be supposed to extend not 
merely to the two remaining centuries 
of cavalry, but to the two centuries of 
tribes respectively instituted by Romulus, 
on the accession of the Sabines and Tar- 
quinius Priscus. 

Ramses. See Sesostris. 

Raudii Campi, plains about ten miles 
north-west of Mediolanum, in Cisalpine 
Gaul, which were rendered memorable 



504 



RAU 



REG 



by the bloody defeat of the Cimbri by 
Marius. 

Rauraci, a people of Belgic Gaul, on 
the Upper Rhine, north-east of the Se- 
quani. Their capital was Augusta Raura- 
corum, now Augst. 

Ravenna, an important maritime city 
of Cisalpine Gaul, which still retains its 
ancient name. Ravenna was originally 
founded by a colony of Thessalians, most 
probably on the sea- shore, but in the days 
of Strabo it was, owing to the accumu- 
lation of mud, surrounded by marshes. 
Being difficult of approach, and well for- 
tified, its advantages as a stronghold and a 
naval station were perceived by Augustus, 
who constructed a new harbour, about 
three miles from the old town, which he 
connected with the Po and the old city by 
a canal, and with the continent by a cause- 
way. Ravenna henceforward became the 
principal station of the Adriatic fleet, and 
the new and old cities were nearly joined 
by intermediate buildings. But the same 
cause, the accumulation of mud and other 
matters, brought down by the Po and 
other rivers, that had destroyed the port of 
the ancient city, in no very long time de- 
stroyed that constructed by Augustus : it 
is now, in fact, about 4| miles from the sea, 
and so early as the fifth or sixth century 
of the Christian era, " the port of Augustus 
was converted into pleasant orchards ; and 
a lonely grove of pines covered the ground 
where the Roman fleet once rode at an- 
chor !" But this very circumstance, though 
it lessened the naval importance, increased 
the strength of the new city, which, from 
the beginning of the fifth to the middle of 
the eighth century, was considered as the 
seat of government, and the capital of Italy. 

Reate, Rieti, an old Sabine town on the 
river Velinus, a branch of the Nar, said to 
have been the first seat of the Umbri, who 
are regarded by some as the Aborigines of 
Italy. If we may credit Silius Italicus, 
Reate derived its name from Rhea, the 
Latin Cybele. It was particularly cele- 
brated for its excellent breed of mules, and 
still more so for that of its asses, which 
sometimes brought the enormous price of 
60,000 sestertii, about 484Z. sterling. The 
valley of the Velinus, in which this city 
was situated, was so delightful as to merit 
the appellation of Tempe, and from their 
dewy freshness its meadows obtained the 
name of Rosei Campi. 

RedSnes, a Gallic nation in the interior 
of Lugdunensis Tertia north of the Nam- 
netes, and the mouth of the Liger or Loire. 
Their capital was Condate, afterwards 
Redones, now Rennes, 



Regifugium or FugXlia, the king's 
flight, an annual festival celebrated by the 
Romans on the 24th of February, and on 
the 24th of May, in commemoration of 
the flight of Tarquinius Superbus from 
Rome ; but some maintain that it derived 
its name from the symbolical flight of the 
Rex Sacrorum from the Comitium, after 
he had performed his sacrifices there, on 
the only two days in the year on which 
he was allowed to appear in the assemblies 
of the people. 

Regill^ or Regixlum, a Sabine town 
near Eretum, famous for being the birth- 
place of Atta Clausus, who, under the 
name of Appius Claudius, became the 
founder of the Claudian family at Rome. 

Regillus I., a small lake of Latium, 
northwest of Prameste, and southeast of 
Gabii. It was the scene of a great battle 
between the Romans and Latins, after the 
expulsion of Tarquin, in which the latter 
were totally defeated. The lake Regillus 
is thought to be il Laghctto deJla Colonna, 
near the small town of that name. — II. 
iEmilius Lucius, a Roman praetor, b. c. 
190. He commanded the Roman navy in 
the war with Antiochus the Great, king of 
Syria. After rejecting the overtures of 
that king for peace, he defeated the Syrian 
fleet off the promontory of Myonnesus on 
the coast of Ionia. He subsequently com- 
pelled Phocaja to surrender, and honour- 
ably observed the conditions of the treaty ; 
b. c. 189 he celebrated a splendid naval 
triumph. 

Regium Lepieum or Forum Lepidi, a 
city of Cisalpine Gaul, between Parma 
and Mutina, founded by M. iEmilius Le- 
pidus, who constructed the iEmilian road 
on which it stood. It is noticed in history 
as being the scene of the death of the elder 
Brutus by order of Pompey, to whom he 
had surrendered himself. 

Regulus, I. M. Attilius, a consul dur- 
ing the first Punic war. He reduced Brun- 
dusium, and in his second consulship took 
sixty-four, and sunk thirty, galleys of the 
Carthaginian fleet on the coasts of Sicily. 
He then landed in Africa, and made him- 
self master of about two hundred places of 
consequence on the coast, but was soon 
after defeated in a battle by Xanthippus, 
in which 30,000 were left on the field, and 
15,000 taken prisoners, among whom 
was Regulus. He was carried in triumph 
to Carthage, where he was kept some 
years ; and afterwards sent to Rome to 
propose an exchange of prisoners, hav- 
ing been first compelled to bind himself, 
by an oath, that he would return, in case 
he proved unsuccessful. When he came 



REM 



RHE 



505 



to Rome, he dissuaded his countrymen j 
from accepting the terms proposed, and | 
having returned to Carthage, agreeably to 
his engagements, was inhumanly put to 
death by the Carthaginians, b. c. 251. 

Remi, a people of Gallia Belgica, south- 
west of the Treviri, and south-east of the 
Veromandui. Their capital was Duro- 
cortorum, now Rheims. 

Remulus, I., a chief of Tiber, whose 
arms were seized by the RutuHans, and 
afterwards became part of the plunder 
which Euryalus obtained. — II. A friend 
of Turnus, trampled to death by his horse. 

Remuria, festivals established at Rome 
by Romulus, to appease the Manes of 
his brother Remus, afterwards called 
Lemuria. 

Remus, the brother of Romulus, ex- 
posed together with him by the cruelty of 
his grandfather. See Romulus. 

Res^ena, a city of Mesopotamia, on the 
river Chaboras. Its site was afterwards 
occupied by Theodosiopolis, which must 
not be confounded with another city of the 
same name in northern Armenia. The 
modern name of Resaena is Ras- el-aim. 

Rex Sacrorum. In Roman history, a 
priest appointed, after the expulsion of 
Tarquin, to superintend certain holy rites 
which had always been performed by the 
king in person. 

Rha ('PS), a large river, now the 
Wolga. No writer, prior to Ptolemy, 
mentions either its name or course. 

Rhacotis, the name of a maritime village 
in Egypt, on the site of which Alexandria 
was subsequently erected. 

Rhadamanthus, a son of Jupiter and 
Europa, brother of Minos and Sarpedon, 
in conjunction with whom he dispensed 
justice in Hades. Being driven from 
Crete by his brother Minos, he passed 
into the Cyclades, where he ruled with 
justice and equity ; but having committed 
an accidental homicide, he retired sub- 
sequently to Boeotia, where he married 
Alcmena, the mother of Hercules. 

Rh^ti, the inhabitants of Rhaetia. See 
Rh^tia. 

Rhaetia, a country of Europe, which 
occupied a part of the Alps, north of Italy 
and east of Helvetia. It was bounded 
on the north by Vindelicia, and, in 
general, corresponded to the country of 
the Grisons, and to the cantons of Uri, 
Glaris, &c, as far as the Lake of Con- 
stance. This country was originally called 
western Illyricum, and was subjected to 
the Romans by Drusus, in the reign of 
Augustus ; but, when Vindelicia was re- 
duced by Tiberius, it was formed, together 



with western Illyricum, into the province 
called Rhaetia, afterwards divided into 
Rhastia Prima and Secunda. 

Rhamnes, a king and augur, who as- 
sisted Turnus against JEneas, and was 
killed in the night by Nisus. 

Rhamnus, a maritime town of Attica, 
sixty stadia north-east of Marathon, so 
named from the plant rhamnus (thorn- 
bush), which grew there in abundance. 
This demus belonged to the tribe iEantis, 
and was celebrated for the worship of 
Nemesis, hence styled Rhamnusia virgo. 

Rhampsinitus, an Egyptian monarch, 
who was fabled to have descended alive 
into Hades, where he played at dice with 
Ceres, and, at his return, brought with 
him as a present a napkin of gold. 

Rhamses, RamIses. See Sesostris. 

Rharius Campus, a part of the Thria- 
sian plain, in Attica, near Eleusis, where 
Ceres was said to have first sown corn. 

Rhea (Gr. pew, I flow), daughter of 
Coelus and Terra, wife of Saturn, and 
mother of Vesta, Ceres, Juno, Pluto, &c. 
She is frequently confounded with Ops, 
Terra, and Cybele. For the particulars of 
her history, see Saturn. — II. Silvia, 
mother of Romulus and Remus; also 
called Ilia. See Ilia, 

Rhedones. See Redones. 

Rhegium, Reggio, one of the most cele- 
brated and flourishing cities of Magna 
Graecia, at the extremity of Italy, in the 
territory of the Bruttii, and in a south- 
eastern direction from Messana on the 
opposite coast of Sicily. It was founded 
nearly 700 years b. c, by a party of Chal- 
cidians, Zanclaeans, and other Greek colo- 
nists ; and was for 200 years the capital of 
one of the principal republics of Southern 
Italy. The government was subject to the 
same mutations as that of the other Greek 
cities, being sometimes under a democracy, 
but more frequently under an oligarchy, or 
a single tyrant. It was besieged by the 
elder Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, who, 
having succeeded in cutting off all commu^ 
nication between the sea on the one hand 
and the country on the other, reduced the 
inhabitants to such distress for want of 
food, that a bushel of wheat is said to have 
been sold for five minas, or, according to 
the usual method of computing, about 
15/. 12s. 6d. At last, after sustaining 
the most dreadful privations, they were 
obliged to surrender, when most of those 
who survived were sent as slaves to Syra- 
cuse. It, however, again recovered some 
portion of its former importance, and suc- 
ceeded in repelling an attack of Hannibal. 
Augustus established a colony in the city. 



506 



RHE 



RHO 



It produced several distinguished followers 
of Pythagoras, some historians of celebrity, 
and some distinguished sculptors. It suf- 
fered in antiquity, as well as in more mo- 
dern times, from earthquakes. 

Rhenea, also called Celadussa and Ar- 
temis, now Sdili, a small island near Delos ; 
which Polycrates, of Samos, is said to 
have dedicated to Apollo, connecting it to 
the latter island by means of a chain. 

Rhenus, I., one of the largest rivers in 
Europe, which rises in Switzerland, on the 
north-east side of Mount St. Gothard, flows 
through the lake of Constance, and, passing 
by Basle, Strasburg, and Mannheim, re- 
ceives the Maine a little west of Frankfort, 
on the side of Germany ; and a little north 
of this the Moselle, on the side of France, 
at Coblentz. It then passes by Cologne, 
and, after entering the Netherlands, turns 
sharply to the west, divides itself into two 
branches (hence called Bicornis), the 
southern and largest of which is called the 
Waal, the northern becomes subdivided, 
and only a small and comparatively insig- 
nificant stream retains the name of the 
Rhine, and flows into the sea west of 
Utrecht and Leyden. Its course is above 
800 miles. The Rhine was long a barrier 
between the Romans and Germans ; it 
was first crossed by Julius Ca?sar. — 
II. Retw, a small river of Cisalpine Gaul, 
rising in the north of Etruria, and falling 
into the Padus, Po. It is celebrated in 
history for the meeting of the second tri- 
umvirate, which took place a. u. c. 709, in 
an island formed by its stream. 

Rhesds, a king of Thrace, son of 
Strymon and Terpsichore, or, according to 
others, of Eioneus and Euterpe, who, after 
many conquests in Europe, marched to 
the assistance of Priam, king of Troy, 
against the Greeks. An oracle which was < 
well known to the Greeks, having declared 
that Troy should never be taken if the 
horses of Rhesus drank the waters of the 
Xanthus, and fed upon the grass of the 
Trojan plains, two of their best generals, 
Diomedes and Ulysses, were commissioned 
by the rest to intercept the Thracian prince. 
They accordingly entered the camp of 
Rhesus in the night, slew him, and car- 
ried away his horses to their camp. 

Rhianus, a Greek poet, a native of Crete, 
who flourished about 230 b. c. He was 
originally a slave in a school of exercise. 

Rhinocolura,- a town on the coast of 
the Mediterranean, assigned at one time 
to Egypt, at another to Syria, and lying on 
the confines of both. 

Rhion, or Rhium, a promontory of 
Achaia, opposite Antirrbium in iEtolia, at 



the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf. The 
strait is seven stadia across. The castle of 
the Morea occupies the site of this place at 
the present day. 

Rhiph^i, large mountains at the north 
of Scythia, where the Gorgons fixed their 
residence. The name Riphcean is applied 
to any cold mountain in a northern country. 

Rhouanus, Rhone, a large and rapid 
river of Europe, which rises in the Glacier 
of Furca, in Switzerland ; and after passing 
through the Lake of Geneva, where it re- 
ceives the Saone at Lyons, and the Durance 
at Avignon, enters the Mediterranean east 
of Nismes and Montpellier. Its whole 
course is about 470 miles. 

Rhodus ( c P68os), a celebrated island 
in the Mediterranean sea, with a capital 
of the same name, lying southwest of 
the coast of Caria, and about forty-three 
miles distant from the main land. It is 
about forty-five miles in length, and where 
broadest about eighteen miles across. 
Rhodes was early distinguished by its 
wealth, its naval power, the wisdom of its 
laws and institutions, and its superiority in 
art and science. Tlepolemus, a prince of 
Rhodes, distinguished himself at the siege 
of Troy ; and the island could then boast 
of the then famous cities of Lindus, Jalysus, 
and Camirus. The city of Rhodes is 
much less ancient, having been founded 
during the Peloponnesian war. But its 
advantageous situation, and the excellence 
of its harbour, soon gave it a decided su- 
periority over the other towns of the island, 
many of whose inhabitants withdrew to it; 
and it was, in fact, one of the best-built 
and most magnificent cities of the ancient 
world. Its temples, especially those dedi- 
cated to Bacchus, Diana, Isis, &c, were 
celebrated alike for the magnificence of 
the building, and the statues and paintings 
with which they were enriched ; but its 
most famous works of art were two pic- 
tures by Protogenes, and the colossus or 
brazen statue of Apollo, reckoned one of 
the wonders of the world. The wealth of 
the Rhodians was derived partly from the 
fertile soil and advantageous situation of 
their island, but more from their exten- 
sive commerce and commercial naviga- 
tion, and the wisdom of their laws, espe- 
cially those having reference to maritime 
affairs. Such, indeed, was the estimation 
in which the latter were held, that the rule 
of the Rhodian law de jactu was expressly 
embodied in the Digest, and has been 
thence adopted into all modern codes. 
Rhodes was also famous for its science and 
literature. iEschines, on his retirement 
from Athens, opened a school of rhetoric 



RHO 



ROG 



507 



in this city ; and towards the termination 
of the Roman republic, and under the 
early emperors, Rhodes was held, as a 
school of eloquence, literature, and philo- 
sophy, to be little, if at all, inferior even 
to Athens ; and these, combined with the 
genial temperature of the climate, and the 
luxurious refinement of the capital city, 
made it to be resorted to by some of the 
most illustrious individuals of whom Rome 
has to boast, including, among others, 
Pompey and Cicero. Julius Caesar, too, 
had set out to study at Rhodes, and was 
only prevented by being captured on his 
voyage by pirates. Tiberius resided for 
about seven years in the island. It seems 
also to have been a favourite retreat of 
those Romans who wished to withdraw 
from the factions and turmoil of Rome. 
The government of Rhodes, which, like 
that of most other Greek cities, was ori- 
ginally monarchical, was subsequently 
changed into a democracy, and ultimately 
into an aristocracy ; under which it en- 
joyed a degree of tranquillity and prospe- 
rity to which most Grecian cities were 
strangers. It was taken by Mausolus, 
king of Caria, but soon recovered its in- 
dependence, and continued to enjoy pro- 
found peace, till it was attacked by De- 
metrius, the son of Antigonus. The siege 
of Rhodes by Demetrius is one of the 
most celebrated in ancient history; but 
all the science and efforts of Demetrius 
were defeated by the bravery and reso- 
lution of the Rhodians, and he was 
compelled to raise the siege, anno 303 
b. c, after it had continued about a year. 
The Rhodians were subsequently ranked 
among the steadiest of the allies of Rome ; 
they repulsed Mithridates, who made an 
attack on their city, and continued to en- 
joy their liberty till the reign of Vespasian, 
when Rhodes was made a Roman pro- 
vince. 

Rhodope, or Rhodopis, a celebrated 
courtesan of Greece, fellow servant with 
iEsop, at the court of a king of Samos. 
She was carried to Egypt by Xanthus, 
and her liberty was at last bought by Cha- 
raxes of Mitylene, brother of Sappho, who 
was enamoured of and married her. 

Rhodope, Despoto Dagh, a lofty moun- 
tain range of Thrace, sweeping down to 
the south from the great chains of Hasmus 
and Scomius, and sending out a number of 
lateral ridges which spread over the whole 
of the southern and western districts of 
Thrace. 

Rhodopeius, used in the same signifi- 
cation as Thracian, because Rhodope was 
a mountain of that country. 



Rhcebus, a horse of Mezentius, which 
his master addressed with the determina- 
tion to conquer or die, when he saw his 
son Lausus brought lifeless from the battle. 

Rhcecus, I. one of the Centaurs, killed 
at the nuptials of Pirithous by Bacchus. 
— II. One of the giants killed by Bacchus, 
under the form of a lion, in the war 
against Jupiter and the gods. 

Rhceteum and Sig^eum, two promon- 
tories forming the northern and southern 
horns of the bay in which lay the fleet of 
the Greeks at the siege of Troy. On the 
former Ajax was interred ; on the latter 
were the tombs of Achilles, Patroclus, and 
Antiochus. Towns having the same names 
were afterwards built in the neighbour- 
hood of these capes. 

Rhosus, a city of Syria, lying on the 
Sinus Issicus, fifteen miles from Seleucia, 
and north-west of Antiochia. 

Rhoxalani, a warlike Sarmatian race 
nOrth of the Palus Mseotis, generally 
considered as the progenitors of the Rus- 
sians. Having joined their arms to those 
of a neighbouring nation, they frequently 
attacked the Roman confines near the 
Danube and the Carpathian Mountains. 
a. d. 68 they surprised Mcesia. a. d. 166 
they carried on war against the Marco- 
manni, and about a century later were 
numbered among the enemies over whom 
Aurelian triumphed. During the first 
three centuries they occupied the southern 
parts of Poland, Red Russia, and Kiovia, 
the seats possessed by the Russians of the 
ninth century. 

Rhoxana. See Roxana. 

Rhuteni or Rutheni, a people of Gallia 
Aquitanica, in Narbonensis Prima, whose 
territory was situated on either side of the 
Tarnis or Tarn. Segodunum, now Rodez, 
was their chief town. 

Rhyndacus, formerly called Lycus, a 
river of Asia Minor, which rose in the lake 
Antynia, near Miletopolis, received the 
Macestus and other rivers, and separated 
the province of Asia from Bithynia. 

Rigodulum, Reol, a town of Gallia 
Belgica, on the river Mosella, in the terri- 
tory of the Treveri, and north-east of Au- 
gusta Treverorum. 

Robigo or RobIgus, a deity of the Ro- 
mans, worshipped to avert mildew. His 
festivals, called Robigalia, were celebrated 
on the 25 th of April, just before the Flo- 
ral ia. 

Rogationes LiciNiiE, the name given 
to several enactments passed by Licinius 
Stolo and L. Sextius, tribunes of the 
people, b. c. 378 — 372, which contributed 
greatly to the establishment of democracy 
z 2 



608 



ROM 



ROM 



at Rome. These rogations were, 1. that 
no more military tribunes should be chosen, 
but consuls only, and of these one to be a 
plebeian : 2. that one half of the guardians 
of the Sibylline books should he plebeians : 

3. that in cases of debt, all the interest 
already paid should be deducted from the 
capital, and the residue paid in three equal 
annual instalments : 4. an Agrarian law ; 
of which the principal provisions were, 
that the public land should have its boun- 
daries marked out; that every Roman 
citizen should be entitled to enjoy it ; that 
no one should hold more than 500 jugera 
of it in arable or plantation land, or feed 
more than 100 head of black, or 500 of 
small cattle, on the public pasture ; that a 
tenth of the produce of corn land, a fifth 
of that of vineyards and plantations, and 
so much a head grazing-money for cattle, 
should be paid to the state ; that this tax 
should be farmed out every lustrum by 
the censors, and the produce of it appro- 
priated to the payment of the army ; that 
the possessors of the public land should 
be bound to employ free labourers on their 
land in a rated proportion to their posses- 
sion. 

Roma, formerly the capital of the world, 
but now of a small part of Italy, the Papal 
States, is situated in the midst of a great 
plain, called the " Campagna di Roma," on 
both banks of the Tiber, sixteen miles in a 
straight line from its mouth. The founda- 
tion of Rome is hidden in the obscurity of 
an age, respecting which few records re- 
mained in the time of its historians; but 
its origin is universally ascribed to Romu- 
lus, who is said to have laid the founda- 
tions April 20, B.C. 753, 3251 years after 
the creation of the world, 431 years after 
the Trojan war, and in the 4th year of the 
6th Olymp. In its original state it occu- 
pied but a small castle on the summit of 
Mount Palatine ; but before the death of 
the founder, the Romans had covered with 
their habitations the Palatine, Capitoline, 
Aventine, and Esquiline hills, with Mount 
Ccelius and Quirinalis. (See these terms.) 
Ancient Rome was divided into fourteen 
regiones or districts : — Regio 1 . Porta 
Capena ; 2. Celimontana ; 3, of Isis by 
Kufus, Moneta, and by Victor of Serapis ; 

4. Pia Sacra or Templum Pacis; 5. Es- 
quilina ; 6. Alta Semita ; 7. Via Lata ; 
8. Forum Romanum ; 9. Circus Fla- 
minius ; 10. Palatium ; 11. Circus Maxi- 
mus ; 1 2. Piscina Publica ; 1 3. Aventi- 
na; 14. Transtiberina. Almost all these 
districts contain numerous monuments of 
Roman grandeur ; but, for a succinct 
Jthough luminous account of these, we 



j must refer the reader to M'CulIock's 
Geog. Diet., art. " Rome." During 244 
I years the Romans were governed by 
I kings, but the public and private vices 
of Tarquinius Superbus led {anno 510 
b.c.) to the abolition of kingly govern- 
ment, and the establishment of the re- 
public, under two consuls, annually chosen, 
originally from the patricians only, but 
afterwards from either patricians or ple- 
beians. The temporary ascendancy of the 
patrician party effected the institution 
(b. c. 500) of the dictatorship, by which, 
on extraordinary emergencies, the whole 
power of the state was committed to a 
single individual, who might act with 
despotical authority. In the sequel, after 
many delays and much opposition, officers 
called tribunes were appointed by the 
people, who had a veto on the proceedings 
of the senate. The constitution was thus 
founded on the principle of a distribution 
of power between the aristocracy and the 
commonalty ; and in this state it remained 
without any considerable change, to the 
end of the Punic wars, the empire of Rome 
being in the meanwhile extended over 
Italy, Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, the N. 
coast of Africa, and part of Spain. Amid 
these successes the distinction of patricians 
and plebeians seemed to have disappeared ; 
but the unequal distribution of the public 
lands, or of those conquered by the arms 
of the republic, led to new, protracted, and 
bloody struggles between the patricians, 
who had appropriated to themselves the 
lion's share of these lands, and the plebeians, 
who sought to bring about their more 
equitable division. This occasioned the 
introduction by the latter of an Agrarian 
Law. (See Agrari^ Leges.) It would 
be impossible within our limits to enter 
into details respecting the contests that 
ensued respecting these laws, or to give 
even an outline of the various fortunes of 
Rome in her onward progress to universal 
empire. Suffice it here to observe that in 
the course of time the whole power of the 
state came to be engrossed by the great 
military leaders ; and Marius and Sylla, 
Pompey and Caesar, and Mark Antony were 
successively masters of the Roman world. 
After the battle of Actium, the Romans 
seemed unable to govern themselves with- 
out the assistance of a chief, who, under 
the title of imperator, an appellation given 
to every commander by his army after 
some signal victory, reigned with as much 
power and sovereignty as another Tarquin. 
Under their emperors the Romans lived a 
life of luxury. They had long forgotten 
to appear in the field, and their wars were 



ROM 



ROS 



509 



left to be waged by mercenary troops, who 
fought without spirit, and were ever ready 
to yield to him who bought their allegiance 
and fidelity with the greatest sums. Few 
were the emperors of Rome whose days 
were not shortened by poison or the sword 
of an assassin. At length the Roman pos- 
sessions were divided into two distinct 
empires by the enterprising Constantine, 
a. n. 328. Constantinople became the seat 
of the Eastern empire; Rome remained 
in the possession of the Western emperors, 
and continued to be the capital of their 
dominions. Rome with Italy was, a. r>. 
800, delivered by Charlemagne, then em- 
peror of the West, into the hands of the 
Pope, who still continues to hold the 
sovereignty and maintain his independence. 

Rqmulidje, a patronymic given to the 
Roman people from Romulus, the founder 
of their city. 

Romulus, a son of Mars and Ilia, grand- 
son of Numitor, king of Alba, born at the 
same birth with Remus. These two children 
were thrown into the Tiber by order of 
Amulius, who usurped the crown of his 
brother Numitor, but were preserved by a 
she-wolf, who came and fed them with her 
milk ; and being found by Faustulus, one 
©f the king's shepherds, were educated as 
his own children. The two youths grew 
up, employed in the pastoral occupation of 
their foster-father. But their superior 
mien, courage, and abilities soon acquired 
for them a decided superiority over their 
young compeers, and they became leaders 
of the youthful herdsmen in their con- 
tests with robbers or with rivals. Having 
quarrelled with the herdsmen of Numitor, 
whose flocks were accustomed to graze on 
the neighbouring hill Aventinus, Remus 
fell into an ambuscade, and was dragged 
before Numitor to be punished. While 
Numitor, struck with the noble bearing of 
the youth, was hesitating what punish- 
ment to inflict, Romulus, accompanied by 
Faustulus, hastened to the rescue of Remus. 
On their arrival at Alba, the secret of 
their origin was discovered, and a plan was 
speedily organized for the expulsion of 
Amulius, and the restoration of their 
grandfather Numitor to his throne. This 
was soon accomplished; but the twin- 
brothers, feeling little disposition to remain 
in a subordinate position at Alba, under- 
took to build a new city, and, to deter- 
mine which of the two brothers should 
have the management of it, they had re- 
course to omens and the flight of birds. 
Romulus marked with a furrow the place 
where he wished to erect the walls ; but 
their slenderaess was ridiculed by Remus, 



who leaped over them with contempt, 
and was immediately put to death, 
either by his brother, or one of the work- 
men. Romulus, by making an asylum of 
a sacred grove, soon collected a multitude 
of fugitives, foreigners, and criminals, 
whom he received as his lawful subjects. 
The Romans celebrated games in honour 
of the god Consus, and forcibly carried 
away all the females assembled to be spec- 
tators of these unusual exhibitions. These 
violent measures offended the neighbour- 
ing nations. They made war against the 
ravishers with various success, till at last 
they entered Rome, betrayed to them by 
one of the stolen virgins. The Sabines 
were conquered, or, according to Ovid, the 
two enemies laid down their arms, when 
the women had rushed between the two 
armies, and by their entreaties raised com- 
passion in the bosoms of their parents and 
husbands. The Sabines left their original 
possessions, and came to live in Rome, 
where Tatius, their king, shared the sove- 
reign power with Romulus. Afterwards 
Romulus divided the lands obtained by 
conquest. One part was reserved for re- 
ligious uses, to erect temples, and conse- 
crate altars ; the other appropriated for the 
expenses of the state ; the third equally 
distributed among his subjects, divided 
into three classes or tribes. The most aged 
and experienced, to the number of 100, 
were also chosen, whom the monarch might 
consult in matters of importance, and from 
their age called senators, and from their 
authority patres. The whole body of the 
people was also distinguished by the names 
patricians and plebeians, patron and client, 
who by mutual interest were induced to 
preserve the peace of the state, and pro- 
mote the public good. Some time after 
Romulus disappeared as he was giving 
instructions to the senators, and it was 
asserted that the king had been taken up 
to heaven, b. c. 714, after a reign of thirty- 
nine years. Divine honours were paid to 
him under the name ofQicirinus. A temple 
was raised to him ; and a regular priest, 
Flamen Quirinalis, appointed to preside 
over the sacrifices. 

Romulus Silvius, or Alladius, I. a 
king of Ali a. — II. Momyllus Augustulus, 
last of the emperors of the western empire 
of Rome. See Augustulus. 

Rosjus, a king of the Latins, who was 
said to have expelled the Tyrrhenians. 

Roscianum, Rossano, a fortified port on 
the coast of Bruttium, below Sybaris. The 
haven of the Thurians, by name Roscia, 
was nearer the sea, at the mouth of a small 
river. 

z 3 



510 



ROS 



RUT 



Rosrius, T., Q,, a Roman actor, from his 
surname Gallus, supposed to have been a 
native of Gaul, north of the Po, although 
educated in the vicinity of Lanuvium and 
Aricia. He was so celebrated on the 
stage that his name has hecome, in modern 
times, a usual term to designate an actor 
of extraordinary excellence. He died 
about b. c. 62. — II. Sextus, a rich citizen 
of Ameria, in the dictatorship of Sylla, 
accused of parricide, but defended by 
Cicero, and triumphantly acquitted, a. u. c. 
673. — III. See Otho. 

RosLe Campus, or Rosia, a beautiful 
plain in the country of the Sabines, near 
the lake Velinus. 

Rotomagus, Rouen, a city of Gallia 
Lugdunensis, and afterwards the capital 
of'iiUgdunensis Secunda. 

Roxana, a Bactrian lady, the daughter 
of Oxyartes, commander of the Sogdian 
rock for Darius, on the reduction of which 
by Alexander she became the wife of the 
conqueror. At the death of Alexander she 
was enceinte, and her son, who received the 
name of Alexander iEgus, Avas acknow- 
ledged as king along with Philip Arida?us. 
Roxana having become jealous of the autho- 
rity of Statira, the other wife of Alexander, 
destroyed her by the aid of Perdiccas ; but 
she herself was afterwards shut up in Am- 
phipolis, and put to death by Cassander. 

Roxolani. See Rhoxolani. 

Rube^e Promontorium, the North Cape 
at the N. of Scandinavia, or according to 
others, the northern extremity of Courland. 

Rubellius Plautus, a Roman in the 
age of Nero, descended from Augustus in 
the female line, who was falsely accused of 
conspiring against the emperor, and put 
to death a. d. 63. 

Rubi, Iiuvo, a town of Apulia; hence 
the epithet Rubeus was applied to bramble 
bushes, which grew there. The inhabit- 
ants were called Rubitini. 

Rubicon, a small stream of Italy, falling 
into the Adriatic to the north of Ariminum. 
It formed in part the northern boundary of 
Italia Propria, and on this account the Ro- 
man generals were forbidden to pass the 
Rubicon with an armed force, under dread- 
ful imprecations. As it is well known, 
Ceesar crossed the Rubicon with his army 
at the breaking out of the civil war, ex- 
claiming, " The die is cast ! ' The position 
of the Rubicon has not been clearly ascer- 
tained ; some identify it with Fiumesimo, 
some with Lusa, and others with Pisatello. 

Rubigo, a goddess. See Robigo. 

Rubra Saxa, a place of Etruria, near 
Veii, eight miles from Rome. 

Rubrum mare, the Red Sea. See 
Arabicus Sinus, and Erythr-eum mare. 



Rudije, I. a town of Calabria, built by a' 
Greek colony, and famous for being the 
birth-place of the poet Ennius, thence 
called Rudius Homo. — II. A town of 
Apulia, in the district of Peucetiae, some- 
times called Rudia? Peucetia, to distin- 
guish it from Rudia? in Calabria. 

Rufinus, I., a native of Gaul, who 
became minister of state to the emperors 
Theodosius and Arcadius. After the 
death of Theodosius, he succeeded to ab- 
solute authority over the Eastern empire 
in the reign of Arcadius, but soon fell 
beneath the power of Stilicho, general of 
Honorius, and was put to death by the 
army under Gainas, the Goth, a.d. 395. — 
II. Called also ToRANius,a priest of Aqui- 
leia, in the fourth century. He became 
so attached to St. Jerome, that he accom- 
panied him to the East ; but being per- 
secuted by the Arians under Valens, he 
was banished into Palestine, where he 
founded a monastery on Mount Olivet, 
and employed himself in translating Greek 
authors into Latin. His version of Origen 
gave such offence to his old acquaintance 
Jerome, that he wrote bitterly against 
him, and Rufinus was cited to Rome by 
pope Anastasius, who condemned his trans- 
lation ; upon which he retired to Sicily, 
where he died, about a. d. 410. Several 
of his works still remain. 

RugTi, a people of Germany, on the 
coast of the Sinus Codanus, between the 
Viadrus or Oder and the Vistula, and west 
of the Gothones. They were in posses- 
sion of the Isle of Rugia (now Rugen), 
where the goddess Hertha was worshipped 
with peculiar reverence. At a subsequent 
period they founded a new kingdom on 
the northern side of the Danube, named 
after them Rugiland, in Austria and 
Upper Hungary, which was overthrown by 
Odoacer. 

Rupilius, a native of Prameste, sur- 
named Rex, who, having been proscribed 
by Octavianus, then a triumvir, fled to the 
army of Brutus, and became a fellow- 
soldier of Horace. Jealous, however, of 
the military advancement which the latter 
had obtained, Rupilius reproached him 
with the meanness of his origin, and Ho- 
race retaliates in the seventh Satire of the 
first book. 

Ruteni, a people of Celtic Gaul, whose 
territory answered to the modern Ru- 
vergue. Their chief city was Segodunum. 

Rutilius Rufus, P., I., a consul in the 
age of Sylla. When he was banished from 
Rome, he retired to Smyrna amidst the 
praises of the people; and first taught 
the Roman soldiers to fabricate their 
own arms. — II. Lupus, a ihetorician, u 



RUT 



SAB 



511 



treatise of whose, in two books, de Figvris 
Sententiarum et Elocutionis, still remains. 
The period when he flourished is un- 
certain. — III. Numatianus, a native of 
Gaul, born either at Tolosa ( Toulouse) or 
Pictavii (Poitiers), and who flourished at 
the close of the fourth and commencement 
of the fifth centuries of our era. He is 
supposed by some to have been prefect at 
Rome when that city was taken by Alaric, 
a. d. 410. An imperfect poem of his is 
still extant, entitled Itinerarium, or De 
Reditu. 

Rutuli, a people of Latium, known as 
well as the Latins by the name of Abo- 
rigines. When JEneas came into Italy, 
Turnus was their king, and they sup- 
ported him in the war waged against this 
foreign prince. Their capital was Ardea. 

Rutupi^e, a sea-port town of Britain, 
abounding in excellent oysters ; hence the 
epithet Rutupinus. Some suppose that it 
is the modern town Dover ; others, Rich- 
bor&ugk, or Sandwich. 

S. 

Saba, or Mariaba, the capital of the 
Sabasi, in Arabia Felix, famous for frank- 
incense and myrrh. Saba corresponds with 
the modern Saada or Saade. 

Sabachus, or Sa bacon, a king of Ethi- 
opia, who invaded Egypt, and reigned 
there after the expulsion of king Amasis. 
After a reign of fifty years, being terrified 
by a dream, he retired into his own king- 
dom. 

Sabjei, a people of Arabia Felix. See 
Saba. 

Sabate, a town of Etruria, north-east of 
Casre, in the immediate vicinity of a lake, 
called from it the Lacus Sabatinus. The 
town was said to have been swallowed up 
by the waters of the lake. 

SabatIni, a people of Campania, who 
derived their name from the small river 
Sabatus that flowed through their territory. 
They were among the Campanian tribes 
that revolted to Hannibal. 

Sabatus, Sabbato, a river rising in Cam- 
pania, and flowing into Samnium, where it 
joined the Calor, near Beneventum. 

Sabazius, a surname of Bacchus, given 
him, according to some, by the Thracians, 
or, according to others, by the Phrygians. 

Sabbata, or Sabhatha, Scebam, or Mareb, 
a city of Arabia Felix, the capital of the 
Chatramatitas. 

Sabelli, a people of Italy, descended 
from the Sabines, or, according to some, 
from the Samnites, who inhabited the 



country between the Sabines and Marsi ; 
hence the epithet SabeUicus. 

Sabina, Julia, grand-niece of the Em- 
peror Trajan, and wife of Hadrian, to 
whom she became united chiefly through 
the means of the Empress Plotina. The 
unkindness of her husband is said to have 
been the cause of her death, a. d. 1 38. 

S a bint, an ancient people of Italy, 
reckoned among the Aborigines, or those 
inhabitants whose origin was not known. 
Their possessions were situated near Rome, 
between the Nar and Anio, and bounded 
on the north by the Apennines and Um- 
bria, south by Latium, east by the iEqui, 
west by Etruria. The Sabines are cele- 
brated as the first who took up arms against 
the Romans to avenge the rape of their 
women at a spectacle to which they had 
been invited. At a later period the 
greatest part of the Sabines left their an- 
cient possessions, and migrated to Rome, 
where they settled with their new allies, 
and ranked as Roman citizens. Their 
chief cities were * Cures, Crustumerium, 
Collatia, Corniculum, Fidenae, Nomentum, 
Reate, &c. 

Sabinus, I., Aulus, a Roman poet, the 
friend and contemporary of Ovid, and to 
whom the last six of the heroic epistles of 
that bard are generally ascribed by com- 
mentators. — II. Julius, an officer who 
proclaimed himself emperor in the begin- 
ning of Vespasian's reign. Being soon 
after defeated in a battle, he hid himself in 
a cave with two domestics, where he con- 
tinued unseen for nine years ; and, on 
being discovered, was put to death by Ves- 
pasian. — III. Flavius, a brother of Ves- 
pasian, celebrated for fidelity to Vitellius. 
He commanded in the Roman armies 
thirty-five years, and was governor of 
Rome for twelve, and was at last killed by 
the populace. 

Sabis, I., Sambre, a river of Gallia 
Belgica, rising in the territory of the 
Nervii, and falling into the Mosa (Maese) 
at Namurcum (Namur), in the territory of 
the Aduatici. — II. Also called the Saga- 
nus, a river of Carman ia, between the 
southern promontory of Carmania and the 
river Andanis. — III. Savio, a river of Cis- 
alpine Gaul, rising in Umbria, and falling 
into the Adriatic north of the Rubicon. 
At its mouth lay the town of Savis, now 
Torre del Savio. 

Sabrata, Sabart, or Tripoli Vecchio, a 
city of Africa, in the Regio Syrtica, west 
of Q3a and east of the Syrtis Minor. It 
formed, together with Q£a and Leptis 
Magna, what was called Tripolis Africana, 
and was fortified by Justinian. 

z 4 



512 



SAB 



SAL 



Sabrina, also called Sabriana, now the 
Severn in England. 

Sac^, a name given by the Persians to 
all the more northern nations of Asia, but 
which, at a subsequent period, designated 
a particular people, whose territory was 
bounded on the west by Sogdiana, north 
and east by Scythia, and south by Bactri- 
ana and the chain of Imaus. Their coun- 
try, therefore, corresponds in some degree 
to Little Bucharia and the adjacent districts. 
The Sacae were a wild, uncivilised race, of 
nomadic habits, without cities, and dwell- 
ing in woods and caves. 

Sacer mons, a mountain near Rome. 
See Mons Sacer. 

Sacer portus, or Sacri portus, a place 
of Italy near Prasneste, famous for a battle 
between Sylla and Marius, in which the 
former obtained the victory. 

Sacra via, a celebrated street of Rome, 
where a treaty of peace and alliance was 
fabled to have been made between Romu- 
lus and Tatius. It led from the amphi- 
theatre to the Capitol, and triumphal pro- 
cessions passed through it to the Capitol. 

Sacrant, a people of Latium, who as- 
sisted Turnus against iEneas. They were 
descended from the Pelasgians, or from a 
priest of Cybele. 

Sacrum, I., Bellum, a name given to 
the wars carried on against the Phocians for 
their sacrilege in relation to the temple of 
Delphi. The first began b. c. 448, and in 
it the Athenians and Lacedaemonians were 
auxiliaries on opposite sides. The second 
began b. c. 357, and finished nine years 
after by Philip of Macedonia, who de- 
stroyed all the cities of the Phocians. — II. 
Promontorium, a promontory of Spain, 
Cape St. Vincent. — III. Another promon- 
tory of the coast of Lycia, near the Cheli- 
donian islands, now Cape Kelidonia. 

Sad yates, one of the Mermnada?, who 
reigned in Lydia twelve years after his 
father Gyges. He made war against the 
Milesians. 

S^etabis, I., Cennia or Senia, a river of 
Spain, between the Iberus and the Pillars 
of Hercules. — II. A city of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, in the territory of the Con- 
testant just below the river Sucro or 
Xucar. It was a munieipium, and had re- 
ceived a Roman colony, from which latter 
circumstance it took the name of Augusta. 
Ssetabis was famed for its linen manufac- 
ture. The Arabians changed the name to 
Xativa, but it is now called 5, Phelippe. 

Sagaris. See Sangaris. 

Sagra or Sagras, Sagra, a river of 
Magna Graecia, in the territory of the 
Bruttii, falling into the Sinus Tarentinus, 



celebrated for the memorable overthrow 
of the Crotoniatas by the Locrians and 
Rhegians. 

Saguntum or Sa owsTus,Murviedro, a city 
of Hispania Tarraconensis, north of Valen- 
tia, some distance below the mouth of the 
Iberus, and about three miles and a half from 
the Mediterranean. The prevalent opinion 
seems to be that Saguntum was originally 
founded by colonists from Zacynthus, who 
were afterwards joined by Rutuli from 
Ardea. It appears to have early attained 
to great wealth and distinction ; and being 
zealously attached to the Romans, it be- 
came an object of hostility to the Cartha- 
ginians. It was besieged by Hannibal 
previously to his invasion of Italy ; but 
the strength of the city, and the determined 
bravery of the inhabitants, baffled for nearly 
eight months all the efforts of this great 
general to effect its subjugation. At 
length, however, it fell into his hands, 
b. c. 219, the inhabitants being in part 
put to the sword and in part sold as 
slaves. They had previously thrown a 
great part of their wealth into the flames; 
but the booty was still ample enough to 
enable Hannibal to reward the valour and 
devotion of his soldiers, and to facilitate 
his designs against Italy. It was rebuilt 
by the Romans, and became afterwards 
famed for its porcelain. 

Sais, a town in the Delta of Egypt, be- 
tween the Canopic and Sebennytic mouths 
of the Nile, and anciently the capital of 
Lower Egypt. Neith, the Egyptian Mi- 
nerva, was worshipped at Sais with great 
solemnity. Osiris too was said to have 
been buried here. 

Salamis, I., a daughter of the river 
Asopus by Methone. Neptune became 
enamoured of her, and carried her to an 
island of the iEgean, which afterwardsbore 
her name, and where she gave birth to a 
son called Cenchreus. — II. An island in 
the Sinus Saronicus, opposite Eleusis and 
the coast of Attica, and said to have derived 
its name from Salamis, mentioned in the 
preceding article. From the time of Pisis- 
tratus, it appears to have been always sub- 
ject to Athens, On the invasion of Xerxes, 
the Athenians were induced to remove 
thither with their families, in consequence 
of a prediction of the oracle ; and, soon 
after, by the advice of Themistocles, the 
whole of the naval force of Greece having 
been assembled in the Bay of Salamis, a 
battle was fought, in which the mighty 
fleet of Xerxes sustained an entire defeat, 
B.c. 480, which has become one of the 
most memorable in history. The city of 
Salamis was destroyed by the Athenians, 



SAL 



SAL 



513 



in consequence of its having surrendered 
to the Macedonians when the former 
people were at war with Cassander. Its 
present name is Cohuri, which is that 
also of the principal town. — III. The 
largest and most powerful city of Cyprus, 
founded by Teucer, son of Telamon, 
and called by him after Salamis, his native 
place, from which he had been banished by 
his father. The monarchs of Salamis ex- 
ercised a leading influence in the affairs of 
the island, and the conquest of this place 
involved the fate of Cyprus at large. 
Under the Roman dominion the entire 
eastern part of the island was attached to 
the jurisdiction of Salamis. In the reign 
of Constantine, it was overwhelmed by an 
earthquake and inundation of the sea ; but 
Constantius restored it, made it the capital 
of the whole island, and called it, from his 
own name, Constantia. A few remains of 
this city still exist. 

Salapia, a maritime city of Apulia, 
above the river Aufidus, founded by a 
colony of Rhodians, in conjunction with 
some Coans. Salapia first appears in Roman 
history in the second Punic war, when it 
fell into the hands of the Carthaginians, 
after the battle of Cannas; but, not long 
after, it was delivered up to Marcellus by 
the party which favoured the Roman in- 
terest, together with the garrison which 
Hannibal had placed there. 

Salassi, a people of Gallia Transpa- 
dana, in a valley watered by the Duria 
Major. They cut off 10,000 Romans under 
Appius Claudius, a. u. c. 610; and were 
not finally defeated till the time of Augus- 
tus, who sold them into slavery. 

Salentini, a people of Italy, in the ter- 
ritory of Messapia, said to have sprung 
from a colony of Cretans, who, under the 
conduct of Idomeneus their king, had 
arrived there in their wanderings after the 
capture of Troy. The Romans, under 
pretence of their having assisted Pyrrhus 
in his expedition into Italy, took posses- 
sion of their territory ; but the Salentini 
subsequently revolted, during the second 
Punic war, but they were again reduced 
by the consul Claudius Nero. 

Salernum, Salerno, a city of Campania, 
south-east of Neapolis, and near the shore 
of the Sinus Paestanus, said to have been 
built by the Romans as a check upon the 
Picentini. Salernum became a Roman 
colony seven years after the conclusion of 
the second Punic war. It is doubtful 
whether the ancient Salernum was con- 
tiguous to, or at some distance from the 
sea ; but, on the whole, the probability 
seems to be, that it did join the sea, or 



that it was within such a short distance of 
it as to justify its being reckoned among 
maritime towns. After the fall of the 
Roman empire, Salerno became the capi- 
tal of a nourishing republic, the sovereignty 
of which was contested by the Greeks, 
Saracens, Lombards, and Normans. 

Salii, I., a college of priests at Rome, 
instituted in honour of Mars, and ap- 
pointed by Numa to take care of the 
twelve sacred shields called Ancilia, B.C. 
709. (See Ancile. ) Their number was 
originally twelve, but it was afterwards 
doubled by Tullus Hostilius. The Salii 
were all of patrician families, and the office 
was very honourable. The 1st of March 
was the day on which the Salii observed 
their festivals in honour of Mars ; and on 
these occasions they proceeded through 
the city dancing, whence they received their 
name (salio, to dance). — II. A German 
tribe of Frankish origin, who first made 
their appearance on the Insula Batavorum, 
when they were conquered by Julian. 

Sallustius, Crispus, I., a Latin his- 
torian, born at Amiternum, in the country 
of the Sabines, b. c. 85. He made him- 
self known as quaestor and tribune of the 
commons ; but, being a strong opponent of 
the aristocratic party, was degraded from 
the dignity of a senator, b. c. 52. He 
then retired into Gaul to Caesar ; who, on 
becoming shortly after master of the re- 
public, restored him to his senatorian 
rank, and had him appointed in succession 
quaestor and praetor. About the same time 
he married Terentia, the divorced wife of 
Cicero ; and having accompanied his patron 
into Africa, was appointed governor of 
Numidia, where he amassed vast wealth. 
At his return home he built a magnificent 
palace on the Quirinal Hill, still called the 
Gardens of Sallust, which became the pro- 
perty of his nephew, and subsequently of 
the emperors. In these gardens, or in his 
villa at Tibur, he passed the concluding 
years of his life, dividing his time between 
literary avocations and the society of his 
friends, among whom he numbered Lu- 
cullus, Messala, and Cornelius Nepos, and 
died in his fifty-first year, b. c. 35. His 
only works extant are his History of Cati- 
line's Conspiracy, and of the Wars of Ju- 
gurtha, king of Numidia. — II. A nephew 
of the historian, by whom he was adopted ; 
Horace dedicated one of his Odes to him. 
— III. Secundus Promotus, a native of 
Gaul, intimate with Julian, who made 
him praefect. of Gaul. There was another 
Sallust, called Secundus, also one of Ju- 
lian's favourites, and made by him praefect 
of the East. After the death of Julian, he 
z 5 



514 



SAM 



SAM 



was nominated to the imperial throne, but 
refused the honour; and when after the 
death of Jovian he was again offered the 
throne, he once more refused it for himself 
and his son, alleging the age of the one 
and the inexperience of the other. 

Salmacis, a fountain of Caria, near 
Halicarnassus, which rendered effeminate 
all those who drank of its waters. 

Salmantica, a town of Hispania, in 
the north-east angle of Lusitania. A 
Roman road and some other monuments 
of antiquity are still visible at Salamanca, 
the modern name of this town. 

Salmone, I., an ancient town of Elis, 
in Peloponnesus, with a fountain, from 
which the Enipeus takes its source, and 
falls into the Alpheus, forty stadia from 
Olympia; hence called Salmonis. — II. A 
promontory at the east of Crete. 

Salmoneus, king of Elis, son of JEolus 
and Enarete, married Alcidice, by whom 
he had Tyro. He was anxious to receive 
divine honours from his subjects ; and, to 
imitate thunder, used to drive his chariot 
over a brazen bridge, and darted burning 
torches on every side as if to imitate light- 
ning. This impiety provoked Jupiter, who 
struck him with a thunderbolt, and placed 
him in the infernal regions near his brother 
Sisyphus. 

Salmus (untis), a town of Asia, near 
the Red Sea, where Alexander saw a 
theatrical representation. 

Salmypessus, or Halmydessus, Midjeh, 
a city of Thrace, on the coast of the Eux- 
ine, below the promontory of Thynias. 
The inhabitants, like the wreckers of Eng- 
land, were notorious for their inhuman 
treatment of the crews of ships driven 
upon their coast. 

Salo, Xalon, a river in Spain, falling 
into the Iberus. 

Salon, or Salona, Salona, the principal 
harbour of Dalmatia, and always con- 
sidered as an important post by the Ro- 
mans after their conquest of that country. 
The emperor Dioclesian retired to Salona 
after he had abdicated the imperial power, 
and built a splendid palace, the ruins of 
which are still to be seen at Spalatro, about 
three miles from Salona. 

Salonina, wife of Gallienus, the Ro- 
man emperor. She was a great patroness 
of the fine arts, and was put to death by 
the hands of the conspirators, who assassi- 
nated her husband and family, about a. d. 
268. 

SalonInus, a son of Asinius Pollio, so 
named from the conquest of Salona by 
his father. 

Salvianus, one of the early fathers 



of the Christian church, born at Co- 
lonia Agrippina (Cologne). He led a re- 
ligious life at Massilia during the greater 
part of the fifth century, and died in that 
city. 

Salyes, a people of Gaul, extending 
from the Rhone, along the southern bank 
of the Druentia ( Durance), almost to the 
Alps. They were powerful opponents of 
the Greeks of Massilia. 

Samaria, a city and country of Pales- 
tine, to the north of Judasa. It was situ- 
ate on Mount Sameron, and was the resi- 
dence of the kings of Israel, from Omri 
its founder to the overthrow of the king- 
dom. It was razed to the ground by 
Hyrcanus, but rebuilt by Herod, who 
completed the work begun by Gabinius, 
proconsul of Syria. Herod called it Se- 
baste, in honour of Augustus. 

Samarobriva, Amiens, a town of Gaul, 
the capital of the Ambiani. Its name 
appears to mean " the city on the Sa- 
mara." 

Same, an ancient town in the island of 
Cephallenia, noticed by Homer. The mo- 
dern Samo exhibits still very extensive walls 
and excavations among its ruins, which 
have afforded various specimens of ancient 
ornaments, medals, vases, and fragments 
of statues. 

.' Samnites, an ancient nation or con- 
federation of nations in Central Italy, dis- 
tinguished by implacable hatred against 
the Romans in the early ages of their em- 
pire. They occupied an extensive tract 
of country on both sides of the central 
ridge of the Apennines, their territory 
being bounded on the north by the Pe- 
ligni and Marrucini ; on the east by Apulia 
and Lucania ; on the south by Campania, 
from which they were separated by the 
Vulturnus, Mount Tifata, and Taburnus ; 
and on the west by Novum Latium and 
the country of the Marsi. The Sam- 
nites were originally a colony of the Sa- 
bines, and were divided into three tribes, 
— the Caraceni, Pentri, and Hirpini, to 
which others have added the Caudini and 
Frentani. Their country was full of 
towns and villages, of which the principal 
were Bovianum, Maluentum, afterwards 
Beneventum, Caudium, Aufidena, and 
Taurasium. It would be impossible 
within our limits to give even an outline 
of the wars in which the Samnites were 
engaged with the Romans; suffice it here 
to state, that after a struggle of more than 
fifty years, Samnium was reduced to sub- 
mission, e.c. 290, and the termination of this 
war opened the way for the subjugation 
of all Italy to the Roman sway. 



SAM 



SAN 



515 



Samnium, the territory of the Samnites. 
See Samnites. 

SamonTum, Sabnone, a promontory of 
Crete, at its eastern extremity. 

Samos, I., an island of the iEgean, lying 
off the lower part of the coast of Ionia, and 
nearly opposite the Trogilian Promontory. 
The original inhabitants were Carians and 
Leleges ; but the island first came into 
notice on the arrival of an Ionian colony 
from Epidaurus, b. c. 988, and soon after- 
wards it attained to great distinction. It 
was one of the most powerful of the states 
belonging to the Ionian confederacy, and 
was able, by means of its fleets, to maintain 
its independence after Croesus and Cyrus 
had reduced the states of Ionia, on the 
continent. The government of Samos 
experienced the mutations common to the 
governments of most Greek states. Ori- 
ginally it had kings, who were superseded 
by a mixed government, inclining some- 
times to democracy, and sometimes to oli- 
garchy ; while occasionally it was subject 
to tyrants. Of the latter, the most cele- 
brated is Polycrates, who attained to the 
sovereignty in the sixth century b. c. (See 
Polycrates.) At a subsequent period, the 
Samians were attacked by the Athenians, 
under Pericles ; who, after an obstinate 
struggle of nine months' duration, suc- 
ceeded in reducing their city ; and at a 
somewhat later period it received a colony 
from Athens. During the contest be- 
tween Mark Antony and Augustus, Sa- 
mos was, for a while, the head quarters 
of the former and of Cleopatra, who 
kept court here with more than regal 
magnificence. After Augustus had be- 
come the master of the Roman world, 
he passed a winter in this island, which he 
restored to its freedom, and at the same 
time conferred on it other marks of his fa- 
vour. It was constituted a province by 
Vespasian. Under the Byzantine empe- 
rors it became the head of a district, and 
after numerous vicissitudes, it fell under 
the sway of the Turks in the sixteenth cen- 
tury. Samos was, from a remote period, 
famous for the worship of Juno. Her 
temple was adorned with a profusion of 
the finest works of art ; and her festivals, 
called Heraea, were celebrated with extra- 
ordinary splendour. Samos was also cele- 
brated for its pottery, and for being the 
birthplace of Pythagoras, Rhoecus, and 
Theodorus, &c. — II. The capital of the 
island of Samos, situated on the southern 
shore, exactly opposite the Trogilian Pro- 
montory and Mount Mycale. The port 
was secure and convenient for ships, and 
the town was populous and strongly for- 



tified, and contained many public build- 
ings of great beauty and extent. Besides 
a splendid temple of Juno, Herodotus 
describes two works of the Samians which 
were most worthy of admiration. One 
was a tunnel carried through a mountain 
for the length of seven stadia, for the pur- 
pose of conveying water to the city from 
a distant fountain. Another was a mole, 
made to add security to the harbour ; its 
depth was twenty fathoms, and its length 
more than two stadia. — II. The islands ot 
Samothrace and Cephallenia, also known 
by the name of Samos ; the latter was 
called the Steep Samos. 

Samosata, a town of Syria, and capital 
of Commagene, on the right bank of the 
Euphrates. It was the birthplace of 
Lucian. 

Samothrace, or Samothracia, Sama- 
naraki or Mandraki, a small island in the 
iEgean Sea, opposite the mouth of the 
Hebrus, on the coast of Thrace, anciently 
Dardania, because Dardanus retired thither. 
In Homer it is usually called Samos. It 
was chiefly famous for the worship of the 
Cabiri, which originated in this island ; 
and hence it was surnamed sacred, and 
formed an inviolable asylum to all cri- 
minals. 

Sanchoniatho, a Phoenician historian, 
born either at Berytus or at Tyre a few 
years before the Trojan war. A fragment 
of his writings has come down to our times 
through the medium of a Greek translation. 

Sancus, Sangus, or Sanctus, a deity of 
the Sabines, introduced among the gods of 
Rome under the name of Dim Fidius, and 
usually identified with Hercules. 

Sandaliotis, a name given to Sardinia, 
from its resemblance to a sandal. 

Sandrocottus, an Indian of mean origin, 
who, having on one occasion been guilty 
of insolent conduct towards Alexander, 
was condemned to death. He escaped, 
however, by a rapid flight, and at length 
dropped down completely exhausted. As 
he slept on the ground, a lion of immense 
size came up to him, licked the perspir- 
ation from his face, and, having awakened 
him, fawned upon and then left him. 
The singular tameness of the animal ap- 
peared preternatural to Sandrocottus, and 
was construed by him into an omen of 
future success. Having collected, there- 
fore, a band of robbers, and having roused 
the people of India to a change of affairs, 
he finally attained to the sovereign power, 
and made himself master of a part of the 
country which had been previously in the 
hands of Seleucus. 

Sangarius, Sangaris, or Sagaris, 
z 6 



.516 



SAN 



SAR 



Sakaria, a river of Asia Minor, rising in 
Galatia, and falling into the Euxine. It 
formed at one period the eastern boun- 
dary of Bithynia. 

Sannyrio, an Athenian comic poet, 
contemporary with Aristophanes. 

Santones and Santon^e, a tribe of 
Gallia Aquitanica, who dwelt north of the 
Gayimma, Garonne, occupying the province 
Saintogne, which is manifestly a corruption 
of their name. 

Sapjei, a Thracian tribe that dwelt in 
the mountains around the valley of the 
Nestus, in the vicinity of Philippi. 

Sapis, Savio, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, 
rising in Umbria, and falling into the Adri- 
atic below Ravenna. 

Sapor, I., a king of Persia, succeeded 
his father Artaxerxes about a. d. 238. He 
laid waste the provinces of Mesopotamia, 
Syria, and Cilicia ; and might have become 
master of all Asia, if Odenatus had not 
stopped his progress. Valerian marched 
against the Persian monarch, but was de- 
feated and captured. Odenatus, however, 
marched to release him ; and in a great 
battle cut the Persian army to pieces, took 
possession of the wives and treasures of the 
monarch, and penetrated into the very 
heart of the kingdom. Sapor, soon after, 
was assassinated by his subjects, a. d. 
273, after a reign of thirty-two years, 
and succeeded by his son Hormisdas. — 
II. The second of the name succeeded 
his father Hormisdas on the throne of Per- 
sia, a. d. 308. His whole reign was occu- 
pied with war with the Romans. He at- 
tempted to add the provinces west of the 
Euphrates to his empire ; triumphed over 
the emperor Constantius at Singara a. d. 
348 ; and though his kingdom narrowly es- 
caped dismemberment from the attacks of 
Julian, the peace of Dura, which was conclu- 
ded by Jovian, a.d. 363,restored to him great 
part of the provinces ceded to the Romans 
by his predecessor Narses, and he died 
after a long and prosperous reign a. d. 380, 
leaving the throne to Artaxerxes ; who again 
was succeeded by Sapor III., who died after 
a reign of five years, a. d. 389, in the age 
of Theodosius the Great. 

Sappho, a celebrated Greek poetess, 
nearly contemporaneous with Alcasus, born 
at Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos, 
about b. c. 600. Few authentic particu- 
lars of her life are known ; and even these 
have been so industriously misinterpreted, 
that down to a very recent period her 
name was overshadowed by a cloud of in- 
famy, which, however, the researches of mo- 
dern philologists have completely dispelled. 
It appears that Sappho became united in 



marriage to an individual named Cercolas ; 
and the fruit of this union was a daughter 
named Cleis (KAets), who is mentioned by 
the poetess in one of her fragments. Hav- 
ing lost her husband, she turned her at- 
tention to literary pursuits, and inspired 
many of the Lesbian women with a taste 
for similar occupations. The admiration 
which her poetical productions excited 
was universal ; her contemporaries carried 
it to the highest pitch of enthusiasm, and 
saw in her a superior being : the Greeks 
gave her the name of the Tenth Muse, and 
the Lesbians even placed her image on their 
coins as that of a divinity. Her fiery and 
enthusiastic temperament having induced 
her to engage in a conspiracy against Pit- 
tacus, king of Lesbos, she was banished 
from her native island, and retired to Sicily, 
where she died. Sappho was the inventress 
of the lyric measure which bears her 
name ; but of her poems all that have 
reached us consist of a Hymn to Venus, 
an ode, and a few trifling fragments pre- 
served in the works of Plutarch, Deme- 
trius, Pindar, and Anacreon. Another 
Sappho, of a later date, who is usually 
confounded with the preceding, from being 
also a native of Lesbos, was distinguished 
for her amorous propensities, and is said 
to have thrown herself into the sea, from 
the promontory of Leucate, in consequence 
of the neglect she experienced from Phaon, 
her lover. 

Saraceni, the name originally applied 
to the Bedouin Arabs who inhabited the 
countries between the Euphrates and the 
Tigris, and separated the Roman posses- 
sions in Asia from those of the Parthian 
kings ; but at a later period conferred by 
Christian writers of the middle ages upon 
the Mohammedans who invaded France 
and settled in Sicily. 

Sardanapalus, the fortieth and last 
king of Assyria, who surpassed all his pre- 
decessors for luxury and voluptuousness. 
His effeminacy having rendered him con- 
temptible to his subjects, a conspiracy 
was formed against him by Belesis, a 
priest of Babylon, and Arbaces, the go- 
vernor of Media. At the first news of the 
projected insurrection, the king concealed 
himself in the most retired chambers of 
his palace ; but soon regaining courage, he 
collected an army of faithful soldiers, and 
defeated the insurgents in three desperate 
battles. But he was at last compelled to 
return to Nineveh, which held out during 
two years ; when the Tigris, swollen by 
unusual rains, overflowed its banks and 
destroyed great part of the walls. To 
prevent his falling into the hands of the 



SAR 



SAR 



517 



enemy, and to efface the memory of a 
shameful life by a vainglorious death, he 
caused a vast pile to be raised, on which 
he burnt himself, together with his wives 
and treasure, 759 b. c. We may remark, 
that it has been frequently asserted by mo- 
dern critics that there were two persons 
called Sardanapalus, whose history has been 
confounded ; and that the Sardanapalus of 
whom mention has been made above, sur- 
viving his degradation, resigned the go- 
vernment to the hands of his son Pul, and 
passed the remainder of his days in a lux- 
urious retirement, 

Sardes. See Sardis. 

Sardi, the inhabitants of Sardinia. 

Sardica, or Serdica, and also Ulpia 
Sardica, a city belonging originally to 
Thrace, but subsequently included within 
the limits of Dacia Ripensis, of which pro- 
vince it was made the capital. Attila de- 
stroyed the city ; but it was rebuilt by the 
Bulgarians, who changed its name to 
Triaditza. 

Sardinia, the largest island in the 
Mediterranean after Sicily, south of Cor- 
sica, and west of Italy, being 140 miles 
in length from N. to S. , and 60 in its me- 
dial breadth from E. to W. It was ori- 
ginally called Sandaliotis, or Ichnusa, from 
its resembling the human foot (ixvos), 
and named Sardinia from Sardus, son of 
Hercules, who settled there with a colony 
from Libya. Other colonies, under Aris- 
tajus, Norax, and Iolas, also settled there 
in succession. The Carthaginians were long 
masters of its shores, but were dispossessed 
by the Romans in the Punic wars, b. c. 
237. Sardinia formed with Sicily one 
cf the granaries of Rome ; but after the 
death of Valentinian III. it fell into the 
possession of Genseric, king of the Van- 
dals. It was remarkable for a species 
of wild parsley (apiastrum), called by 
Solinus herba Sardonia, which grew very 
abundantly around springs and wet places. 
"Whoever ate of it died, apparently laugh- 
ing ; in other words, the nerves became 
contracted, and the lips of the sufferer 
assumed the appearance of an involuntary 
and painful laugh. Hence the expression 
Sardonicus risus. It must be remarked, 
however, that the phrase fj-dd-qae ~2,ap^6viov 
occurs also in Homer, and that other ex- 
planations besides the one just mentioned 
are given by Eustathius. The island of 
Sardinia presents many monuments that 
recal the successive sway of its several 
conquerors. The most remarkable, how- 
ever, of these are the very ancient struc- 
tures called Nurages or Nuraghes, which 
have exercised the sagacity of various tra- 



vellers, and are considered to have been 
the work of the Pelasgi, 15 centuries b. c. 

Sardis, or Sardes, Sart, the ancient 
capital of the kingdom of Lydia, at the 
foot of Mt. Tmolus, on the banks of the 
Pactolus. It was famous for its citadel, 
which was considered to be impregnable 
on one side till the time of Cyrus, who 
took it. On the overthrow of the dynasty 
of Croesus, Sardis became the chief resi- 
dence of the Persian satrap. In the time 
of Darius it was attacked by the Ionians, 
aided by the Athenians, and hurnt. After 
the time of Alexander the Great, to whom 
it surrendered, Sardis followed the fate of 
the rest of Asia Minor, and ultimately fell 
into the possession of the Romans. In the 
reign of Tiberius it was destroyed by an 
earthquake, but was again rebuilt ; and it 
was one of the Seven Churches of Asia 
mentioned in the Revelations. 

Sardus, a son of Hercules. See Sar- 
dinia. 

Sarmat-^e. See Sauromat^:. 

Sarmatia, an extensive country in the 
north of Europe and Asia, divided into 
European and Asiatic. See Sauromat^:. 

Sarmentus, a Tuscan slave, who ran 
away from his mistress, but afterwards 
became a favourite of Augustus, to whom 
he had been introduced by Maecenas, who 
had been pleased with his coarse humour. 
In the decline of life he was reduced to 
destitution by extravagance. 

Sarnus, Sarno, a river of Campania, 
falling into the sea about a mile from 
Pompeii, of which it formed the harbour. 
The Pelasgi, who occupied this coast at 
an early period, are said to have received 
the name of Sarnastes from this river. 

Saron, a king of Troezene, who was 
drowned in the sea, whither he had swum 
in pursuit of a stag. See Saroniccjs Sinus. 

Saronicus Sinus, Gulf of Engia, a bay 
of the iEgean Sea, south-west of Attica, 
and north-east of Argolis. It derived its 
name either from Saron, who was drowned 
there ; from a small river which dis- 
charges itself on the coast ; or from the 
forests of oak which at one time covered 
the shores of the gulf, the term aapuvls, 
in early Greek, signifying "an oak." 

Sarpedon, I., a son of Jupiter by Eu- 
ropa, the daughter of Agenor. He was 
driven from Crete by his brother Minos, 
and thereupon retired to Lycia, where he 
aided Cilix against the people of that 
country, and obtained the sovereignty of a 
part of it. Jupiter is said to have be- 
stowed upon him a life of treble duration. 
— II. A son of Jupiter and Laodamia, 
the daughter of Rellerophon, whose cha- 



518 



SAR 



SAT 



racter is represented as the most faultless 
and amiable in the Iliad. He was king 
of Lycia, and leader with Glaucus of 
the Lycian auxiliaries of Priam. The 
account of his conflict with Patroclus, 
the concern of Jupiter at his perilous situ- 
ation, the deliberation of the god whether 
he should avert the hostile decrees of fate, 
and the subsequent description of his 
death, are among the most striking of all 
the episodes of the Iliad. — III. A pro- 
montory of the same name in Cilicia, be- 
yond which Antiochus was not permitted 
to sail by a treaty of peace which he had 
made with the Romans. 

Sarra, the earlier Latin name for the 
city of Tyre. The oriental form was Tsor 
or Sor, for which the Carthaginians said 
Tsar or Sar; and the Romans, receiving 
the term from the latter, converted it into 
Serra, whence they also formed the adjec- 
tive Sarra?ius, equivalent to " Tyrian." 

Sarrastes, a people of Campania on the 
Sarnus. See Sarnus. 

Sarsina, a city in the northern part of 
Umbria, on the left bank of the Sapis, to- 
wards its source, famous for being the 
birthplace of Plautus. It still retains its 
name. 

Saso, a barren and inhospitable island at 
the entrance of the Adriatic Sea, on the 
coast of Greece, between Brundisium and 
Aulon. 

Sassanid^e, the name given to the Per- 
sian dynasty, founded by Ardshir or Ar- 
taxerxes, a. n. 229, and which lasted down 
to the reign of Yesdejird III., a. d. 632, 
when Persia was attacked and overrun by 
the Arabs. 

Saticula, Agata dei Goti, a town of 
Samnium, situated among the mountains 
south of the Vulturnus, and on the borders 
of Campania. 

Satura, a lake of Latium, forming part 
of the Pontine lakes. 

Satureium, a town in the Tarentine 
territory, famed for the fertility of the 
surrounding country and for its breed of 
horses. 

Saturnalia, a festival celebrated at 
Rome in the month of December, in 
honour of Saturn. It at first lasted but 
one day (19th) ; but was afterwards 
extended to three, and subsequently, 
by order of Caligula and Claudius, to 
seven. The utmost liberty prevailed during 
its continuance ; all was mirth and fes- 
tivity ; friends made presents to each 
other ; schools were closed ; the senate did 
not sit ; no war was proclaimed ; no cri- 
minal executed ; and slaves were permitted 
to jest with their masters, and were even 



waited on at table by them. The Satur- 
nalia were emblematic of the freedom en- 
joyed in the golden age, when Saturn 
ruled over Italy 

Saturnia, I., a name given to Italy, 
because Saturn was fabled to have reigned 
there during the golden age. — II. A name 
given to Juno, as being the daughter of 
Saturn. — III. A city of Etruria, more 
anciently called Aurinia, colonised by the 
Romans a. u. c. 569. 

Saturninus, I., L. Apuleius, a tribune 
of the commons, who, a. u. c. 653, united 
with Marius against the patricians, excited 
a sedition at Rome, intimidated the senate, 
caused several popular laws to be passed 
(see AruxEi^E Leges), and exercised a 
sort of usurped and tyrannical power for the 
space of three years. Having at length 
seized upon the capital with his adherents, 
he was besieged by Marius, who was now 
compelled, as consul, to act against him ; 
but he was eventually compelled to sur- 
render, and put to death. — II. P. Sem- 
pronius, a general of Valerian, proclaimed 
emperor in Egypt by his troops after he 
had rendered himself celebrated by his 
victories over the barbarians. His inte- 
grity, his complaisance and affability, had 
gained him the affection of the people : 
but his fondness of ancient discipline pro- 
voked his soldiers, who wantonly mur- 
dered him in the forty-third year of his 
age, a. d. 262. — III. Sextus Julius, a 
Gaul, intimate with Aurelian, who es- 
teemed him greatly for, his private vir- 
tues, his abilities as a general, and the 
victories which he had obtained in differ- 
ent parts of the empire. He was saluted 
emperor at Alexandria, and compelled by 
the clamorous army to accept of the pur- 
ple, which he had rejected with disdain 
and horror. Probus, who was then em- 
peror, marched his forces against him, and 
besieged him in Apamea, where he de- 
stroyed himself when unable to make 
head against his powerful adversary. — 
IV. Pompeius, a writer in the reign of 
Trajan. He was greatly esteemed by 
Pliny the younger, who speaks, of him 
with great warmth and approbation as an 
historian, a poet, and an orator. Pliny 
always consulted Saturninus before he 
published his compositions. 

Saturnius, a name given to Jupiter, 
Pluto, and Neptune, as sons of Saturn. 

Saturnus (called by the Greeks Kp6vos), 
the youngest son of Coelus or Uranus, 
and Gaia, or the goddess of the earth. 
Instigated by Gaia, who was grieved at 
the unnatural conduct of Uranus in cast- 
ing her former progeny, the Cyclopes, into 



SAT 



SAX 



519 



Tartarus, Saturn mutilated his father with 
a sickle, and the drops which fell on the 
earth from the wound gave birth to the 
Erinnyes. After this, Saturn obtained 
his father's kingdom with the consent of 
his brethren, provided he did not bring up 
any male children. Pursuant to this agree- 
ment, Saturn always devoured his sons as 
soon as born, because, as some observe, he 
dreaded from them a retaliation of his un- 
kindness to his father ; till his wife Rhea, 
unwilling to see her children perish, con- 
cealed from her husband the birth of Ju- 
piter, Neptune, and Pluto, and, instead 
of the children, gave him large stones, 
which he immediately swallowed, without 
perceiving the deceit. The other Titans 
having been informed that Saturn had con- 
cealed his male children, made war against 
him, dethroned and imprisoned him, with 
Rhea ; and Jupiter, who was secretly edu- 
cated in Crete, was no sooner grown up, 
than he flew to deliver his father, and to 
place him on his throne. Saturn, unmind- 
ful of his son's kindness, conspired against 
him ; but Jupiter banished him from his 
throne, and the father fled for safety into 
Italy, where the country retained the name 
of Latium, as being the place of his con- 
cealment (from lateo, "to lie concealed"). 
Janus, who was then king of Ita'y, received 
Saturn with marks of attention. He made 
him his partner on the throne ; and the 
king of heaven employed himself in civil- 
ising the barbarous manners of the people 
of Italy, and in teaching them agriculture, 
and the useful and liberal arts. His reign 
there was so mild and beneficent that man- 
kind have called it the golden age, to inti- 
mate the happiness and tranquillity which 
the earth then enjoyed. There were no 
temples of Kronus in Greece ; but there 
was a chapel of Kronus and Rhea at 
Athens, and sacrifices were made to him 
on the Kronian Hill at Olympia. The 
Athenians, moreover, had a festival in his 
honour, named the Kronia, which was 
celebrated on the twelfth day of the 
month Hecatombajon, or at the end of 
July, and which strongly resembled the 
Italian Saturnalia. Saturn is generally re- 
presented as an old man bent through age 
and infirmity. He holds a scythe in his 
right hand, with a serpent which bites its 
own tail, which is an emblem of time and 
of the revolution of the year. In his left 
hand he has a child, which he raises up as 
if instantly to devour it. The whole his- 
tory of this deity is probably allegorical. 
The name itself with a slight variation sig- 
nifies time (xpovos); and his attribute of the 
sickle, together with the account of his 



being the son of heaven, by whose lumi- 
naries time is measured, and the husband 
of Rhea (flowing), and of his devouring 
his own progeny, are corroborative of this 
conjecture. Niebuhr regards Saturn and 
Ops as the god and goddess of the earth, 
its vivifying and its receptively productive 
powers. Creuzer makes Saturn the great 
god of nature, in many respects assimilated 
to Janus. He is the god who suffices for 
himself — the god who is satisfied with his 
own powers. Hence the derivation of the 
name from the Latin satur, full, satisfied. 

Satyri, rural deities of Greece, identi- 
cal with the Fauni of the Latins. They 
are regarded as the attendants of Bacchus, 
and are represented as roaming through 
the woods, dwelling in caves, and endea- 
vouring to gain the love of the Nymphs. 
They are usually represented with the feet 
and legs of goats, short horns on the head, 
and the body covered with thick hair. The 
term Satyr is usually said to be derived 
from the Doric iirvpos, a he-goat. 

Satyrus, a Greek comedian, who, at the 
celebration of the Olympic games by 
Philip, after his conquest of Olynthus, ob- 
tained from the monarch the boon that 
the children of Apollophanes, one of the 
murderers of the king's brother Alexander, 
should be given up to his protection. 

Sauromat^, called by the Romans 
Sarmatjs, the name given to a northern 
nation originally occuping the vast steppe 
called Sarmatia, which extended from the 
Tanais (Don) as far as the Rha ( Wolga) on 
the north and east, and the Caucasus on 
the south. At a later period, the term 
Sarmatia was extended to the vast tract of 
country bounded on the west by the banks 
of the Vistula, on the east by the coasts of 
Mare Hyrcanum (the Caspian Sea), and on 
the south by the coasts of the Euxine and 
the Palus Ma;otis (Sea of Azof ), and was 
divided by the Tanais into Sarmatia Euro- 
paea and Sarmatia Asiatica. In Ovid the 
Sauromatae are classed along with the 
Getae, and other barbarian hordes, who 
dwelt along the northern bank of the 
Danube towards its mouth 

Savus, Saave, a river of Pannonia, rising 
in the Alpes Carnicae, and flowing into the 
Danube at Singidunum. It formed near 
its mouth the south-eastern boundary of 
Pannonia. The Danube, after its junction 
with the Savus, took the name of Ister. 

Saxones, a people of Germany, whose 
original seats extended from the mouth of 
the Elbe to the Sinus Codanus and the 
river Chalusus (or Trave), corresponding 
to modern Holstein. They appeared for 
the first time in history about the begin- 



520 



SCA 



ning of the fourth century, as the chief 
among the Ingaevones, and in the eighth 
century they were in possession of a large 
part of Germany. A portion of the north- 
western Saxons, in the fifth century, in 
connexion with the Angli, conquered Eng- 
land. 

Sc^ia, one of the gates of Troy; so called 
from ckcuos, left, as it was on the left side 
of the city, facing the sea and the Grecian 
camp. 

Sc a labis, a city of Lusitania, north of 
the Tagus, forming the third Conventus 
Juridicus of the province. As a Roman 
colony it took the name of Praesidium Ju- 
lium. It answers to the modern Santa- 
rem, a corruption for St. Irene. 

Scaldis, Scheldt, a river of Gallia Bel- 
gica Secunda, rising in the territory of the 
Atrebates, and falling into the Mosa or 
Meuse. 

Sc^eva, I., a soldier in Caesar's army, 
behaved with great courage at Dyrrha- 
chium. — II. Memor, a Latin poet in the 
reign of Titus and Domitian. — III. A 
man who poisoned his own mother.- — IV. 
A Roman knight and friend of Horace, 
who addressed to him Ep. i. 17. 

Scaevola, the surname of the most cele- 
brated branch of the family of the Mucii, 
said to have sprung from Mucius Scaevola, 
who acted with so much heroic firmness 
in the presence of Porsenna. The story 
is thus told by Livy : Porsenna having in 
vain attempted to capture Rome, turned 
the siege into a blockade, and the city 
began to be distressed with famine, when 
C. Mucius, a young nobleman, formed the 
design of delivering his country. Having 
got admission into the enemy's camp in 
the guise of a Tuscan peasant, with a 
dagger concealed under his cloak, he took 
his station among the thickest of the crowd 
near the king's tribunal, who happened 
then to be distributing pay to his soldiers, 
together with his secretary, who had almost 
the same dress with the king. Mucius, 
afraid to inquire which of them was 
Porsenna, lest by his ignorance he should 
discover himself, slew the secretary by 
mistake, instead of the king. Being inter- 
rogated about the deed, and threatened 
with torture unless he made an open dis- 
covery, he thrust his right hand into a fire 
which was burning on an altar before him, 
and let it broil without any apparent emo- 
tion. The king, astonished, leapt from 
his throne, and ordered the young man to 
be removed from the altar. Having ap- 
plauded his intrepidity, he dismissed him 
in safety. Mucius, as if to compensate 
such generosity, told the king that 300 of 



the Roman youth had conspired to attack 
him in the same manner. Porsenna, struck 
with this intelligence, voluntarily made 
proposals of peace to the Romans. Mu- 
cius, who got the surname of Scaevola from 
the loss of his right hand, was then reward- 
ed with lands on the north of the Tiber, 
afterwards called Praia Mucia, the Mucian 
Meadows. — The other most distinguished 
persons of the name were the following : I, 
Quintus Mucius Scaevola, who was praetor 
in b.c. 216, and the following year received 
Sardinia as a province. He died b. c. 
209, while holding the office of " Decemvir 
sacris faciundis." — II. Publius Mucius 
Scaevola, the younger son of the preceding, 
was quaestor b. c. 188, tribune of the com- 
mons B.C. 183, praetor urbanus b. c. 179, 
and finally consul with M. iEmilius Le- 
pidus, b. c. 175. In conjunction with his 
colleague, he carried on the war success- 
fully in Cisalpine Gaul, especially against 
the Ligurians, and obtained the honours 
of a three days' thanksgiving and a triumph. 
This last circumstance is confirmed by the 
Capitoline fragments, and also by some 
consular medals. — III. P. Mucius Scae- 
vola, elder son of the preceding, a cele- 
brated jurist, and conspicuous as a defender 
of the old Roman virtues and manners 
against the corruption and license which 
had been introduced into Italy from 
abroad. In b. c. 141 he was tribune of 
the commons, and accused the praetor L. 
Tubulus of bribery on a certain trial where 
he had presided. Tubulus anticipated 
his sentence by going into exile. As aedile 
(b. c. 133), Scaevola restored the temple of 
Hercules, which had fallen in ruins to the 
ground. In b.c. 131 he was praetor ur- 
banus, and soon after consul. He obtained 
Italy for his province. — IV. Publius 
Mucius Scaevola, son of the preceding, 
was at first tribune of the commons, then 
praetor, and at last pontifex maximus. 
He was particularly coKjpicuous as an 
opponent of the Gracchi. Having obtained 
the province of Asia, he distinguished 
himself so much in that government by 
his probity and justice, that the Asiatics 
celebrated a festival in his honour. — V. 
Quintus Mucius Scaevola, more commonly 
called by the Roman jurists Quintus Mu- 
cius. He collected the opinions of pre- 
vious lawyers, and gave a better order 
to the civil code. Mucius is the earliest 
jurist mentioned in the Pandects. He 
was Cicero's legal instructor. — VI. Cer- 
vidius Scaevola, one of the most eminent 
jurists of later times, being ranked by 
Modestinus after Paulus and Alpranus. 
Scamandeb, or Scamandros, Bonnar- 



SCA 



SCI 



521 



bachi, a celebrated river of Troas, which 
rises on the highest part of Mount Ida, 
and, after receiving the Simois, falls into 
the sea at Sigasum. This river, according 
to Homer, was called Xanthus by the gods, 
and Scamander by men. 

Scamandria, a town on the Sca- 
mander. 

Scamandrius, one of the generals of 
Priam, son of Strophius. He was killed 
by Menelaus. 

Scandinavia, a name given by the an- 
cients to that tract of territory which con- 
tains the modern kingdoms of Norway, 
Sweden, Denmark, Lapland, Finland, &c. 
It was supposed by them to be an island. 

Scantilla, the wife of Didius Julianus, 
by whose advice .her husband bought the 
empire, which was exposed to sale at the 
death of Pertinax. 

Scaptesyle, a town of Thrace, near 
Abdera, abounding in silver and gold mines, 
a portion of which belonged to Thucy- 
dides. 

Scardus, Tchar Dagh, a ridge of moun- 
tains in Macedonia, which they separate 
from Illyricum. 

Scaurus, I., M. JEmilitts, a Roman 
consul, who after distinguishing himself by 
his eloquence at the bar, and by his suc- 
cesses in Spain, was sent against Jugurtha, 
but some time after accused of suffering 
himself to be bribed by the Numidian 
prince. He conquered the Ligurians, and 
in his censorship he built the Milvian 
bridge at Rome, and began to pave the 
road which, from him, was called the 
iEmilian. His son, of the same name, 
made himself known by the large theatre 
he built during his aedileship. This thea- 
tre, which could contain 30,000 spectators, 
was supported by 360 columns of marble, 
38 feet in height, and adorned with 3000 
brazen statues. This celebrated edifice 
proved more fatal to the manners and the 
simplicity of the Romans than the pro- 
scriptions and wars of Sylla had done to 
the inhabitants of the city. — II. A Roman 
of consular dignity. When the Cimbri 
invaded Italy, the son of Scaurus behaved 
with great cowardice, upon which the 
father sternly ordered him never to appear 
again in the field of battle. The severity 
of the father's reproach induced the son to 
destroy himself. 

Scelekatus, I., Campus, a plain at Rome 
near the Colline gate, where the vestal 
Minucia was buried alive when convicted 
of having broken »her vows, and where a 
similar punishment was afterwards accus- 
tomed to be inflicted on other similarly 
offending vestals, — II. Vicus, a street at 



Rome ; so called because there Tullia had 
ordered her charioteer to drive over the 
body of her father, Servius Tullius. 

Scena, or Scenus, Shannon, a river of 
Hibernia. 

Scenes, a city of Mesopotamia, on the 
borders of Babylonia. 

ScENiTjiE, I., a nomadic tribe in Arabia 
Felix. — II. A nomadic tribe in Ethiopia 
or Mesopotamia. 

Scepsis, a strong and well-fortified city 
of Troas, founded near the highest part 
of Ida by the Milesians. Antigonus 
transferred its inhabitants to his new city 
of Alexandrea ; they returned, however, 
under Lysimachus, and founded another 
city north of the older Scepsis, which was 
thenceforth called Palaea Scepsis. 

Schedia, Dsjedje, a village of Egypt, 
west of the Canopic arm of the Nile. 

Scheria, an ancient name of Corcyra. 

Schcenus, one of the ports of Corinth, 
the others being Cenchreae and Lechaaum. 

Sciathos, Sciatho, an island nearly fifteen 
miles in circuit, off the coast of Thessaly, 
originally colonised by Pelasgi from 
Thrace, who were succeeded by some 
Chalcidians from Euboea. It possessed a 
town of some size, which was destroyed 
by Philip, the son of Demetrius, to prevent 
its falling into the hands of Attalus and 
the Romans. It produced good wine. 

Scillus, a town of Elis, below the 
Alpheus, celebrated for Xenophon's having 
fixed his abode there during his exile. 
There he erected a temple to Diana Ephe- 
sia, in performance of a vow made during 
the famous retreat which he so ably con- 
ducted. 

Scinis, a cruel robber, who tied men to 
the boughs of trees which he had forcibly 
brought together, and which he afterwards 
allowed to fly back, so that their limbs 
were torn in an instant from their body. 

Scipiad^e, a name applied by Virgil 
to the two Scipios, Africanus Major and 
Minor. 

Scipio, a celebrated family at Rome, 
whose name is identified with some of the 
most splendid triumphs of the Roman 
arms. They were a branch of the Corne- 
lian house, and are said to have derived 
their family appellation from the Latin 
term scipio, " a staff," because one of their 
number, Cornelius, had guided his blind 
father, and been to him as a staff. The 
most eminent of the name were — I., P. Cor- 
nelius Scipio, who served, b. c. 393, under 
the dictator Camillus, and distinguished 
himself at the taking of Veii. In b. c. 
392 he was chosen military tribune with 
consular power, and, in conjunction with 



522 



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SCI 



his colleague Cossus, ravaged the territory 
of the Falisci, and compelled them to sue 
for peace. — II. P. Cornelius Scipio, son 
of the preceding, was curule aedile B.C. 
363. — III. P. Cornelius Scipio, grand- 
son of the preceding, was dictator b. c. 305 ; 
having been appointed such for the pur- 
pose of holding the consular comitia, in the 
absence of the two consuls. — IV. L. Cor- 
nelius Scipio, son of the preceding, was 
chosen interrex on the refusal of the dic- 
tator Manlius to hold the election for con- 
suls under the Licinian law. He obtained 
the consulship himself b. c. 348 ; but being 
prevented by severe illness from conduct- 
ing the war against the Gauls, he trans- 
ferred the command to his plebeian col- 
league, M. Popilius Laenas. — V. L. Cor- 
nelius Scipio Barbatus, grandson of the 
preceding, was consul b. c. 298. He fought 
a bloody but indecisive battle with the 
Etrurians, near Volaterra, but subse- 
quently laid waste the adjacent country 
with fire and sword. He also reduced 
Samnium and Lucania. His tomb was 
discovered in 1780, containing an epitaph 
in very early Latin, commemorating the 
events of his life and his many virtues. — 
VI. Cn. Cornelius Scipio, surnamed Asina, 
the son of the preceding, superintended, 
B. c. 260, with Duillius the consul, the 
building of the first Roman fleet ; and he 
isubsequently sailed with seventeen ships, in 
advance of the main fleet, to Messana in 
Sicily, but was taken by a Carthaginian 
squadron, and carried to Africa. Having 
been at length released from confinement in 
Carthage, he returned home and obtained 
the consulship ; and he now avenged his 
former disgrace by taking many places in 
Sicily, particularly Panormus, and con- 
quered also great part of Sardinia and 
Corsica. He was father of Publius and 
Cneus Scipio, who were defeated and killed 
by the Carthaginians in Spain, under the 
two Hasdrubals and Mago. — VII. Pub- 
lius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, was 
son of Publius Scipio, who was killed in 
Spain. He first distinguished himself at 
the battle of Ticinus, where he saved his 
father's life. The battle of Cannae, which 
proved so fatal to the Roman arms, did 
not dishearten the young Scipio. In his 
twenty-first year he was made aedile ; and 
not long after this, the Romans having 
heard of the defeat and death of the two 
Scipios in Spain, Scipio was immediately 
appointed to avenge the death of his father 
and of his uncle, and to vindicate the mili- 
tary honour of the republic. His ability 
was soon discovered. In four years the 
Carthaginians were banished from Spain, 



and the whole province became tributary 
to Rome ; New Carthage submitted in one 
day ; and in a battle 54,000 of the enemy 
were left dead on the field. Scipio was 
then recalled to Rome, which still trem- 
bled at the continual alarms of Hannibal, 
who was at her gates. The conqueror of 
the Carthaginians in Spain was looked 
upon as a proper general to encounter 
Hannibal in Italy ; but Scipio opposed 
the measures which his countrymen wished 
to pursue, and declared in the senate that 
if Hannibal was to be conquered, he must 
be conquered in Africa. With the dignity of 
consul he embarked for Carthage, and his 
conquests were here as rapid as in Spain. 
The Carthaginian armies were routed, the 
camp of the crafty Asdrubal was set on fire 
during the night, and his troops totally 
defeated in a drawn battle. These re- 
peated losses alarmed Carthage. Hannibal, 
who was victorious at the gates of Rome, 
was instantly recalled to defend the walls 
of his country, and the two greatest gene- 
rals of the age met in the field of Zama 
(see Hannibal); but in the parley which 
the two commanders had together no- 
thing satisfactory was offered ; and, while 
the one enlarged on the vicissitudes of 
human affairs, the other wished to dictate 
like a conqueror, and recommended the 
decision of the controversy to the sword. 
This celebrated battle was fought near 
Zama, and both generals displayed their 
military knowledge in drawing up their 
armies and in choosing their ground. Their 
courage and intrepidity were not less con- 
spicuous in charging the enemy. A thou- 
sand acts of valour were performed on 
both sides ; and though the Carthaginians 
fought in their own defence, and the Ro- 
mans for fame and glory, yet the con- 
queror of Italy was vanquished. About 
20,000 Carthaginians were slain. This 
battle was decisive ; the Carthaginians sued 
for peace, which Scipio at last granted on 
the most severe and humiliating terms. 
The conqueror after this returned to 
Rome, where he was received with the 
most unbounded applause, honoured with 
a triumph, and dignified with the appella- 
tion of Africanus. Here he enjoyed for 
some time the tranquillity and the honours 
which his exploits merited ; but in him 
also, as in other great men, fortune showed 
herself inconstant. Scipio offended the 
populace in wishing to distinguish the 
senators from the rest of the people at the 
public exhibitions ; and when he canvassed 
for the consulship for two of his friends, 
Scipio Nasica and Caius Laelius, he had 
the mortification to see his application 



SCI 



SCI 



523 



slighted, and the honours which he claimed 
bestowed on a man of no character, and 
recommended neither by abilities nor me- 
ritorious actions. He retired from Rome, 
no longer to be a spectator of the ingra- 
titude of his countrymen, and in the capa- 
city of lieutenant he accompanied his 
brother against Antiochus, king of Syria. 
In this expedition his arms were attended 
with his usual success, and the Asiatic 
monarch submitted to the conditions which j 
the conquerors dictated. At his return to 
Rome Africanus found the malevolence of 
his enemies still unabated. Cato, his in- 
veterate rival, seemed bent on his ruin ; 
and he urged on the Petilii, two tribunes 
of the commons, to move in the senate 
that Africanus should be cited to give an 
account of all the money he had received 
from Antiochus, together with such spoil 
as was taken in that war. But the accusa- 
tion was stopped, and the accusers silenced. 
Some time after, Scipio died in the place 
of his retreat, b. c. 184, in the fifty-seventh 
year of his age ; and so strong was his 
sense of the ingratitude of his country- 
men, that he directed his remains to be in- 
terred at Liternum, not to be conveyed to 
Rome. If Scipio was robbed during his 
lifetime of the honours which belonged to 
him as conqueror of Africa, he was not 
forgotten when dead. The Romans viewed 
his character with reverence ; with rap- 
tures read of his warlike actions ; and he 
was regarded as a pattern of virtue, inno- 
cence, courage, and liberality. The poet 
Ennius is known to have been held in such 
esteem by him, that he ordered the statue 
of his learned friend to be placed on his 
sepulchre by his own, and the remains of 
the poet to be deposited in the same tomb. 
As an instance of Scipio's continence, an- 
cient authors state that the conqueror of 
Spain refused to see a beautiful princess 
that had fallen into his hands after the 
taking of New Carthage ; and that he not 
only restored her inviolate to her parents, 
but also added large presents for the per- 
son to whom she was betrothed. — VIII. 
Lucius Cornelius Scipio, surnamed Asia- 
ticus, accompanied his brother Africanus 
in his expeditions into Spain and Africa. 
He was rewarded with the consulship, 
a. u. c. 562, for his service to the state, 
and was empowered to attack Antiochus, 
king of Syria, who had declared war 
against the Romans. Lucius was accom- 
panied in this campaign by his brother 
Africanus ; and by his own valour and the 
counsels of the conqueror of Hannibal, he 
soon routed the enemy, and in a battle 
near the city of Sardes he killed 50,000 



foot and 4000 horse. Peace was soon 
after settled by the submission of Antio- 
chus, and the conqueror, at his return 
home, obtained a triumph and the surname 
of Asiaticus. He did not, however, long 
enjoy his prosperity. Cato, after the death 
of Africanus, turned his rancour against 
Asiaticus, and charged him with having 
suffered himself to be corrupted by An- 
tiochus. Being summoned to appear be- 
fore the tribune of Terentius Culeo, an. 
inveterate enemy to the family of the 
Sc-ipios, who was on this occasion created 
pra?tor, he was found guilty of having re- 
ceived 6000 pounds weight of gold and 
480 pounds weight of silver from Antio- 
chus, and was condemned to pay large fines. 
In vain did Scipio declare his innocence. 
The officers of justice were ordered to con- 
vey him to prison ; but, when his entire 
property was valued, it was found inade- 
quate to the payment of the sum demanded ; 
and among all his effects, there was not 
found the trace of the smallest article 
that could be considered Asiatic. His 
friends and relations, indignant at the 
treatment he had received, came and offered 
to make compensation for his loss ; but he 
refused to accept of any thing except what 
was barely necessary for subsistence, and 
the public hatred now recoiled on all who 
were concerned in the prosecution. Some 
time after he was appointed to settle the 
disputes between Eumenes and Seleucus ; 
and, at his return, the Romans, ashamed 
of their severity towards him, rewarded 
his merit with such uncommon liberality, 
that Asiaticus was enabled to celebrate 
games, in honour of his victory over Antio- 
chus, for ten successive days at his own 
expense. — IX. P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica, 
was son of Cneus Scipio, and cousin to 
Scipio Africanus. He was refused the 
consulship, though supported by the in- 
terest of the conqueror of Hannibal ; but 
he afterwards obtained it, and in that 
honourable office conquered the Boii, and 
gained a triumph. He was also successful 
in an expedition which he undertook in 
Spain. "When the statue of Cybele was 
brought to Rome from Phrygia, Nasica 
| was delegated by the Roman senators, as 
the member most remarkable for the purity 
of his manners and the innocence of his 
life, to bring it from Ostia to Rome with 
the greatest solemnity. He also distin- 
guished himself by the active part he took 
in confuting the accusations laid against 
the two Scipios, Africanus and Asiaticus. 
There was also another of the same name, 
who distinguished himself by his enmity 
against the Gracchi, to whom he was 



524 



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nearly related. — X. Publius iEmilianuSj 
son of Paulus iEmilius, the conqueror of 
Perseus, was adopted by the son of Seipio 
Africanus, being already a relation of the 
Scipio family, Africanus having married 
his aunt. He received the same surname 
as his grandfather, and was called Africa- 
nus the Younger, on account of his victories 
over Carthage. iEmilianus first appeared 
in the Roman armies under his father, and 
afterwards distinguished himself as a 
legionary tribune in the Spanish provinces, 
where he killed a Spaniard of gigantic 
stature, and obtained a mural crown at the 
siege of Intercatia. He passed into Africa 
to visit king Masinissa, the ally of Rome, 
and he was the spectator of a long and 
bloody battle which was fought between 
that monarch and the Carthaginians, and 
which soon produced the third Punic war. 
Some time after iEmilianus was made 
aedile, and next appointed consul, though 
under the age required for that important 
office. He was empowered to finish the 
war with Carthage; and by the success 
of his operations, he broke open one of the 
gates of the city and entered the streets, 
where he made his way by fire and sword. 
The surrender of above 50,000 men was 
followed by the reduction of the citadel, 
and the total submission of Carthage, b. c. 
147. The city was set on fire ; and though 
Scipio was obliged to demolish its very 
walls to obey the orders of the Romans, 
yet he wept bitterly over the melancholy 
scene ; and in bewailing the miseries of 
Carthage, expressed his fears lest Rome, 
in some future age, should exhibit such a 
dreadful conflagration. On his return he 
was honoured with a triumph, ani re- 
ceived the surname of Africanus. Not 
long after, he was chosen consul a second 
time, and appointed to finish the war 
against Numantia; but the conqueror of 
Carthage obtained the victory only when 
the enemy had been consumed by famine 
or self-destruction, b. c. 133. He was 
now honoured with a second triumph, and 
the surname of Numantinus. Yet his 
popularity was short-lived ; and by telling 
the people that the murder of their favour- 
ite, his brother-in-law Gracchus, was law- 
ful, since he was turbulent and inimical to 
the peace of the republic, he incurred 
the displeasure of the tribunes, But his 
firmness silenced them, and some time 
after he retired to Cai'eta, where, with his 
friend Laelius, he passed the rest of his 
time in innocent pleasures and amuse- 
ment. Though fond of retirement and 
literary ease, Scipio often interested him- 
self in the affairs of state ; his enemies ac- 



cused him of aspiring to the dictatorships 
and the clamours were most loud against 
him when he had opposed the Sempronian 
law, and declared himself the patron of the 
inhabitants of the provinces of Italy. But 
Scipio's conduct was viewed with satisfac- 
tion by the friends of the republic ; and it 
seemed almost the universal wish that the 
troubles might be quieted by the election 
of Scipio to the dictatorship : but when it 
was expected that that honour would be 
conferred upon him, Scipio was found 
dead in his bed, to the astonishment of 
all ; and those who inquired for the causes 
of this sudden death perceived violent 
marks on his neck, and concluded that he 
had been strangled, b. c. 128. This assassi- 
nation, as it was then generally believed, 
was committed by the triumvirs, Papirius 
Carbo, C. Gracchus, and Fulvius Flaccus, 
who supported the Sempronian law, and 
by his wife Sempronia, who is charged 
with introducing the murderers into his 
room. No inquiries were made after the 
authors of his death. Gracchus was the 
favourite of the mob, and the only atone- 
ment which the populace made for the death 
of Scipio was to attend his funeral, and to 
show, their concern by their loud lament- 
ations. iEmilianus, like his grandfather, 
was fond of literature, and he is said to 
have saved from the flames of Carthage 
many valuable compositions, written by 

Phoenician and Punic authors XI. Q. 

Metellus Scipio, previously called P. Cor- 
nelius Scipio Nasica, was an adopted son of 
Quintus Caecilius Metellus, and was con- 
sul with Pompey, his son-in-law, towards 
the close of the year b. c. 52, the latter 
having been sole consul previously. After 
the battle of Pharsalia he passed into 
Africa to Juba, assembled a body of troops 
there along with that prince and Cato, and 
finally engaged with Caesar in the battle 
of Thapsus, but was totally defeated, b. c. 
46. Having endeavoured to escape to the 
coast of Spain, and being driven back by 
stress of weather to the African shore, his 
vessels were overpowered by the fleet of 
P. Sithius, and he, to avoid falling into 
the hands of Caesar, destroyed himself. 

Sciron, a celebrated thief in Attica, 
who plundered the inhabitants of the 
country, and threw them down from the 
highest rocks into the sea, after he had 
obliged them to wait upon him and to 
wash his feet. Theseus attacked him, and 
treated him in the way that he himself 
was accustomed to treat travellers. Ac- 
cording to Ovid, the earth, as well as the 
sea, refused to receive the bones of Sciron, 
which remained for some time suspended 



SCI 



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525 



in the air, till they were changed into 
large rocks, called Scironides Petrce, or 
Scironia Saxa. See Scironides Petr^s. 

Scironides Petrje, or Scironia Saxa, 
a celebrated pass or defile on the southern 
coast of Megaris, said to have been the 
haunt of the robber Sciron until he was 
destroyed by Theseus. It was rendered 
accessible by the emperor Hadrian, so that 
two carriages could pass each other ; but 
in modern times it is difficult and rugged, 
and only frequented by foot passengers. 

Scodra, near the site of the modern 
Scutari, a city of Illyria, the capital of 
Gentius, situate between the rivers Clau- 
sula and Barbana. It was a place of great 
strength ; and in the division of the terri- 
tories of Gentius, it retained its distinc- 
tion as capital of the Labeates. 

Scombrus, or Scomius, a mountain range 
pf Thrace, near Rhodope, and, together 
with the latter, forming part of the same 
great central chain. 

Scopas, a celebrated architect and sculp- 
tor of Paros, who flourished between b. c. 
392 and 352, and was one of the four 
artists engaged by Artemisia, queen of 
Caria, in erecting and adorning the mau- 
soleum to the memory of her husband 
Mausolus. Scopas was employed also to 
contribute one of the columns to the temple 
of Diana at Ephesus, and the one which 
he executed was regarded as the most 
beautiful of all. He seems indeed to have 
been scarcely, if at all, inferior to Polycle- 
tus or Myron. His statues were numerous : 
among the most remarkable of them were 
the images of Venus, Pothus, and Phae- 
thon ; and many of his compositions were 
among the noblest ornaments of Rome in 
the days of Pliny. 

Scokdisci, a numerous and powerful 
tribe of Illyria, divided into the greater 
and the less ; the former of whom lay 
between the Noaras, or Gurck, and the 
river Margus ; and the latter adjoined the 
Triballi and Mysi of Thrace. They ex- 
tended their dominion from the borders of 
Thrace to the Adriatic, but were in their 
turn conquered by the Romans, though 
not without numerous struggles and much 
bloodshed. 

Scoti, the ancient inhabitants of Scot- 
land, supposed to have come originally 
from Spain, and to have been one people 
with the Silures, who occupied what now 
answers to Wales. They first possessed 
themselves of Ireland, which from them 
received the name of Scotia, and for some 
time retained the appellation, and after- 
wards passed over into what was called 
from them Scotland. 



Scribonia, a daughter of Scribonius, 
wife of Augustus after he had divorced 
Claudia, and mother of the celebrated 
Julia. Scribonia was some time after 
repudiated that Augustus might marry 
Livia. She had been married twice 
before she became the wife of the em- 
peror. 

Scribonius, L, L. Libo, a Roman his- 
torian, author of Annals cited by Cicero. 
— II. Largus Designatianus, a physician 
of the Eclectic school, born at Rome, or 
in the island of Sicily, a. d. 43 he ac- 
companied the emperor Claudius on his 
expedition into Britain. He wrote a 
treatise, De Compositione Medicamentorum. 

Scultenna, Panaro, a river of Cisalpine 
Gaul, rising on the northern confines of 
Etruria, and flowing from the east of 
Mutina into the Padus. 

Scylax, a celebrated geographer and 
mathematician of Caryanda in Caria, who 
flourished in the reign of Darius, son of 
Hystaspes, who is said to have associated 
him with some others in an expedition to 
ascertain where the Indus entered the 
sea. Herodotus makes them to have 
reached the Indus, sailed down the river 
to the sea, and then, continuing their 
voyage on the sea towards the west, to 
have reached, in the thirtieth month, the 
place from which the Phoenician king 
despatched the Phoenicians to circumna- 
vigate Africa. Suidas gives a brief account 
of Scylax, in which he has evidently con- 
founded different persons of the same 
name. 

Scvlla, I., a daughter of Nisus, king 
of Megara, who became enamoured of 
Minos as that monarch besieged her fa- 
ther's capital. (See Nisus.) — II. A fear- 
ful monster, of whom mention is made in 
the Odyssey. Her origin has been vari- 
ously given ; but she is usually considered 
to be the daughter of Phorcys and Hecate. 
Later poets feigned that Scylla was once a 
beautiful maiden, who was fond of asso- 
ciating with the Nereids. The sea god 
Glaucus beheld and fell in love with her, 
and being rejected, applied to Circe to 
exercise her magic arts in his favour. 
Circe wished him to transfer his affections 
to herself ; and, filled with rage at his 
refusal, she infected with noxious juices 
the water in which Scylla was wont to 
bathe, and thus transformed her into a 
monster. The metamorphosis so terrified 
her, that she threw herself into that part 
of the sea which separates the coast of 
Italy and Sicily, where she was changed 
into rocks, which bear her name, deemed 
dangerous to sailors. Propertius, Virgil, 



526 



SCY 



SEG 



and Ovid have confounded the daughter 
of Typhon with the daughter of Nisus. 
According to another account, the change 
in Scylla's form was effected by Am- 
phitrite, in consequence of her intimacy 
with Neptune. Charybdis was said to 
have been a woman who stole the oxen 
of Hercules, and who was, in consequence, 
struck with thunder by Jupiter, and 
turned into a whirlpool. 

ScYLLAcsmi, Squillaci, a town of the 
Brutii, built by an Athenian colony, on the 
Sinus Scyllacius, south-west of Crotona. 

Sctxl^um, a promontory of Argolis, 
opposite the Attic promontory of Sunium, 
and said to have derived its name from 
Scylla, the daughter of Nisus. 

Scymnus, a Greek geographer, a native 
of Chios, who nourished about b. c. 80, 
during the reign of Nicomedes II., king 
of Bithynia, to whom he dedicated his 
work entitled "A Description of the World," 
written in Greek iambics. 

Scykias, a name applied to Deidamia 
as a native of Seyros. 

Scvros, Scyro, an island of the iEgean 
Sea, north-east of Euboea, originally pos- 
sessed by the Dolopians, who were after- 
wards expelled by the Athenians. It was j 
celebrated for its breed of goats and its 
quarries of varied marble, which vied with 
those of Carystus and Synnada. 

Scythje, the inhabitants of Scythia. See 
Scythia. 

Scythia, a name given by the ancients 
to a large portion of Asia, and divided into 
Scythia intra and extra Lnaum. In its 
widest acceptation Scythia embraces the 
whole of Southern Russia, in Europe, 
together with the vast steppes of central 
Asia, the land of the Tartars and the 
Mongols. In its narrowest meaning 
Scythia comprised the country extending 
from the Danube to the Tanais or Don, 
and was bounded on the south by the 
coast of the Black Sea, from the mouth of 
the Danube to the Palus Ma?otis ; on the 
east by the Persian Gulph and the Don, 
to its rise out of the Lake Ivan ; on the 
north by a line drawn from Lake Ivan to 
the lake out of which the Tyrus flows ; 
and on the west by a line drawn thence to 
the Danube. The same uncertainty pre- 
vails in the use of the name for the people, 
the term Scythians being sometimes applied 
to a particular people inhabiting Scythia 
Proper, whose boundaries are described 
above, and sometimes to all the nomadic 
tribes who were settled throughout that 
immense tract of country extending from 
the north of the Black and Caspian seas 
into the heart of Asia. 



Scvthopolis, Hebrew Bethshan, a city 
of Judaea, near the Jordan. It was called 
Scythopolis, from its having been taken pos- 
session of by a body of Scythians in their 
invasion of Asia Minor and Syria. 

Sebaste, I. See Samaria. — II. A 
name common to several cities, built in 
honour of Augustus : Sebaste (Segao-r??, 
sc. ttoKis) being the Greek form for Au- 
gusta, sc. urbs. 

Sebexnytcs, a town of the Delta in 
Egypt, north of Busiris, and the capital of 
the Sebennytic nome. The modern Se- 
menud corresponds to its site. 

Sebetus, Maddalona^ a small river of 
Campania, falling into the Bay o f Xaples ; 
whence the epithet Sebetis, given to one of 
the nymphs who frequented its borders, 
and mother of OZbalus by Telon. 

Seculares Ludi, games celebrated once 
in a hundred years. They lasted three days 
and three nights, during which period sacri- 
fices were offered up, and theatrical shows 
exhibited, and combats in the circus, &c. 
took place. Valerius Publicola, the first con- 
sul created after the expulsion of the kings, 
a. u. c. 24:5, was the first who celebrated 
them at Rome. Some authors maintain 
that the seculum, or age, consisted of 1 00, 
and others of ] 10 years ; but it is certain 
several Roman emperors did not allow so 
long an interval as either period to elapse. 
Thus, Augustus celebrated secular games, 
a. u. c. 736, Caligula sixty-four years later, 
and Domitian twenty-six years afterwards; 
on which occasion Tacitus assisted in the 
capacity of juris-decemvir. According to 
Zosimus, the emperor Septimus Severus 
was the last who celebrated them; but 
other writers have stated that under the 
emperor Philip, a. u. c. 1000, these games 
were held with more magnificence than 
had ever been before witnessed. They were 
celebrated, in all, eight times. 

Sedetani, a people of Spain, supposed 
to have been the same with the Edetani. 
See Edetani. 

Seducii, a German nation on the north- 
east bank of the Rhenus, named in con- 
junction with the Marcomanni, and sup- 
posed to have been situate between the 
Danube, the Rhine, and the Xecker. 

Sedunt, a nation of Gaul on the south 
bank of the Rhodanus, east of Lacus Le- 
mannus. They opposed Hannibal near 
the very summit of the Alps, when he 
crossed these mountains to invade Italy. 
Their capital was afterwards called Civitas 
Sedunorum,now Sio?i. They appear to have 
sent out numerous colonies. Hence we 
find tribes of this name in various places. 

Segesta, a town of Sicily. See .ZEgesta. 



SEG 



SEL 



527 



Segni, a people with a town of the same 
name, in Belgic Gaul. A small town, 
called Signei, points out the place which 
they once inhabited. 

SegobrTga, in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
the capital of the Celtiberi, and west of 
Caesaraugusta. It is said to be now 
Priego; but the actual position is much 
disputed. 

SegontJa, or Seguntia, I., a town of 
Hispania Tarraconensis, in the territory 
of the Celtiberi, and west of Caesaraugusta. 
— II. A city of the Arevaci, in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, now Siguenza. 

Segovia, a city of Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, in the farthest part of the territory 
of the Arevaci, towards the south-west. 
This city retains its ancient name. 

Sejanus, .ZElius, a native of Vulsinii, in 
Etruria, and prime minister to the empe- 
ror Tiberius. His father was Seius Strabo, 
a Roman knight, commander of the prae- 
torian guard in the reign of Augustus. 
His mother was descended from the Junian 
family. Sejanus was at first one of the 
train of Caius Caesar ; but he afterwards 
gained so great an ascendency over Tibe- 
rius, that the emperor, who was naturally 
of a suspicious temper, communicated his 
greatest secrets to his favourite. For eight 
years did he retain an undivided influence 
over the mind of the emperor ; and during 
that period he contrived to procure the 
death or banishment of almost every person 
who might have checked his progress to 
the possession of imperial power, which 
was the object of his treacherous ambition. 
The death of Drusus, the son of Tiberius, 
was effected by him and Livilla. (See 
Drusus II.) To him also is attributed the 
death of the two eldest sons of Germanicus, 
and the banishment of their mother, the 
celebrated Agrippina. By his advice Ti- 
berius retired to Capreae, where he aban- 
doned himself to the most disgusting and 
unnatural indulgences, leaving Sejanus at 
Rome in possession of all but the name of 
imperial power. To this base and bloody 
favourite the senate displayed the most 
degrading servility, and the sceptre itself 
seemed on the point of passing into his 
grasp, when Tiberius, at length perceiving 
the pass to which matters had come, caused 
him to be arrested by the senate, who 
condemned him to death, a. d. 31. His 
remains were exposed to the fury of the 
populace, and afterwards thrown into the 
Tiber, and his children, and relations were 
involved in his ruin. 

Selene. See Luna. 

Seleucia, I., a famous city of Asia, built 
by Seleucus, one of Alexander's generals, 



on the western bank of the Tigris, forty- 
five miles north of ancient Babylon. It 
was the capital of the Macedonian con- 
quests in Upper Asia. Many ages after 
the fall of the Macedonian empire, Seleucia 
retained the genuine characteristics of a 
Grecian colony, arts, military virtue, and 
the love of freedom. Its population con- 
sisted of 600,000 citizens, governed by a 
senate of 300 nobles. The rise of Ctesi- 
phon, however, in its immediate vicinity, 
proved injurious to Seleucia; and it re- 
ceived its death-blow from the hands of the 
Romans, under the Emperor Trajan. The 
ruins of Seleucia, and those of Ctesiphon on 
the opposite side of the river, are called by 
the Arabs at the present day Al Modain 
(El Madeien), or "the Two Cities." — II. 
A city of Susiana, in the territory of the 
Elymaei, on the river Hedyphon. — III. 
A city of Cilicia Trachea, a short distance 
north of the mouth of the Calycadnus, 
founded by Seleucus Nicator, and is some- 
times called, for distinction's sake, Seleucia 
Trachea. — IV. A city in the north-western 
part of Pisidia, south of Amblada, some- 
times called Seleucia Ferrea, and ad Tau- 
rum. — V. A city of Apamene, not far 
from Apamea. It was sometimes called 
Seleucia ad Belum. — VI. Suadea, or 
Kepse, a maritime city of Syria, near the 
mouth of the Orontes, and south-west of 
Antioch. It was called Seleucia Pieria, 
from Mount Pierus in its vicinity, and 
was founded by Seleucus. The city was 
strongly fortified, and had a large and se- 
cure harbour. 

SeleucidjE, a surname given to the dy- 
nasty of Seleucus, comprising the monarchs 
who reigned over Syria from b. c. 312 to 
b. c. 66. The first of these dates gives the 
commencement of the reign of Seleucus 
Nicator, the founder of the dynasty. The 
last date gives the time when Pompey 
reduced Syria under the Roman sway. 
Some compute the era of the Seleucida? 
from b. c. 301, the date of the battle of 
Ipsus. 

Seleucis, a division of Syria, which re- 
ceived its name from Seleucus, founder of 
the Syrian empire, after the death of Alex- 
ander the Great ; also called Tetrapolis, 
from the four cities it contained, termed 
Sister Cities ; Seleucia called after Seleucus, 
Antioch after his father, LaOdicea after 
his mother, and Apamea after his wife. 

Seleucus, I., surnamed Nicator, or " the 
Conqueror," was the son of Antiochus, a 
general of Philip. He served from early 
youth under Alexander, accompanied him 
to Asia, and there had commonly the com- 
mand of the elephants. After the death 



528 



SEL 



SEL 



of that monarch he was appointed to the 
command of the cavalry, and, on the se- 
cond division of the provinces, received the 
government of Babylonia. He was at 
first on friendly terms with Antigonus, 
and acknowledged his authority ; but the 
latter having taken offence at some slight 
provocation, Seleucus fled to Ptolemy in 
Egypt. Returning with an army which 
he had collected from various quarters, 
Seleucus recovered the possession of Ba- 
bylon, which had, after his departure, 
fallen into the hands of Antigonus ; and the 
citizens of the place themselves, by whom 
his mild government had made him much 
beloved, aided him in effecting his object, 
B.C. 312. Seleucus next carried his vic- 
torious arms into Persia, Bactria, Hyr- 
cania, and many other countries of Upper 
Asia, and, on account of the rapidity of 
his conquests, assumed the title of Nicator, 
and with it that of king, in imitation of 
the other successful generals of Alexander. 
Having united subsequently with Ptolemy, 
Cassander, and Lysimachus, against An- 
tigonus, and the latter having lost his life 
in the defeat at Ipsus, the kingdoms of 
Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Catalonia, 
and a part of Asia Minor were added to 
the possessions of Seleucus, and he be- 
came the greatest and most powerful of 
all the generals of Alexander. He now 
built Antiochia, calling it after the name 
of his father, and made it the capital of 
his dominions. Many other cities too 
were erected in other quarters, which he 
peopled with Greek colonies, whose na- 
tional industry and learning were commu- 
nicated to the indolent inhabitants of Asia. 
He afterwards defeated and slew Lysi- 
machus in the battle of Compedion, b. c. 
281, and was meditating the conquest of 
Macedon; but as he was on his march 
thither, he was murdered by Ptolemy Ce- 
raunus, the expatriated prince of Egypt, 
who wished to obtain for himself the Ma- 
cedonian throne ; and he thus fell b. c. 280, 
in the seventy-third year of his age, and 
the thirty-second of his reign, being suc- 
ceeded by Antiochus Soter. — II. The 
second of the name, surnamed Callinicus, 
succeeded his father Antiochus Theos on 
the throne of Syria. He attempted to 
make war against Ptolemy, king of Egypt, 
but his fleet was shipwrecked in a violent 
storm, and his armies soon after conquered 
by his enemy. He was at last taken pri- 
soner by the Parthians, and retained by 
them ten years, until the period of his 
death, which was occasioned by a fall from 
his horse in hunting, b. c. 226. He had 
married Laodice, sister of one of his ge- 



nerals, by whom he had two sons, Seleucus 
and Antiochus, and a daughter, whom he 
gave in marriage to Mithridates, king of 
Pontus. — III. The third succeeded his 
father Seleucus II., while the latter was 
in captivity. He was surnamed Ceraunus, 
" Thunderbolt ; " an unmerited title, as he 
was a very weak, timid, and irresolute 
monarch. He was murdered by two of 
his officers after a reign of three years, 
b. c. 223 ; and his brother Antiochus, 
though only fifteen years old, ascended the 
throne, and rendered himself so celebrated 
that he acquired the name of the Great. — 
IV. The fourth succeeded his father Antio- 
chus the Great on the throne of Syria. He 
was surnamed Philopator, or, according to 
Josephus, Soter. His empire had been 
weakened by the Romans when he became 
a monarch, and he was poisoned after a 
reign of twelve years, b. c. 1 75, being suc- 
ceeded by his son Demetrius. — V. The 
fifth succeeded his father Demetrius Ni- 
cator on the throne of Syria, in the twen- 
tieth year of his age. He was put to 
death in the first year of his reign by Cleo- 
patra, his mother, who had also sacrificed 
her husband to her ambition. He is not 
reckoned by many historians in the number 
of the Syrian monarchs. — VI. The sixth, 
one of the Seleucidae, son of Antiochus 
Gryphus, killed his uncle Antiochus Cy- 
zicenus, who wished to obtain the crown 
of Syria. He was some time after banished 
from his kingdom by Antiochus Pius, son 
of Cyzicenus, and fled to Cilicia, where 
he was burned in a palace by the inhabit- 
ants, b.c. 93 VII. A prince of Syria, 

to whom the Egyptians offered the crown 
of which they had robbed Auletes, Se- 
leucus accepted it ; but he soon disgusted 
his subjects, and received the surname of 
Cybiosactes, " Scullion," for meanness and 
avarice. He was murdered by his wife 
Berenice. 

Selge, the largest and most powerful of 
the cities of Pisidia, north of the Euryme- 
don, said by some to have been founded by 
a Lacedaemonian colony. 

Selinuns, or SelInus (untis), I., a flou- 
rishing city of Sicily, founded by a colony 
from Hybla, on the southern shore of the 
western part of the island. Selinus soon 
became a rich and powerful city, in conse- 
quence of the fertile territory in which it 
was situated; but the neighbouring city 
of iEgesta or Segeste, with which it was 
engaged in almost continual wars, having 
at last called in the aid of Carthage, Seli- 
nus, notwithstanding the brave resistance 
of its inhabitants, was taken, plundered, 
and in a great measure destroyed. Vir- 



SEL 



SEM 



529 



gil styles it pahnosa, from the number 
of palm-trees in its vicinity ; it was named 
from the Selinus adjacent to it, so called 
from the quantity of parsley (aekarov) 
on its banks ; and the remains of the 
Thernue Selinuntice, or Warm Baths of 
Selinus, are still to be seen at Sciacca. — 
II. The most westerly city of Cilicia 
Trachea, situated on the coast, at the 
mouth of the river Selinus. The empe- 
ror Trajan died here ; and from him the 
place took the name of Trajanopolis. The 
modern name is Sehnti. 

Sellasia, a town of Laconia, north-east 
of Sparta, situate near the confluence of 
the CEnus and Gongylus, in a valley con- 
fined between the mountains Evas and 
Olympus, and commanding one of the 
principal passes in the country. Cleo- 
menes, tyrant of Sparta, was attacked in 
this strong position by Antigonus Doson, 
and totally defeated after an obstinate con- 
flict. 

Selleis, a river of Elis, in the Pelopon- 
nesus, rising in Mount Pholoe, and falling 
into the sea below the Peneus. Near its 
mouth stood the town of Ephyre. 

Sely.mbria, Selivria, a city of Thrace, 
founded by the Megarensians at a still 
earlier period than Byzantium. It be- 
came a flourishing city, of considerable 
strength, and for a long time defended 
itself against the inroads of the Thracians, 
and the attempts of Philip of Macedon ; 
but it fell at last into the hands of this 
monarch, and sank in importance. The 
city changed its name at a late period to 
that of Eudoxiapolis, in honour of the 
wife of the emperor Areadius. 

SibiELE, a daughter of Cadmus and 
Hermione. Jupiter, by whom she was 
beloved, having promised to grant what- 
ever boon she might ask, Semele, be- 
guiled by the treacherous advice of the 
jealous Juno, requested the god to appear 
before her in the same manner as when 
he wooed the queen of Heaven. Jupiter, 
unable to refuse, entered her chamber 
with the lightning and thunder flaming, 
flashing, and roaring around him. Over- 
come with terror, Semele expired in the 
flames, and Jupiter, taking the babe, 
afterwards called Bacchus, thus prema- 
turely born, sewed it up in his thigh, 
whence it in due time issued forth. (See 
Bacchus. ) After death Semele was ho- 
noured with immortality under the name 
of Thyone. 

Semiramis, a celebrated queen of Assy- 
ria, daughter of the goddess Derceto by a 
young Assyrian. Her early history is 
shrouded in fable. She was exposed in a 



desert, but her life was preserved by doves 
for one whole year, till Simmas, one of the 
shepherds of Ninus, found her and brought 
her up as his own child. Semiramis, 
when grown up, married Menones, the 
governor of Nineveh, and was present at 
the siege of Bactra, where, by her advice 
and directions, she hastened the king's ope- 
rations and took the city. The monarch, 
having seen and become enamoured of 
Semiramis, asked her of her husband, and 
offered him his daughter Sosana instead ; 
but Menones, who tenderly loved his wife, 
refused, and, when Ninus had added 
threats to entreaties, he hung him'self. No 
sooner was Menones dead than Semiramis 
married Ninus, by whom she had a son 
called Ninyas. Not long after this Ninus 
died, and Semiramis became sole ruler of 
Assyria. Semiramis, on attaining to sove- 
reign power, resolved to immortalise her 
name, and with this view commenced the 
building the great city of Babylon, in 
which work she is said to have employed 
two millions of men, who were collected 
from all the provinces of her vast empire. 
She visited every part of her dominions, 
and left everywhere monuments of her 
greatness. To render the roads passable 
and communication easy, she hollowed 
mountains and filled up valleys, and water 
was conveyed, at a great expense, by large 
and convenient aqueducts, to barren de- 
serts and unfruitful plains. She was not 
less distinguished for military talents, and 
reduced many neighbouring and also dis- 
tant nations under her sway. India, in 
particular, felt the power of her arms. 
At length, being plotted against by her 
son Ninyas, and recalling to mind a re- 
sponse which she had received some time 
before from the oracle of Ammon, she 
voluntarily abdicated in favour of her son, 
and immediately disappeared from the 
eyes of men. Some said that she was 
changed into a dove, and that several 
birds of this species having alighted upon 
the palace, she flew away along with 
them. Hence, according to the legend, 
the dove was held sacred by the Assyrians. 
Semiramis is said to have lived sixty- 
two years, and to have reigned forty-two 
years. 

Semnostes, a German nation, in the 
vicinity of the Albis, Elbe, whose territory 
corresponded to what is now Brandenburg. 
They originally formed part of the king- 
dom of Maroboduus, but afterwards sepa- 
rated from it along with the Longobardi. 
Mannert is of opinion that the name of 
Semnones was given by the German tribes, 
not to a single nation, but to all the na- 
a a 



530 



SEM 



SEN 



tions in the vicinity of the Elbe, from 
whom the more southern Germans were 
descended. 

Semones, an inferior class of divinities, 
such as Priapus, Silenus, the Fauns, &c. 
They were called Semones (i. e. semi- 
homines) from their holding a middle kind 
of rank between gods and men. Certain 
deified heroes were also included under 
this appellation. 

Semosanctus, one of the gods of the 
Romans among the Indigetes. 

Sempronia, I., a Roman matron, daugh- 
ter of Scipio Africanus the elder, and mo- 
ther of the two Gracchi. (See Cornelia 
III.) — II. A sister of the Gracchi, and 
wife of the younger Scipio Africanus. 
She was suspected of having been priv) r , 
along wilh Carbo, Gracchus, and Flaccus, 
to the murder of her husband. The name 
of Sempronia was common to the female 
descendants of the families of the Sempro- 
nii, Scipios, and Gracchi. 

Sempronia lex, I., De Magistratibus, a 
law enacted by C. Sempronius Gracchus, 
tribune, a. u. c. 630, which ordained that 
no person, legally deprived of a magistracy 
for misdemeanors, should be capable of 
bearing office again. It was afterwards 
repealed by the author. — II. Another, 
De Civitate, by the same, a. u. c. 630, or- 
daining that no capital judgment should 
be passed upon a Roman citizen without 
the concurrence of the senate. — III. Ano- 
ther, DeComitiis, by the same, a.u. c. 635, 
which granted to the Latin allies of Rome 
the privilege of giving their votes at elec- 
tions, as if Roman citizens. — IV. Another, 
De Provinciis, by the same, a. u. c. 630, 
which enacted that the senators should 
appoint provinces for the consuls every 
year before their election. — V. Agraria 
prima, by T. Sempronius Gracchus, tri- 
bune, a. u. c. 620, which confirmed the 
Lex Agraria Licinia, and enacted that all 
in possession of more lands than the law 
allowed should resign them to be divided 
among the poorer citizens. ( See Agrari^e 
Leges.) — VI. Agraria altera, by the same, 
which enacted that all ready money found 
inthetreasury of Attalus, king of Pergamus, 
who had left the Romans his heirs, should 
be divided among the poorer citizens of 
Rome, to supply them with the instruments 
requisite in husbandry; that his lands should 
be farmed by the Roman censors, and the 
money drawn thence divided among the 
people. — VII. Another, De Civitate Italis 
danda, by the same, which enacted that the 
freedom of the state should be given to all 
the Italians. — VIII. Frumentaria, by C. 
Sempronius Gracchus, which ordained that 



a certain quantity of corn should be dis- 
tributed among the people, for which they 
should only pay a semissis and a triens. — 
IX. Another, De Usura, by M. Sempronius, 
the tribune, a. u. c. 560, which ordained 
that, in lending money to the Latins and 
the allies of Rome, the Roman laws should 
be observed as well as among the citi- 
zens. The object of this law was to check 
the fraud of the usurers, who lent their 
money in the name of the allies at higher 
interest than what was allowed at Rome. 
— X. Another, De Judicious, by C. Sem- 
pronius Gracchus, a. u. c. 630. It re- 
quired that the right of judging, which 
had been assigned to the senatorian 
order, should be transferred from them 
to the Roman knights. — XI. Another, 
Militaris, by the same, a. u. c. 630. 
It enacted that the soldiers should be 
clothed at the public expense, without any 
diminution of their usual pay. It also 
ordered that no person should be obliged 
to serve in the army before the age of 
seventeen. 

Sempronius, the father of the Gracchi. 
See Gracchus. 

Sena, I., Julia, Sienna, a city of Etru- 
ria, east of Volaterrae, colonised by 
Julius or Augustus Ca?sar. — II. A mari- 
time city of Umbria in Italy, north-west of 
Ancona, and near the mouth of the river 
Misus, built by the Galli Senones, after 
their irruption into Italy, a. u. c. 396. 
The Romans colonised it after they had 
expelled, or rather exterminated the Se- 
nones, a. u. c. 471. During the civil war 
between Sylla and Marius, Sena, which 
sided with the latter, was taken and sacked 
by Pompey. The modern name is Seni- 
gaglia. 

Senatus, the deliberative assembly 
of the Roman people. The members of 
this council were originally chosen from 
the patricians, and were probably single 
representatives of each of the houses of 
that order ; a plebeian senator is first 
mentioned a. u. c. 355. At the foundation 
of the city their number was 100, which 
was doubled on the admission of the Sa- 
bines, and increased to 300 by Tarquinius 
Priscus; but the more ancient members, 
and those admitted by this last king, were 
distinguished by the titles of patres ma- 
jorum and patres minorum gentium, or se- 
nators of the greater and of the lesser 
houses respectively. In the last ages of 
the republic the members of the senate 
amounted to above 400, and were still 
farther raised by the emperors to 1000. 
The members of the senate were originally 
chosen by the kings, and afterwards the 



SEN 



SEN 



531 



election fell into the hands of the consuls, 
military tribunes, and finally of the cen- 
sors ; but the fact of having held certain 
magistracies, as the qua?storship, and all 
superior posts, gave a right to this privi- 
lege. Under the regal government the 
senate deliberated on such affairs as the 
king proposed to them, and he was said 
to act according to their counsel. On the 
establishment of the republic the whole 
power of the state was thrown into its 
hands, the different magistrates using the 
authority they enjoyed merely as its dele- 
gates. The first constitutional check im- 
posed on it was the power of intercession, 
or negativing their proceedings, granted 
to the tribunes of the commonalty. Still, 
while Rome was free, the authority of the 
senate, though subordinate to the assembly 
of the people, remained very great. It 
assumed the guardianship of public re- 
ligion ; the management of the revenue ; 
the appointment of governors to the pro- 
vinces, whose constitution it settled ; the 
direction of diplomatic affairs, and many 
other functions of importance. Under the 
emperors its power became, in general, 
little more than nominal ; yet the assembly 
still existed till the occupation of Italy by 
the Goths in the thirteenth century after 
the foundation of Rome : and in the last 
ages of its existence, after the seat of em- 
pire had been transferred to Byzantium, 
it seems to have been the centre of what 
remained of the old national spirit. After 
that time its existence as a council ceased, 
though the name of senator was still re- 
tained by some noble families of Rome as 
an empty but high-sounding title. The 
senatorial badges were the laticlave or 
tunic with a purple band, black buskins 
reaching up to the middle of the leg, and 
a silver crescent on the foot. The affairs 
of the Italian and provincial towns of the 
Roman empire, in imitation of the capital, 
were administered by senates. 

Seneca, I., M. Annaeus, a rhetorician 
and orator, born at Corduba, in Spain, of 
an equestrian family, about b. c. 58. When 
still a young man, he came to Rome, 
where he contracted an intimate friend- 
ship with Porcius Latro, and where he 
taught rhetoric and oratory until his 
fifty-second year. He then returned to 
his native city, and married Helvia, a 
lady distinguished for her beauty and 
talents, who made him the father of three 
sons, L. Annaeus Seneca, the philosopher, 
M. Annaeus Novatus, who, having been 
adopted by Junius Gallio, took the name 
of Junius Annasus Gallio, and was, as pro- 
praetor of Achaia, the judge of St. Paul, 



and Annaeus Mela, the father of the 
poet Lucan. After the birth of his three 
sons, Seneca returned to Rome, where 
he passed the remainder of his life. 
We have two works of this writer re- 
maining. — II. A celebrated Roman writer, 
son of M. Annasus Seneca, the rhetorician, 
and Helvia, born at Corduba, in the second 
or third year of the Christian era. He 
early distinguished himself by extraor- 
dinary talents ; and when he grew up, he 
acquired great distinction for his oratorical 
powers ; but he was compelled by the 
persecution of the jealous Caligula to re- 
linquish his favourite pursuit. He after- 
wards attained to the quaestorship ; but, in 
the first year of the reign of Claudius, he 
was implicated by Messalina in the accu- 
sation of adultery which was brought 
against the paramours of Julia, daughter 
of Germanicus, and banished to the island 
of Corsica, where he passed eight years of 
seclusion. Agrippina, the second wife of 
Claudius, recalled him from banishment, 
and appointed him tutor to Nero, in con- 
junction with Burrhus. Seneca soon ob- 
tained an exclusive influence over his 
pupil, who conferred on him several im- 
portant places, and after his accession to 
the throne loaded him with favours for 
a time ; but at length, resolving to rid 
himself of his old preceptor, the tyrant 
charged him with being an accomplice in 
the conspiracy of Piso, and he was con- 
demned to death. The method of his 
execution being left to his own choice, 
Seneca, with the characteristic ostentation 
of a Stoic, finished his life in the midst of 
his friends, conversing on philosophical 
topics while the blood was flowing from, 
his veins, which he had caused to be 
opened. His wife, Paulina, had resolved 
to die with him, but though their veins 
were opened at the same moment, her life 
was preserved. To hasten his death, he 
drank a dose of poison, but perceiving it 
had no effect, he ordered himself to be 
carried into a hot-bath, when he breathed 
his last, overcome by the influence of the 
vapour, a. d. 65. His body was burnt, 
without pomp or funeral ceremony. The 
compositions of Seneca are numerous, and 
chiefly on moral subjects. Though a man. 
of undoubted genius, he was rapacious and 
intriguing, and he is said to have accu- 
mulated vast wealth by the most unjusti- 
fiable means. Dion Cassius ascribes the 
revolt of the Britons under Boadicea to 
the distress to which they were driven 
through the rapacity of Seneca and his 
agents. 

Senna. See Sena. 

A A 2 



532 



SEN 



SER 



Senones, T., an uncivilised nation of 
Gallia Transalpina, who left their native 
possessions on the Sequana, Seine, and 
having, under the conduct of Brennus, in- 
vaded Italy and pillaged Rome, after- 
wards settled in the territory of the Um- 
bri, in conjunction with whom, the Latins, 
and Etrurians, they carried on war against 
the Romans, till they were totally de- 
stroyed by Dolabella, a. u. c. 471. The 
chief of their towns were Fanum Fortuna?, 
Sena, Pisaurum, and Ariminum. — II. A 
people of Germany. See Semnoxes. 

Septem aqu ji, a portion of the lake near 
Reate. 

Septimius, I., or Titus Septimius, a 
Roman knight, intimate with Horace, 
who addressed to him one of his Odes. 
He was a votary of the Muses, and com- 
posed lyric pieces and tragedies ; but none 
of his productions have reached us. — II. 
Aulus Septimius Severus, a Roman poet 
under Vespasian, highly esteemed for his 
lyric talents. — III. Q. Septimius, the 
translator of the work of Dictys Cretensis 
into Latin. He lived in the time of the 
Emperor Diocletian. See Dictys I. 

Sequana, Seine, a river of Gallia Trans- 
alpina, rising in the territory of the iEdui, 
and flowing by Lutetia or Paris into the .En - 
glish Channel, after a course of 250 miles. 

Sequani, a people of Gallia Transalpina, 
whose territory lay to the east of that of the 
iEdui and Lingones, from which it was 
separated by the Arar. Their country 
answers to the modern Departements du 
Doubs et du Jura. 

Serapeum, or SerapIox, a name given 
to the temples of Serapis in Egypt, and 
other countries, of which there were a great 
number. 

SerapjEon, an eminent physician of Alex- 
andria, in the third century B.C., who be- 
longed to the sect of the Empirici, and 
who so much extended and improved the 
system of Philinus, that the invention of 
it is by some authors attributed to him. 
He wrote with great severity against Hip- 
pocrates. — Two distinguished Syrian phy- 
sicians of this name, who lived in the 10th 
and 11th centuries of our era, must not be 
confounded with Serapion of Alexandria. 

Serapiox. See Sekapeum. 

Serapis, an Egyptian deity. The image 
and worship of this god were brought from 
Sinope in Pontus to Alexandria, in the 
last year of Ptolemy Soter, in consequence, 
it is said, of a vision of Ptolemy I. Ac- 
cording to some accounts, this image was 
a statue of Jupiter; but however this may 
have been, Serapis was clearly, as Sir G. 
Wilkinson expresses it, " at most a Grasco- 



' Egyptian deity." And there is no found- 
| ation for the notion entertained by some 
early Christian fathers, that he represented 
the Patriarch Joseph (which they supported 
by an argument drawn from the ornament 
in the shape of a bushel which the images 
of this god usually bore on the head) ; or 
| for that of some modern antiquaries, that 
it was another name for Apis. 

Serbonis, Sebaket- Bardoil, a lake be 
tween Egypt and Palestine, and near Mount 
Casius, 150 miles in length. Typhon was 
fabled to have lain at the bottom of this 
lake or morass ; and the Egyptians called 
its opening the breathing-place of Typhon. 

Serexus, Q,. Sammonicus, a celebrated 
physician, historian, and poet, a. d. 210, 
father of Serenus Sammonicus, preceptor 
of Gordian II. 

Seres, a nation of Asia, according to 
Ptolemy, between the Ganges and Eastern 
Ocean. Malte-Brun considers the ancient 
Serica to have included the western parts 
of Thibet, Serinagur, Cashmere, Little Thibet, 
and perhaps a small part of Little Buc- 
haria. Some maintain that the Seres are 
identical with the Chinese. The Seres 
were naturally of a meek disposition. Silk 
was brought to Rome from their country, 
hence the name Sericum; and a garment or 
dress of silk was called serica testis. 

Sergestus, a sailor in the fleet of iEneas, 
from whom the family of the Sergii at 
Rome were said to be descended. 

Sergius, the name of a Roman patri- 
cian family, which branched out into the 
several families of the Catilince, Fidenates, 
Nattce, Ocellce, Planci, and Silt. 

SerIphus, Serpho, an island of the 
iEgean, south of Cythnus, celebrated as 
the scene of some of the most remarkable 
adventures of Perseus, who changed Poly- 
dectes, king of the island, and his subjects, 
into stones, to avenge the wrongs offered to 
his mother Danae. Strabo seems to account 
for this fable from the rocky nature of the 
island. In Juvenal's time state prisoners 
were sent thither. 

Serraxus, I., a surname given to Cin- 
cinnatus, because he was found sowing his 
fields when told that he had been appointed 
dictator. — II. A poet in the time of Nero, 
to whom the eclogues that pass under the 
name of Calpurnius have been ascribed. 

Sertorius. Quintus, a distinguished 
Roman genei'al, born at Nursia. He made 
his first campaign under Ca?pio, when the 
Cimbri and Teutones broke into Gaul ; 
and he subsequently distinguished himself 
under Marius, when the same enemy made 
their memorable irruption into Italy. Af- 
ter the termination of this war he was sent 



S£R 



SLR 



533 



as a legionary tribune, under Didius, into f 
Spain, and soon gained for himself a J 
high reputation in that country. On 
his return to Rome he was appointed 
quaestor for Cisalpine Gaul ; and on the . 
breaking out of the IVTarsian war. being 
employed to levy troops and provide arms, \ 
he made himself extremely useful in that 
capacitv, and performed important ser- 
vices for the state. On the ruin of the 
Marian party, to which he himself be- ; 
longed, Sertorius hastened back to Spain, 
and found no difficulty in resuming pos- | 
session of that province. Here he be- i 
haved with so much address, that after 
a short stay in Africa, whither he was 
driven by the legions of Sylla, he was in- j 
vited by the Lusitanians to take the com- 
mand of their troops. With an army of ! 
less than 10,000 men, Italians, Africans, ; 
and Spaniards, he maintained his ground 
against four Roman generals at the head 
of 120,000. Metellus and Pompey, who 
were sent against him, sustained a severe I 
defeat near Tarragona. But Rome was at 
last freed from an enemy who had resisted 
her whole strength during several years, 
by the treachery of his lieutenant Perpenna. 
At a banquet the conspirators began to 
open their intentions, by speaking with free- 
dom and licentiousness in the presence of 
Sertorius, whose age and character had 
hitherto claimed deference from others. 
Perpenna overturned a glass of wine as a 
signal to the rest of the conspirators, when 
Antonius, one of his officers, immediately 
stabbed Sertorius, and the example was i 
followed by the rest, b. c. 73. The as- 
sassin, however, was punished in a man- 
ner worthy of his crime. 

ServilIa, a sister of Cato of Utica, greatly 
enamoured of J. Caesar, though her brother 
was one of the most inveterate enemies of 
her lover. 

ServilIa lex, I., De Pecuniis repetundis, 
by C. Servilius, the prsetor, a. u. c. 653. 
It ordained severer penalties than formerly 
bgainst extortion ; and that the defendant j 
should have a second hearing. — II. An- | 
other, De Judicibus. by Q. Servilius Caqfio, 
the consul, a. u. c. 647. It divided the 
right of judging between the senators and \ 
the equites, a privilege which, though ori- 
ginally belonging to the senators, had been 
taken from them by the Sempronian Law, 
and given to the equites, who had exercised 
it. in consequence, for seventeen years. 
— III. Another, DeCivitate,b\ C. Servilius 
Glaucia, ordained that if a Latin accused 
a Roman senator so that he was condemned, 
the accuser should be honoured with the J 
na'.r.e and the privileges of a Roman citi- 



zen. — IV. Another, Agraria, by P. Ser- 
vilius Rullus, the tribune, a.u.c. 690. It 
ordained that ten commissioners should be 
created, with absolute power, for five years, 
over all the revenues of the republic ; to 
buy and sell what lands they saw fit, at what 
price and from whom they chose ; to dis- 
tribute them at pleasure to the citizens ; to 
settle new colonies wherever they judged 
proper, and particularly in Campania, ecc. 
But this law was prevented from being 
passed by the eloquence of Cicero, who 
was then consul. 

Servilius, I.. Prsr.ius Ahala. a master 
of horse to the dictator Cincinnatus. When 
3Ia?lius refused to appear before the dicta- 
tor to answer the accusations which were 
brought against him on suspicion of his 
aspiring to tyranny, Ahala slew him in the 
midst of the people whose protection lie 
claimed. Ahala was accused of this mur- 
der, and banished ; but this sentence was 
afterwards repealed : and he was raised to 
the dictatorship. — II. Publius, a procon- 
sul of Asia during the age of Mithri- 
dates. He conquered Isauria, for which 
service he was surnamed Isauricus. and re- 
warded with a triumph. (See Isadria. ) 
— III. Xonianus, a Latin historian, who 
wrote a history of Rome in the reign of 
Nero. He is praised by Quintiiian. — The 
family of the Servilii was of patrician rank, 
and came to settle at Rome after the des- 
truction of Alba, where they were pro- 
moted to the highest offices of the state. 
To the several branches of this family were 
attached the different surnames of Ahala, 
Axilla, Ccepio, Casca, Pidenas, Geminus, 
Longus, Priscus, Pulex. Structus, Tucca, 
and Vatia, 

Servits, I.. Tullics, the sixth king of 
Rome, whose origin is involved in as great 
obscurity as that of any of his predecessors. 
The most ancient and poetical legend re- 
presents him as the son of Ocrisia, a cap- 
tive and slave of Tanaquil, the wife of 
Tarquinius Priscus, by the Lar, or house- 
hold god. Later legends made him a son of 
one of the king's clients, and for some time 
a slave ; or the son of a man of rank and 
power in one of the conquered Latin cities, 
after whose death, his widow carried him to 
Rome, where they were protected by Tana- 
quil. When Servius Tulliusgrew up to man- 
hood, he distinguished himself in several 
battles against the Etruscans and Sabines, 
received in marriage the daughter of Tar- 
quin, and became such a favourite of the 
people, by liberality and complaisance, 
that on the murder of his father-in-law by 
the son of Ancus Martius, he was raised 
to the throne. He was, in many respects, 

A A 3 



534 



SES 



SEV 



the most deserving of the kings. He en- 
larged the city, so as to bring within its 
compass the Viminal and Esquiline Hills ; 
and for the purpose of consolidating more 
firmly the union of the races of which the 
nation was composed, he erected the tem- 
ple of Diana on the Aventine Hill, which 
was to be the chief abode of the Latin po- 
pulation recently brought to Rome. Be- 
sides this he extended and completed the 
stone walls of the city, divided the terri- 
tory into districts, each with its proper 
magistrate, instituted the census, and ar- 
ranged the people into five great classes, 
according to their wealth, which were again 
subdivided into centuries. He is said to 
have carried on war for twenty years with 
the citizens of Veii, Caere, Tarquinii, and 
lastly with the collective force of the 
Etruscans, till all allowed the pre-emi- 
nence of Rome and her king. But though 
the judicious measures and excellent cha- 
racter of Servius rendered him universally 
popular, a storm soon burst upon his head 
and involved him in destruction. He had 
married his two daughters to the grand- 
sons of his father-in-law, the elder to 
Lucius Tarquin, the younger to Aruns. 
The wife of Aruns murdered her own 
husband to unite herself to Tarquin, who 
had likewise assassinated his wife ; and 
these bloody measures were no sooner pur- 
sued than Servius was murdered by his 
own son-in-law, and his daughter Tullia 
ordered her chariot to be driven over the 
mangled body of her father, b. c. 534. 
— II. Sulpitius Rufus, an eminent Roman 
jurist and statesman, descended from an 
illustrious family. He was contemporary 
with Cicero, and probably born about b.c. 
100. He became one of the most eminent 
lawyers at Rome, and after passing through 
the various civil offices of the state was 
elected consul, b.c. 51. Caesar made him 
governor of Achaia after the battle of 
Pharsalia, but when that chief was taken 
off, Sulpitius returned to Rome, and acted 
with the republican party. He died in 
the camp of Antony under the walls of 
Modena, having been sent on an embassy 
to that leader from the Roman senate. 
Cicero pleaded for a brazen statue to be 
erected to Sulpitius, an honour which was 
granted by the senate. — III. Honoratus 
Maurus, a learned grammarian in the age 
of Arcadius and Honorius. He wrote 
Latin Commentaries on Virgil, still extant. 

Sesostris, or Rhamses the Great, the 
hero of early Egyptian history, was the 
third king of the twelfth dynasty of Ma- 
netho, and, according to Herodotus, the 
successor of Mceris, and the liberator of 



his country from the Hyksos, who had 
renewed their invasions in the reign of his 
father, Amenophis III. Great difference 
of opinion prevails as to the age of Sesos- 
tris, but it seems very probable that he 
flourished during the wandering of the 
Israelites in the Desert. His conquests 
extended over Libya, Ethiopia, Media, 
Persia, Bactria, Scythia, and Asia Minor, 
from all which countries he levied tribute. 
The trophies of his victories, in the form 
of pillars, were found from the Danube to 
the Ganges, and southward to Ethiopia ; 
and a hundred famous temples were raised 
from the spoils of his enemies. He divided 
the country into thirty-six nomes, at the 
head of which he placed officers to collect 
the taxes. He intersected the provinces 
with canals; and was the first Egyptian 
monarch who was powerful at sea. Be- 
coming blind, he committed suicide in the 
thirty-third year of his reign. His name* 
and titles, wars and triumphs, are depicted 
on the walls of palaces and temples at 
Luxor, Karnac, Thebes, and Nubia. 

Sessites, Sessia, a river of Cisalpine 
Gaul, falling into the Po. 

Sestus, a strongly fortified town of 
Thrace on the shores of the Hellespont, 
nearly opposite to Abydos on the Asiatic 
side, celebrated for the bridge which 
Xerxes built across the Hellespont, and 
as the seat of the amours of Hero and 
Leander. (See Abydos and Leander.) 
It was captured by the Athenians at the 
close of the great Persian war, b. c. 479. 

Sesuvii, a people of Celtic Gaul. 

Setabis, San Phelippe, a town of Spain 
between New Carthage and Saguntum, on 
a small cognominal river. 

Sethon, a priest of Vulcan, who made 
himself king of Egypt after the death of 
Anysis. He was attacked by the Assy- 
rians, and delivered from the enemy by an 
immense number of rats, which in one night 
gnawed their bow-strings and thongs, so that 
on the morrow their arms were useless. 

Setia, Sezza, a town of Latium above 
the Pontine marshes, celebrated for wines. 

Seuthes, a name common to several 
Thracian princes. 

Severa, Julia Aquilia, L, a Vestal 
virgin, whom Heliogabalus married, and 
soon after repudiated. — II. Valeria, wife 
of Valentinian, and mother of Gratian. 
Her prudent advice insured her son Gra- 
tian the imperial throne. 

Severus, I., Lucius Septimius, a Ro- 
man emperor, born at Leptis in Africa, 
of an equestrian family, b. c. 146. Upon 
coming to Rome, in early life, he received 
the benefit of a liberal education, and was 



SEV 



SEV 



535 



subsequently raised to the dignity of a 
senator by the favour of Marcus Aurelius. 
His youth did not escape untainted by the 
impurities that disgraced the capital ; and 
on one occasion he was tried for a flagrant 
crime at the tribunal of Didius Julianus, 
but acquitted. Having held the usual 
offices which qualified a candidate for the 
consular power, Severus was intrusted with 
several military appointments of great 
honour and importance. He served in 
Africa, in Spain, and in Gaul ; and finally 
obtained one of the most desirable com- 
mands in the empire, that, namely, of the 
legions employed in Pannonia, to defend 
the banks of the Danube against the in- 
roads of the barbarian tribes who dwelt 
beyond it. He was at the head of the 
army in Germany when he heard of the 
death of Commodus, which was followed 
by the short reign of Pertinax, and the 
accession of Didius Julianus, who pur- 
chased the imperial title. Being saluted 
with the names of emperor and Augustus 
by the troops, he marched rapidly to 
Rome : Julianus was put to death by a 
decree of the senate, and Severus ascended 
the imperial throne, a. d. 193. Next fol- 
lowed the overthrows of Niger and Al- 
binus, the two competitors with Severus 
for the empire (see Niger and Albinus) ; 
and these events were succeeded by the 
death of many nobles of Gaul and Spain, 
and also of twenty-nine senators of Rome, 
who were accused of having been the 
abettors of Albinus. Meanwhile the Par- 
thians, under Vologeses, availing themselves 
of the absence of Severus, had overrun 
Mesopotamia, and besieged La?tus, one of 
his lieutenants, in Nisibis. The emperor 
resolved to march against them, and it 
was his intention to establish the power of 
Rome beyond the Euphrates on a much 
firmer foundation than it had enjoyed since 
the days of Trajan. The Parthians re- 
tired at his approach : he ascended the 
Euphrates with his barks, while the army 
marched along its banks ; and having oc- 
cupied Seleucia and Babylon, and sacked 
Ctesiphon, he carried off 100,000 in- 
habitants, with the women and treasures 
of the court. Leading his army, after this, 
against the Atreni, through the desert 
of Arabia, his foragers were incessantly 
cut off by the light cavalry of the Arabs ; 
and after lying before Atra twenty days, 
and making an ineffectual attempt to 
storm, he was compelled to raise the siege 
and retire into Palestine. Hence he made 
a tour through Egypt, visited Memphis, 
and explored the Nile. His return to 
Rome was celebrated by a combat of 400 



wild beasts in the amphitheatre, and by 
the nuptials of his son Bassianus Caracalla 
with the daughter of Plautianus. After 
a short residence in his capital, a period 
marked by increased severity on the part 
of the emperor, and a degree of tyranny 
rendered the more odious from its being 
the result of a naturally suspicious tem- 
per, Severus took refuge from the in- 
trigues of state in the stirring scenes of 
a foreign war. He passed over into 
Britain, accompanied by his sons, with 
the view of securing the northern boun- 
daries of the Roman province against the 
incursions of the Caledonians and of 
the other barbarous tribes who dwelt be- 
tween the wastes of Northumberland and 
the Grampian Mountains. His success 
against the enemy was complete. But his 
last days were embittered by the dissen- 
sions of his sons, and more particularly by 
the undutiful conduct of Caracalla, who 
is even accused of conspiring against the 
life of his father. He died at Fork (Ebo- 
racum), a. n. 211, in the eighteenth year 
of his reign. His body, or, according to 
other accounts, the urn which contained 
his ashes, was carried to Rome and placed 
in the tomb of the Antonini. — II. Alex- 
ander Marcus Aurelius, a Roman em- 
peror, son of Julia Mammsea, the sister 
of Soasmis (the mother of Heliogabalus), 
was born at Ara Cassarea, in Phoenicia, 
in the temple of Alexander the Great, 
a. d. 208. After the death of his cousin, 
Heliogabalus, who had made several 
efforts to cut him off", he was proclaimed 
sole emperor, a. d. 222, and, under his 
wise and moderate administration, the 
Roman world enjoyed an auspicious calm 
of thirteen years. Too young himself to 
rule, he left the public cares to his mother 
Mammsa and sixteen ancient senators, 
among whom was the famous lawyer Ul- 
pian, to whose presence in the council 
we may attribute the greater regularity in 
the executive, the abolition of many vex- 
atious laws, and the more legal conduct of 
the government. Severus was devotedly 
attached to literature and the society of 
the learned. But the love of learning did 
not entirely smother his military ardour ; 
for he checked the martial hordes of 
Germany, and led the Roman eagles to 
victory against the Sassanidse, who had 
displaced the Arsacidas in the dominion 
over Persia. Victorious in war, and be- 
loved by his subjects, he deemed he might 
venture on introducing more regular dis- 
cipline into the army ; but the attempt was 
fatal, and the amiable monarch lost his 
life in the mutiny that resulted a. d. 235. 

A A 4 



536 



SEV 



SIC 



— III. A celebrated architect employed I 
in building Nero's golden palace at Rome, ; 
after the burning of that city. 

Sevo, a ridge of mountains between Nor- J 
way and Sweden ; it assumes various names 
in different parts of its course, Lang f eld 
and Dofrafeld mountains, &c. Some sup- 
pose them to have been the Rhipheean 
mountains of antiquity. 

Sexti^e Aqu^e, now Aix, a town of 
Gallia Narbonensis, and the metropolis of 
Narbonensis Secunda, founded by Sextus 
Calvinus, on account of the warm mine- 
ral springs in its neighbourhood. 

Sibyllje, certain women supposed to be 
inspired by heaven, who nourished in dif- 
ferent parts of the ancient world. The term 
is supposed to be derived from cribs, Mail, for 
&eds, and $ov\ri, counsel, and to signify, one 
who declares the counsel of the gods. Ac- 
cording to the received opinion, founded 
on the authority of Varro, the Sibyls were 
ten in number, Persica, Delphica, Cuma?a 
(of Cumae, in Italy), Erythrasa, Samia, 
Cumana (of Cyma?, in iEolis, called Amal- 
thaja, Herophile, and Demophile), Hel- 
lespontica, Phrygia, who prophesied at An- 
cyra, Libyssa, and Tiburs, called Albunea, 
worshipped at Tibur. Besides these there 
were a Hebrew, a Chaldean, a Babylonian, 
an Egyptian, a Sardinian Sibyl, and some 
others. But the list of Sibyls may be 
considerably reduced ; for it is all but 
certain that the first eight Sibyls in the 
above list were identical, and of Asiatic 
origin ; and hence it might be inferred that 
there was but one Sibyl for Asia ( Cumana), 
one for Africa (Libyssa), and one for Eu- 
rope (Tiburs). But be this as it may, the 
most celebrated of the whole number was 
the Cumaean, the poetic fable relative to 
whom is as follows : Apollo, having be- 
come enamoured of her, offered to give her 
whatever she should ask = The Sibyl de- 
manded to live as many years as she had 
grains of sand in her hand, but unfortu- 
nately forgot to ask for the enjoyment of 
health and bloom^of which she was then in 
possession. The god granted her request, 
but she refused, in return, to listen to his 
suit ; and the gift of longevity, therefore, 
unaccompanied by freshness and beauty, 
proved a burden rather than a benefit. 
See Sibyllini Libri. 

Sibyllini Libri, documents supposed 
to contain the fate of the Roman em- 
pire. Nine of them are said to have been 
offered by an old woman called Amal- 
thsea to Tarquin the Proud ; but Tarquin 
refusing to give the price she asked, she 
went away, and burnt three of them. 
Returning with the remainder, she offered 



them to the king on the same terms as 
before ; and on his second refusal depart- 
ed again, and returned with three, which 
she still offered at the same price as the 
original nine. The king, struck with her 
conduct, at last acceded to her offer, and 
entrusted the care of the books to certain 
priests (the quindecemviri). They were 
preserved in a stone chest beneath the 
temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and were 
consulted in times of public danger or 
calamity. They were destroyed by the 
fire that consumed the Capitol in the Mar- 
sic war. After this calamity, ambassadors 
were sent to collect such fragments of 
Sibylline prophecies as they could pick up 
in various countries ; and from the verses 
thus collected Augustus formed two new 
books, which were deposited in two gilt cases 
in the temple of the Palatine Apollo. Sibyl- 
line verses are often quoted by Christian 
writers, as containing prophecies of Chris- 
tianity ; but these are spurious, a forgery 
of the second century. 

Sicambri, or Sygambri, a people of 
Germany, originally occupying what is 
now Guelderland. They revolted under 
Augustus, who marched against them, but 
were not finally reduced till the time of 
Drusus. Being pressed by the Catti, 
whom Caesar calls Suevi, they were, toge- 
ther with the Ubii, received into Gaul, on 
the left bank of the Rhine, under Tiberius. 

Sicani, an ancient nation of Sicily, who 
are supposed to have been of Iberian origin, 
and to have come originally from Upper 
Asia. They first descended into Italy, 
and took possession of the district after- 
wards known as Riviera di Genoa, whence 
they spread themselves over Hetruria, 
Latium, and Campania ; but being driven 
towards the south by the Ligurians, pro- 
ceeded as far as Rhegium, crossed the 
Strait of Messina, and finally settled on 
the western coast of Sicily. Some consi- 
der them to be the aboriginal inhabitants 
of Sicily. 

STcania, and Sicania, an ancient name 
of Sicily. See Sicani. 

Sicca, a town of Numidia, near the 
Bagradas ; called Venerea, from a temple 
of Venus, which it contained. The ruins 
are visible at a place called Keff. 

Sicelides, an epithet applied to the 
Muses, by Virgil, because Theocritus was 
a native of Sicily, whom the Latin poet 
professed to imitate in his Bucolics. 

Sich^eus, called also Sicharbas and 
Acerbas. See Dido. 

Sicilia, the largest, most fruitful, and 
populous island of the Mediterranean, ly- 
ing to the south of Italy, from which it is 



sic 



SIC ♦ 537 



separated by the Fretum Siculum, or Straits I 
of Messi?ia. Its short distance from the . 
mainland of Italy gave rise to an hypo- 
thesis among the ancient writers that it 
once formed part of that country, and was 
separated from it by a powerful flood. It was 
anciently called Sicania, from the Sicani, 
Trinacria or Triquetra, from its three pro- j 
montories, and received the name Sicilia 
from the Siculi. The earliest inhabitants j 
of Sicily, according to the Grecian writers, 
were the Cyclopes and Lasstrygones ; but 
at the period when the Greeks first became 
acquainted with the island it was inhabited ! 
by two tribes, called the Sicani and the 
Siculi. (See these terms.) It subse- 
quently received accession to the number | 
of its inhabitants from various Greek and j 
Phoenician colonies, the chief of which were j 
Syracuse and Agrigentum ; and at a subse- 
quent period it was the scene of an obsti- 
liate and lengthened contest between the 
Carthaginians and Romans, and became j 
the first and most valuable acquisition 
made by the latter beyond the limits of 
Italy. Sicily was believed in antiquity to \ 
have been the native country of corn ; and 1 
agriculture is said to have originated in | 
the island under the auspices of Ceres. 
The Romans remained in possession of 
Sicily until Genseric. king of the Vandals, 
conquered it in the fifth century of our 
era. Belisarius, Justinian's general, drove 
out the Vandals a. d. 535, and it remained 
in the hands of the Greek emperors nearly 
three centuries, when it was taken by the 
Saracens, a.d. 827. 

Sicinius, Dextatus L., a tribune of 
Rome, celebrated for his valour, and the 
honours he obtained in the field of battle 
during the period of forty years in which 
he was engaged in the Roman armies. He 
was present in one hundred and twenty bat- 
tles; obtained fourteen civic crowns; three 
mural crowns; eight crowns of gold; one 
hundred and eighty gold chains (torques); 
one hundred and sixty bracelets (armiHee); 
eighteen spears (hastce puree); twenty-five 
sets of horse-trappings; and all as the re- 
ward of his extraordinaryvalour and services. 
He could show the scars of forty wounds 
which he had received, all in the breast. 
He gave great offence subsequently to 
Appius Claudius the decemvir, by the 
freedom of his remarks relative to the in- 
capacity of the Roman leaders who were 
at that time carrying on war against the 
enemy ; and Appius, pretending to coin- 
cide with him in his views, induced Sicinius 
to go as legatus to the Roman camp near 
Crustumeria. When he had reached the 
camp of his countrymen, the generals pre- 



vailed upon him to take the command ; 
and upon his objecting to the site of their 
camp, as being in their own territory, not 
that of the enemy, they begged him to 
select a new spot for an encampment. A 
body of their partisans, to the number of 
one hundred men, were sent with him 
ostensibly as a guard for his person ; but 
they attacked, and, after a valiant resist- 
ance on his part, slew him on the route, in 
accordance with previous instructions, and 
then brought back word that he had been 
slain by the enemy. The falsehood, how- 
ever, was soon discovered, and the army 
gave Sicinius a splendid burial. 

Sicoris, Segre, a river of Spain, rising 
in the Pyrenees, and running into the 
Iberus, after flowing by the city of Ilerda. 
It divided the territories of the Ilergetae 
from those of the Lacetani. Near it J. 
Ca?sar conquered Afranius and Petreius, 
partisans of Pompey. 

Siculi, an ancient nation, who in very- 
early times dwelt in Latium and about the 
Tiber, and, indeed, upon the site of Rome 
itself. A part of the town of Tibur bore the 
name of Sicelion (Sicelium) in the time of 
Dionysius. They were eventually driven 
out by an indigenous race, highlanders 
of the Apennines, and moving south after 
this dislodgement, subsequently crossed 
over into Sicily, then named Sicania, and 
gave its new and latest appellation to that 
island. 

Siculum fretum, Straits of Messina, 
the straits separating Sicily from Italy, 
j supposed to have been formed by an earth- 
quake, which separated the island from 
I the continent. 

Sicyon, originally called iEgialea and 
! Mecone, an ancient city of Greece, in the 
' territory of Sicyonia, north-west of Corinth. 
■ Homer represents it, together with Achaia, 
i as forming part of the kingdom of Mycenae. 
: Sicyon first emerges into authentic history 
. on the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus 
under Temenus, who divided its population 
into four tribes, named Hyllus, Pamphyli, 
Dymantae, and iEgialus. It continued 
| under the dominion of tyrants for the 
i space of one hundred years ; but at the 
j time of the Peloponnesian war it had been 
! changed to an aristocracy. In that contest 
the Sicyonians, from their Dorian origin, 
naturally espoused the cause of Sparta, 
and the maritime situation of their country 
not unfrequently exposed it to the ravages 
of the naval force of Athens. The subse- 
quent political history of Sicyon is wrapped 
in considerable obscurity till the Mace- 
donian period, and the wars of the Achaean 
league, when it was raised into importance 
a a 5 



538 ♦ SIC 

by Aratus. Sicyon was then celebrated I 
as the first school of painting in Greece ; 
and it is said that the beauty of the ancient 
style had there alone been preserved pure 
and uncorrupted. The ruins of this once 
great and flourishing city are still to be 
seen near the small village of Basilico. 

Sicyonia, the territory of Sicyon, on the 
Sinus Corinthiacus, west of Corinthia, 
from which it was separated by the small 
river Nemea. 

Side, I., a city of Pamphylia, west of 
the river Melas, founded by the Cumaeans 
of iEolis. It surrendered to Alexander 
in his march through Pamphylia, and 
many years after was the scene of a naval 
engagement between the fleet of Antio- 
chus, commanded by Hannibal, and that 
of the Rhodians, in which, after a severe 
contest, the former was defeated. Side 
was still a considerable town under the 
emperors ; and, when a division was made 
of the province into two parts, it became 
the metropolis of Pamphylia Prima. 
Minerva was the deity principally wor- 
shipped here. — II. A town of Pontus, 
east of the mouth of the Thermodon, and 
giving name to the adjacent plain ( Sidene). 
The river Sidin, which flows at the pre- 
sent day in this same quarter, recalls the 
ancient name of the town. 

Sidicinum, or, more correctly, Teanum 
Sidicinum, a town of the Sidicini, in Cam- 
pania. See Teanum. 

Si don, Saide, in Scripture Zidon, a 
powerful city of Phoenicia, celebrated in 
remote antiquity as one of the greatest 
emporiums of the Mediterranean, and as 
being the parent city of Tyre. It is sup- 
posed to have been founded by Sidon, the 
eldest son of Canaan, which will carry up 
its origin to about 2000 years before 
Christ. Sidon is first mentioned in Gen. 
x. 15. 19.; and appears to have arisen 
into importance at a very early period, 
since it is spoken of in Joshua as the 
'* great Zidon." In the division of Pales- 
tine it was allotted to the descendants 
of Asher; but we learn from Judges, i. 31. 
that it never came into the actual posses- 
sion of that tribe. Its inhabitants were 
ant ently eminent in ship-building, and 
were employed by Solomon in the con- 
struction of the Temple, there being, 
among the Jews, none who had " skill to 
hew timber like unto the Sidonians." 
Pliny states that it was also famous for its 
glass manufactures. In its commercial 
importance, it appears, however, to have 
been early eclipsed by Tyre, and after- 
wards generally followed the fortunes of 
that city. Sidon afterwards passed into 



SIL 

! the hands of the Macedonians, and, lastly, 
into those of the Romans. 

Sidoniorum Insula, islands in the 
Persian Gulf, supposed to be the same with 
the Sidodona of Arrian. 

Sid5nis, I., the country of which Sido 
was the capital, at the west of Syria, on 
the coast of the Mediterranean. — II. 
Dido, as a native of the country, called 
Sidonis. 

Smokies Apollinaris, a Latin writer, 
born in the province of Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis, a. d. 42S. He lived on intimate 
terms with Theodoric, king of the Visi- 
goths ; he became the son-in-law of the 
emperor Avitus, whom he praised in a 
panegyric of 600 verses, for which he was 
rewarded by a bronze statue, placed in 
one of the porticoes belonging to Trajan's 
library ; and on the inauguration of the 
emperor Anthemius at Rome, he obtained 
the office of prefect of the city as a reward 
of the panegyric which he pronounced 
upon the occasion. Sidonius was made 
bishop of Arverni a. d. 473, and died 
a. d. 484. 

Siga, Xed-Roina, a maritime city in the 
western part of Numidia, and for some 
time the residence of Syphax. 

Sig^eum, or Sigeum, Cape Janissary, a 
celebrated promontory of Troas, with a 
town of the same name, near the mouth of 
the Scamander. Near it the greatest part 
of the battles between the Greeks and Tro- 
jans were fought, and there Achilles, 
Patroclus, and Antilochus were buried. 
See Rhceteoi. 

Signia, Segni, a town of Latium, south- 
west of Anagnia. It became a Roman 
colony in the reign of Tarquinius Super- 
bus, and maintained its allegiance invio- 
late to Rome. The inhabitants were 
called Signini. Signia was remarkable for 
wine used for medicinal purposes, and for 
a particular mode of flooring with bricks, 
called " Opus Signinum." 

Sila, or Stla, a large forest of fir in 
the country of the Brutii near the Apen- 
nines, abounding with pitch. 

Silanus, the name of a Roman family 
belonging to the plebeian house of the 
Junii. The most remarkable of the name 
were the following : — I. Marcus Silanus, 
who served under Scipio in Spain, b. c. 
207, and subsequently defeated Mago and 
the Celtiberians. He afterwards brought 
to Scipio the auxiliaries from the Spanish 
prince Colcha, and aided him in gaining 
the victory over the Carthaginians. — II. 
Marcus Junius Silanus, was consul b. c. 
109 with Q,. Carcilius Metellus. He ob- 
tained the command of the forces against 



SIL 



SIL 



539 



the Cimbri, but was more than once de- 
feated, and even lost his camp. • — III. D. 
Junius Silanus, son of the preceding, was 
consul elect b. c. 63, gave his opinion in 
favour of punishing the accomplices of Ca- 
tiline, and the following year entered on the 
consular office with L. Licinius Muraena. 
— IV. M. Junius Silanus, son of the pre- 
ceding, served under Caesar as lieutenant 
in Gaul ; but having after his assassina- 
tion attached himself first to the party 
of Lepidus, and afterwards to that of An- 
tony, he was proscribed and his pro- 
perty confiscated. He was however par- 
doned by Augustus, and, returning to 
Rome, became at last on such good terms 
with Augustus, that the latter made him 
his colleague in the consulship., b. c. 25. — 
V. Junius Silanus Creticus, was consul 
a. d. 7, and afterwards proconsul of Syria. 
Tiberius removed him from that province, 
on account of the friendship subsisting be- 
tween him and Germanicus. — VI. M. 
Junius Silanus, a man of great reputation 
and influence, on account of his talents as 
an orator. His daughter Claudia married 
Caligula, and he himself was afterwards 
sent as governor into Spain. The tyrant, 
becoming jealous of him, compelled him 
to destroy himself. — VII. L. Junius Si- 
lanus, praetor a. d. 49, stood so high in the 
favour of the Emperor Claudius that the 
latter intended to give him his daughter 
Octavia in marriage. This, however, was 
prevented by the artful Agrippina, who 
obtained her hand for her own son Nero. 
Various false charges were brought against 
Silanus ; he was expelled from the senate, 
and, in his despair, destroyed himself. : — 
VIII. Turpilius, an officer of Metellus in 
the Jugurthine war. Having been left by 
that commander at the head of the Roman 
garrison in Vacca, and having, through 
want of care, allowed the town to be re- 
taken by the inhabitants, he was tried, and 
condemned to death. Plutarch, however, 
makes the accusation to have been false, 
and Turpilius to have been condemned 
through the agency of Marius. 

Silarus, Silaro, I., a river of Italy se- 
parating Lucania from the territory of the 
Picentini. It takes its rise in that part of 
the Apennines which belonged to the 
Hirpini ; and, after receiving the Tanager, 
now Negri, and the Calor, now Galore, de- 
bouches into the Gulf of Salerno. — II. 
Silaro, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, east of 
Bononia, running into the Padusa, or 
Spinetic branch of the Padus. Its waters 
had the power of petrifying all leaves 
which fell into it. 

Sxleni, a class of deities whose character 



and attributes are not well defined, but 
who appear to be identical with the Satyrs. 
Like the latter, they were represented as 
the lovers of the nymphs, and as attendants 
upon Bacchus, and were called Nysigenas, 
from having been born at Nysa. 

Silentiarius, Paulus, a poet in the 
reign of the emperor Justinian. He was 
the primarius or chief of the Silentiarii, or 
secretaries, at the court of that monarch, 
whence his name. Several of his pro- 
ductions have reached our times. 

Silenus, a Grecian deity, represented as 
having been the guardian and tutor of 
Bacchus in his infancy, and afterwards his 
constant companion. Silenus was repre- 
sented as old, bald, and flat-nosed, riding 
on an ass, usually intoxicated, and carry- 
ing his can (ca?Uharus), or tottering 
along supported by his staff of fennel 
(ferula). The poets usually make him 
the butt and laughing-stock of the attend- 
ants of Bacchus ; but they invest him also 
with the attributes of a poet and a philoso- 
pher. He is variously said to have been 
a son of Pan, of a Naiad, and to have 
sprung from the blood of Uranus. 

Silicis mons, a town near Padua. 

Silis, a river of Venitia in Italy. 

Silius Italicus, C, I., a Latin poet born 
about a. d. 15. He is supposed to have 
been a native of Italica in Spain ; but in 
all probability Italicus was a family name 
given to one of his ancestors residing in 
some province to indicate his Italian 
origin. Silius Italicus applied himself 
with great ardour to the study of eloquence 
and poetry, and acquired great distinction 
at the bar. His predilection for Cicero 
and Virgil led him to purchase two estates 
which had belonged to them, that of Cicero 
at Tusculum, and that of Virgil near 
Naples, on which the poet had been in- 
terred. He is said to have insinuated him- 
self into the favour of Nero by following 
the trade of an informer ; but be this as it 
may, after passing through all the inferior 
offices, he was made consul a. d. 68, the 
year of Nero's death. He enjoyed the 
favour of Vitellius and Vespasian, and 
under the latter he was proconsul of Asia, 
Loaded with honours, and having accumu- 
lated an ample fortune, he retired in his 
old age to Campania, where he devoted 
himself to poetry, philosophy, and the fine 
arts ; but being attacked at the age of 75 
years with an incurable malady, he starved 
himself to death, a. d. 90. His epic poem, 
in seventeen books, on the second Punic 
war, is still extant. 

Sixures, the people of South Wales in 
Britain, occupying the counties of Mere- 
A a 6 



540 



SIL 



SIN 



ford, Monmouth, Radnor, Brecon, and Gla- 
morgan. Their capital was Isca Silurum, 
now Caerleon, on the river Isca or Uske, 
in Glamorganshire. Caractacus was a 
prince of the Silures. 

Silvanus, a deity among the Romans, 
who had the care of fields and cattle, and 
who also presided over boundaries. He 
was usually represented as old, and bear- 
ing a cypress plucked up by the roots ; 
and the legend of Apollo and Cyparissus 
, was transferred to him. The usual offer- 
ing to Silvanus was milk. Cato directs 
prayer to be made to Mars Silvanus for the 
health of the oxen. 

Silvia. See Rhea. 

Silvium, Gorgolione, a town of Apulia, 
so named from the woods in its vicinity. 

Simbrivius, or Simbruvius, a lake of 
Latium, formed by the Anio. 

Simethus, or Symethus, Giaretta, a 
town and river of Sicily, rising in the 
Herasan Mountains, and falling into the 
sea below Catana. In its neighbourhood 
the gods Palici were born. 

Sijimias, I., a native of Rhodes, who 
flourished between the hundred and twen- 
tieth and hundred and seventieth Olym- 
piad, and left a collection of poems, in 
four books, entitled Ai&cpopa Troirj/naTa. — 
II. A Theban philosopher, a disciple of 
Socrates, and the author of twenty-three 
dialogues, which are lost. 

SImois, (entis,) a celebrated river of 
Troas, rising on Mount Ida, and falling 
into the Xanthus. In its neighbourhood 
were fought many battles during the Tro- 
jan war. 

Simon, a currier at Athens, whom So- 
crates often visited on account of his saga- 
city and genius. He collected informa- 
tion from the conversation of the philoso- 
pher, and afterwards published it, with his 
own observations, in thirty-threeDialogues. 

SmoNiDEs, L, a poet of Amorgus (one 
of the Cyclades), who lived about e. c. 
690, and was the author of Iambic verses, 
some of which have come down to us. — 
II. A celebrated poet of Ceos, son of Leo- 
prepes, born at Iulis, b. c. 556. He re- 
moved to Athens, b. c. 525, where he was 
honourably received by Hipparchus, and 
became acquainted with Anacreon and 
Lasus. On the assassination of Hippar- 
chus, he sought refuge in Thessaly ; but 
after the battle of Marathon, b. c. 490, he 
returned to Athens, where he remained till 
the banishment of Themistocles, and the 
death of Pausanias, when he retired to the 
court of Hiero, at Syracuse, where he died 
b. c. 467, in his ninetieth year. Simonides 
wrote elegies, epigrams, and dramatical 



pieces, esteemed for elegance and sweet- 
ness, and composed also epic poems. 
The people of Syracuse erected a magnifi- 
cent monument to his memory. Accord- 
ing to some, he added the letters 77, a, £, ty, 
to the Greek alphabet. Fragments of his 
poetry are extant. It was Simonides that 
gave the celebrated answer, when Hiero, 
of Syracuse, inquired of him concerning 
the nature of God. The poet requested 
one day for deliberating on the subject ; 
and when Hiero repeated his question on 
the morrow, the poet asked for two days. 
As he still went on doubling the number 
of days, and the monarch, lost in wonder, 
asked him why he did so, he replied, 
" Because the longer I reflect on the 
subject the more obscure does it appear to 
me to be." 

SiN^E, I., a people of India, beyond the 
Serus, Menan, supposed to have occupied 
Cochin- China. — II. Another nation, east 
of Serica, probably settled in Shensi, the 
most westerly province of China, in which 
was a kingdom called Tsin, from which 
they probably obtained their name. 

Sindi, a people of Asiatic Sarmatia, be- 
low the Cimmerian Bosphorus, and oppo- 
site the Tauric Chersonese. 

Singara, Sinjar, a strongly fortified 
city at the north of Mesopotamia, on the 
Mygdonius. 

Singus, a town of Macedonia, on the 
promontory of Sithoma, giving name to 
the Sinus Singiticus, Gulf of Monte Santo. 

Sinon, son of Sisyphus, who accom- 
panied the Greeks to the Trojan war 
When the Greeks had fabricated the 
wooden horse, he went to Troy with his 
hands bound behind his back, and by 
solemn protestations assured Priam that 
his countrymen were gone from Asia, and 
had been ordered to sacrifice one of their 
soldiers to render the wind favourable to 
their return, and because the lot had fallen 
on him, he had fled away from their camp, 
not to be cruelly immolated. These as- 
sertions being credited by the Trojans, 
Sinon advised Priam to bring into his city 
the wooden horse which the Greeks had 
left behind them, and consecrate it to 
Minerva. His advice was followed, and 
Sinon in the night opened the side of the 
horse, from which issued a number of 
armed Greeks, who surprised the Trojans, 
and pillaged their city. 

Sinope, I., a daughter of the Asopus, 
by Methone. She was beloved by Apollo, 
who carried her away to the borders of the 
Euxine Sea, where she gave birth to a son 
called Syrus. — II. Sisoub, a city on the 
eastern coast of Paphlagonia, said to have 



SIN 

been founded by a colony of Milesians, 
under Autolycus, a companion of Jason. 
It was built upon a peninsula, and was for 
many centuries one of the most nourishing 
commercial towns in the Euxine. The 
soil in the neighbourhood was very fertile ; 
and the inhabitants were accustomed to 
catch, off the coasts, great numbers of 
pelamydes, a species of tunny fish. Si- 
nope maintained its independence till the 
second century before the Christian era, 
when it was taken by Pharnaces I., king 
of Pontus, and annexed to the kingdom of 
Pontus. Mithridates the Great, who was 
born there, made it the capital of his do- 
minions, and adorned it with many public 
buildings. During the war which he 
carried on with the Romans it was taken 
by Lucullus. It was subsequently made 
a Roman colony. Diogenes, the Cynic, 
was born in this town. 

Sinti, a Thracian community, who were 
said to have originally occupied the 
island of Lemnos, whence they removed 
to a district' on the banks of the Strymon, 
north of the Siropasones. On the con- 
quest of Macedonia by the Romans, the 
Sinti, who then formed part of that em- 
pire, were included in the first region, 
together with the Bisaltag. 

Sinuessa, a town of Campania, south-east 
of Minturna?, and the mouth of the Liris, 
said to have been founded on the ruins of 
Sinope, an ancient Greek city. It derived 
its name from the sinuosity of the coast, 
which at this place formed a small gulf ; 
and was celebrated for hot baths and mineral 
waters. Sinuessa was colonised together 
with Minturna? a. u. c. 456, and ranked 
also among the maritime cities of Italy. 
Its territory suffered considerable devasta- 
tion from Hannibal's troops when opposed 
to Fabius. 

Sion, one of the hills on which Jerusa- 
lem was built. See Hierosolyma. 

Siphnos, an island in the iEgean Sea, 
one of the Cyclades, south-east of Seriphus, 
and north-east of Melos, colonised by the 
Ionians. It was famous for gold and silver 
mines. In the age of Polycrates its 
revenue, which surpassed that of all the 
other Cyclades, enabled its inhabitants 
to erect a treasury at Delphi equal to 
those of the most opulent cities ; and its 
principal buildings were sumptuously 
decorated with Parian marble. It after- 
wards sustained a heavy loss from a de- 
scent of the Samians, who levied upon it a 
contribution of 100 talents, and in the time 
of Strabo it had sunk into insignificance. 

Sipontum, a maritime city of Apulia, in 
the district of Daunia, south-west of the 



SIR 541 

promontory of Garganus, said to have been 
founded by Diomede. Little is known 
of the history of Sipontum before its name 
appears in the annals of Rome. It was 
occupied by Alexander, king of Epirus, 
when he was invited into Italy to aid the 
Tarentines against the Brutii and Lucani. 
a. u. c. 558 a colony was sent to Sipon- 
tum ; but it does not appear to have pros- 
pered ; for after the lapse of a few years, 
it was found necessary to send thither a 
fresh supply of colonists. The ruins of 
Sipontum are said to exist about two miles 
west of Manfredonia. 

Sipylus, I., a mountain in Lydia, rising 
south of Magnesia, and separated by a 
small valley from the chain of Tmolus 
to the south-east. Sipylus is celebrated in 
Grecian mythology as the residence of 
Tantalus and Niobe. — II. A city of Ly- 
dia, situate on the slope of Mount Sipylus, 
swallowed up at an early period by an 
earthquake, and plunged into a erater 
afterwards filled by a lake. 

Sirenes (Gr. Se/p^ey ; probably from 
creipa, a chain, to signify their attractive 
power), melodious divinities, who dwelt 
on the shores of Sicily, and so charmed 
passing mariners by the sweetness of their 
song that they forgot their homes, and re- 
mained there till they perished of hunger. 
Their history has been variously described. 
According to Homer in the Odyssey, as 
Ulysses and his companions were on their 
homeward voyage from iEaca, they came 
first to the island of the Sirens ; but they 
passed in safety ; for, by the directions of 
Circe, Ulysses stopped the ears of his com- 
panions with wax, and had himself tied to 
the mast before approaching the island ; 
so that, although when he heard the song 
of the Sirens he made signs for his com- 
panions to unbind him, they only secured 
him the more closely in compliance with 
his previous instructions. Thus he listen- 
ed to the songs of the Sirens, and escaped 
notwithstanding. Hence it was feigned 
that they threw themselves into the sea 
from vexation at the escape of Ulysses, an 
oracle having predicted that they should 
live only so long as their strains had power 
to arrest all who heard them. But ac- 
cording to other poets they threw them- 
selves into the sea from rage and despair, 
on hearing the more melodious song of 
Orpheus. Originally there were only two 
Sirens; but their number was afterwards 
increased to three, and their names are 
given with great variety. 

Sirenus^e, three small rocky islands near 
the coast of Campania, where the Sirens 
were supposed to reside. 



542 



SIR 



SIV 



Siris, a city of Lucarria, on the Sinus 
Tarentinus, at the mouth of a cognorainal 
river, now the Sinno, said to have been 
founded by a Trojan colony, which was 
afterwards expelled by some Ionians, who 
migrated from Colophon under the reign 
of Alyattes, king of Lydia ; and who, 
having taken the town by force, changed 
its name to that of Polioeum. The inha- 
bitants of Siris rivalled the luxury and 
affluence of the Sybarites ; but about b. c. 
500 the city was almost destroyed in 
a war with Metapontum and Sybaris ; and 
when the Tarentines settled at Heraclea 
they removed all the Sirites to the new 
town, of which Siris became the harbour. 

Sirius, or Canicula, the dog-star, whose 
appearance caused great heat on the earth. 
See Caniculares Dies. 

Sirmio, Sirmione, a peninsula on the 
shores of the Lacus Benacus (Lago di 
Garda), and the favourite residence of the 
poet Catullus. 

Sirmium, an important city of Pannonia 
Inferior, on the northern side of the Saa- 
vus or Save, between Ulmi and Bassiana. 
Under the Roman sway it was the metro- 
polis of Pannonia. The ruins of Sirmium 
may be seen at the present day near the 
town of Mitrowitz. 

SisXro, a village of Hispania, in the 
northern part of Baetica, supposed to an- 
swer to Alma-den, on the south-western 
limits of La Mancha. The territory around 
Sisapo not only yielded silver, but excel- 
lent cinnabar ; and even at the present day 
large quantities of quicksilver are still ob- 
tained from the mines at Almaden. 

Sisenna, L., a Roman historian, the 
friend of Pomponius Atticus. He wrote 
a history, from the taking of Rome by the 
Gauls down to the wars of Sylla, of which 
some fragments are quoted in different 
authors. 

Sisigambis or Sisygambis, the mother 
of Darius, the last king of Persia. She 
was taken prisoner by Alexander the Great, 
at the battle of Issus, with the rest of the 
royal family. The conqueror treated her 
with the greatest kindness and attention, 
saluted her with the title of mother, and 
often granted to her intercession what he 
had sternly denied to his favourites and 
ministers. On the death of Alexander, a 
most touching tribute to his memory was 
offered by Sisygambis. She who had sur- 
vived the massacre of her eighty brothers, 
who had been put to death in one day by 
Ochus, the loss of all her children, and the 
entire downfal of her house, now, on the 
decease of the enemy and conqueror of her 
line, seated herself on the ground, covered 



her head with a veil, and, notwithstanding 
the entreaties of her grandchildren, refused 
nourishment, until, on the fifth day after, 
she expired. 

Sisyfhus, I., in ancient mythology one of 
the descendants of iEolus, respecting whom 
a variety of opinions prevails. By some 
he is said to have resided at Epyra in the 
Peloponnesus ; others maintain that he was 
a Trojan prince, who was punished for be- 
traying state secrets ; while others allege 
that he was a notorious robber, slain by 
Theseus. Be this as it may, all the an- 
cient poets are agreed that he was distin- 
guished for his craftiness and cunning ; 
and that his punishment in Tartarus for 
his crimes committed on earth consisted 
in rolling a huge stone to the top of a high 
hill, which constantly recoiled, and thus 
rendered his labour incessant. The term 
Sisyphus is supposed to be derived from 
Gr. (xi(TO(pos {by a common duplication for 
cro<pos, wise), and to signify over wise. — 
II. A dwarf of M. Antony, who was 
under two feet in height, but extremely 
shrewd and acute, whence he obtained the 
name of Sisyphus, in allusion to the cunning 
and dexterous chieftain of fabulous times. 

Sithonia, the central of the three pro- 
montories which lie at the extremity of 
Chalcidice, a province of Macedonia, the 
other two being Mount Athos and Pallene. 
As Chalcidice was originally a part of 
Thrace, the term Sithonia is often used by 
the poets to express the whole of Thrace 
and the north of Macedonia. 

Sitones, a German tribe in Scandinavia, 
separated by the range of Mount Sevo 
from the Suiones. 

Sittius, P., a Roman knight, a native 
of Nuceria, and hence called Nucerinus by 
Sallust. Having been prosecuted a short 
time before the discovery of Catiline's con- 
spiracy, he fled from trial, and, being 
accompanied by a body of followers, betook 
himself to Africa, where he proved of ser- 
vice to Julius Caesar, against Scipio and 
Juba, and received the city of Cirta as his 
reward. 

Siva, in Hindoo mythology, a title given 
to the Supreme Being, considered in the 
character of the avenger or destroyer. Sir 
William Jones has compared Siva to 
Jupiter ; but he appears to share many of 
the attributes of Pluto. Under the name 
of Mahadeva, he is exhibited also as a type 
of reproduction : to destroy, according to 
the Vedantes of India, the Sufis of Persia, 
and even to many European schools of 
philosophy, being only to generate or re- 
produce under another form. 

Slavi, an ancient and powerful tribe of 



SMA 



soc 



543 



Sarmatia, stretching from the Dniester to 
the Tanai's, and called also by the name of 
Antes. Having united with the Yenedi, 
thev moved onward towards Germany and 
the Danube, and became engaged in war 
with the Franks that dwelt north of the 
Rhine. In the reign of Justinian they 
crossed the Danube, invaded Dalmatia, 
and finally settled in the surrounding ter- 
ritories, especially in what is now called 
Slaconia. As belonging to them were 
reckoned the Bohemani or Bohemi (Bohe- 
mians) ; the Maharenses ; the Sorabi, be- 
tween the Elbe and Saale ; the Silesii, 
Poloni, Cassubii, Rugii. iltc. Among the 
descendants of the Slavonic race may be 
enumerated the Bassians, Poles, Bohemi- 
ans, Moravians. Corinthians. Sec. 

Smaragdus Moxs. Z ubara {'SudpaySos 
opos), a mountain of Egypt, north of Bere- 
nice, where emeralds (smaragdi) were dug. 

Smerdis. son of Cyrus, put to death In- 
order of his brother Cambyses. As his 
execution was known only to one of the 
officers of the monarch, one of the Magi 
of Persia, named Smerdis, who greatly 
resembled the deceased prince, declared 
himself king at the death of Cambyses. 
This usurpation would not perhaps have 
been known, had he not taken too many 
precautions to conceal it. The conspiracy 
ensued which ended with the death of 
Smerdis, and the elevation of Darius, son 
of Hystaspes. to the vacant throne. 

Smilax, a beautiful shepherdess, ena- 
moured of Crocus, together with whom 
she was changed into a flower. 

Smixthecs (two syllables), one of the 
surnames of Apollo. He was worshipped 
under this name in the city of Chrysa, 
where he also had a temple called Smin- 
thium. There were other temples of the 
same name in JEolis, Rhodes, and else- 
where. The names Smintheus and Smin- 
thium are said to have been derived from 
the term a/xlrOos, which in the .JEolic dia- 
lect signifies field-mouse ; and hence 
Apollo Smintheus was adored as the de- 
stroyer of an animal so injurious to the 
husbandman, which is confirmed by the 
fact that his statue was represented with 
one foot on a mouse. 

Smyrna, a celebrated city of Asia 
Minor, on the coast of Ionia, said to have 
been originally built by a colony from 
Ephesus. After undergoing various vi- 
cissitudes, it was destroyed by Alyattes, 
king of Lydia, the inhabitants being dis- 
persed among the surrounding villages. 
After the lapse of about 400 years, a pro- 
ject for reconstructing the city would ap- 
pear to have been entertained by Alexander 



the Great ; but, if so, it was not carried 
into effect by that conqueror, but by Anti- 
gonus and Lysimaehus. The city built by 
them was not, however, on the site of the 
old city, which stood on the flat shore ou 
the other side of the Meles, about 2^ miles 
north-east from the modern city. The 
admirable port and other advantages en- 
joyed by the newly built city rendered it 
in a short time one of the most populous, 
wealthy, and handsome of the Asiatic 
cities. " It is," says Strabo, " the finest 
city of Asia. Part of it is built on a hill ; 
but the finest edifices are on the plain not 
far from the sea. over against the temple 
of Cybele. The streets are the most beau- 
tiful that can be, straight, wide, and paved 
with freestone. It has many stately 
buildings, magnificent porticoes, majes- 
tic temples, a public library, and a con- 
venient harbour, which may be shut at 
pleasure." Under the Romans Smyrna 
enjoyed the greatest consideration; and 
ATarcus Aurelius rebuilt the city, after it 

| had been almost destroyed by an earth- 
quake. It was much frequented by the 
Sophists; and, along with Ephesus, became 

• renowned as a school of oratory and sei- 

: ence. Smyrna was one of the many places 

! that laid claim to being the birth-place of 
Homer, and it enjoyed, perhaps, the best 

: title of all to this distinguished honour. 
In commemoration of the bard, a beautiful 
square structure was erected, called Ho- 
merion, in which his statue was placed. 
The Smyraeans also showed a cave, where 
it was said that Homer composed his 
works. Smyrna was also one of the seven 
churches mentioned in the Revelations. 

■ It is now called Ismir, and by the "Western 
nations Smyrna, and is the great mart of 
the Levant trade. 

Socrates, the most celebrated philoso- 

! pher of antiquity, was born at Alopece, a 
village near Athens, b. c. 469. His father, 
Sophroniscus. was a statuary ; his mother, 
Phamarete. a midwife. Sophroniscus 

: brought up his son in his own manual em- 
ployment ; and it would appear that So- 

\ crates attained some skill in his occupation, 

| for while he was a young man, he is 

| said to have made statues of the Graces, 
which were allowed a place in the cita- 
del of Athens. Upon the death of his 
father he was left with so small an inherit- 

'■ ance that he was under the necessity of 
supporting himself by labour, and he con- 
tinued to practise the art of statuary in 

: Athens ; at the same time, however, de- 
voting all the leisure he could command 
to the study of philosophy. Cri to, a 
wealthy Athenian, remarking the strong 



544 



soc 



soc 



propensity to study which this young man 
discovered, and admiring his ingenuous 
disposition and distinguished abilities, in- 
trusted him with the instruction of his chil- 
dren ; and Socrates availed himself of this 
opportunity of attending the public lectures 
of the most eminent philosophers of the 
time, Anaxagoras and Archelaus. Under 
these instructors he diligently prosecuted 
the study of nature, and became well 
acquainted with Prodicus, Evenus, Theo- 
dorus, and Damon. Aspasia, a woman no 
less celebrated for her intellectual than 
her personal accomplishments, whose house 
was frequented by the most celebrated cha- 
racters of the day, had also some share in 
the education of Socrates. With these 
endowments, both natural and acquired, 
Socrates appeared in Athens under the 
respectable characters of a good citizen and 
a true philosopher. Being called upon by 
his country to take up arms in the long 
and severe struggle between Athens and 
Sparta, he signalised himself at the siege 
of Potidasa both by his valour and the 
hardihood with which he endured fatigue. 
During the severity of a Thracian winter, 
while others were clad in furs, he wore 
only his usual clothing, and walked bare- 
foot upon the ice. In an engagement, 
near Potidasa, seeing Alcibiades, whom 
he accompanied during this expedition, 
falling down wounded, he advanced to 
defend him, saved his life, and then, 
with the utmost generosity, entreated the 
judges to give the prize of valour, although 
justly his own due, to the young Alci- 
biades. Several years afterwards, Socrates 
voluntarily entered upon a military expe- 
dition against the Boeotians, and fought 
for his country in the disastrous battle of 
Delium. During the engagement he was 
indebted for his preservation to Alcibiades ; 
and afterwards, observing Xenophon lying 
wounded on the ground, he bore him from 
the field on his shoulder, fighting his 
way as he went. Soon afterwards he 
went out a third time, in a military capa- 
city, in the expedition for the purpose of 
reducing Amphipolis ; but this proving 
unsuccessful, he returned to Athens, where 
he remained until his death. When sixty 
years of age he became one of the senate of 
500 ; and distinguished himself by the 
boldness and fearlessness with which he 
performed his duties. But his character 
appears more conspicuous as a philosopher 
and moralist, than as a warrior or a states- 
man ; and the moral improvement of his 
fellow-men was the end and aim of his 
exertions. He had no particular place for 
delivering lectures, but was present every- 



where, and drew the attention of his audit- 
ors in the groves of Academus, or the 
Lyceum, or on the banks of the llyssus. 
His method of teaching was by proposing 
to his hearers a series of questions in such 
a manner as to produce in their minds a 
conviction of the truth of the proposition 
originally advanced ; a mode of argument 
ever since termed Socfatic. He spoke with 
freedom on every subject, religious as well 
as civil. He maintained the existence of 
one Supreme Intelligence, whose provi- 
dence is over all his works ; and he was 
equally clear in the existence of a future 
state. His system of morals corresponded 
with these principles ; and his invariable 
maxim was, that virtue and wisdom are 
inseparable. But his virtuous life, his 
principles of morality, his belief in the ex- 
istence of a Supreme Ruler of the universe, 
and of the immortality of the soul, found 
as many enemies as disciples ; and under 
the government of the Thirty Tyrants Me- 
litus, Anytus, and Lycon accused him be- 
fore the council of 500 of corrupting the 
youth, of despising the gods, and of en- 
deavouring to introduce new divinities. 
The minds of the populace being easily 
inflamed by a misrepresentation of his 
doctrines, he was condemned to drink 
hemlock. His death did not belie his 
principles. The solemn celebration of the 
Delian festivals prevented his execution 
for thirty days. During that time he was 
confined in prison, loaded with irons ; his 
friends, and particularly his disciples, were 
his constant attendants. With great com- 
posure he spent his last days, inculcating 
on his pupils the doctrine of the immor- 
tality of the soul, reprobating the custom 
of suicide, and disregarding the interces- 
sion of his friends. When the hour to 
drink the poison was come, the executioner 
presented him the cup with tears in his 
eyes. Socrates received it with compo- 
sure, made a libation to the gods, drank it 
with an unaltered countenance, and expired 
a few moments after. A short time after- 
wards the Athenians repented of their 
injustice, and, by way of atonement, con- 
demned Melitus to death and the others 
to banishment. A bronze statue, by the 
celebrated Lysippus, was raised to his 
honour, and a temple to his memory. 
His actions, conversations, and opinions 
have been transmitted to us by the 
two most distinguished of his disciples, 
Xenophon and Plato. — II. Surnamed 
Scholasticus, an ecclesiastical historian, 
born at Constantinople about the middle 
of the fifth century. He was a pupil of 
the grammarians Ammonius and Hella- 



SOE 

dius, and wrote an ecclesiastical history in 
seven books, from 306 to 439 a. d. 

Scemias or So^emis, Julia, mother of i 
the emperor Heliogabalus, and president | 
of a senate of women, which she had ap- 
pointed to decide the quarrels and affairs 
of the Roman matrons. Having at -last 
provoked the people by her extravagance, 
debaucheries, and cruelties, she was mur- 
dered with her son and family. 

Sogdiana, a country of Upper Asia, be- 
tween the Jaxartes and Oxus, lying to the 
west of Scythia ad Imaum, from which it 
is separated by the range of Imaus. It is 
bounded on the north by the Jaxartes, and 
on the south by the Oxus, and appears to 
correspond at the present day to northern 
Bucharest, the country of the Usbeck Tar- 
tars, a part of the country of Pelur and of 
Little Thibet. In the middle ages, Sogdi- 
ana became famous, under the Arabic 
name of Soghd, for its great fertility, 
and was represented as a country eight 
days' journey in length, full of gardens, 
groves, corn-fields, &c. Marcanda, the ca- 
pital of the country, answers to the modern 
Samareand. 

Sogdianus, a son of Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus, who murdered his brother Xerxes 
to make himself master of the Persian 
throne. He was dethroned, however, in 
his turn by Ochus, after a reign of only 
six months and fifteen days, and was suffo- 
cated in ashes according to the Persian 
custom. 

Sol (the Sun), an object of veneration 
among the ancients ; particularly wor- 
shipped by the Persians under the name 
of Mithras. Apollo, and Phcebus and 
Sol, are generally supposed to be the 
same deity. 

Solicinium, Sultz, a town of Germany, 
on the Neckar. 

Solinus, C. Julius, a grammarian of 
the third century, who compiled from the 
natural history of Pliny a collection of 
historical remarks and geographical anno- 
tations, entitled Polyhistor. 

So lis Fons. See Fons So lis. 

SoLOEor Soli, I., Solea, a town of Cyprus, 
built on the borders of the Clarius by an 
Athenian colony. It was originally called 
JEpeia; but Solon having advised Philo- 
cyprus, one of the princes of the island, 
to change the situation of his capital, a 
new town was raised, and called after the 
name of the philosopher. — II. Mezetin, a 
maritime city of Cilicia Campestris, built 
by the Greeks and Rhodians. It suf- 
fered severely from Tigranes, king of Ar- 
menia, who carried its inhabitants to 
Tigranocerta, his Armenian capital, in 



SOL 543 

order to introduce there European culture. 
Pompey found Soloe nearly desolate in 
his visit to these parts during the war with 
the pirates ; and having established here 
the remainder of the latter after they were 
conquered, it was henceforward known by 
the name of Pompeiopolis. This city was 
the birth-place of Chrysippus, Menander, 
and Aratus. Some suppose that the Greeks, 
who settled in either of these two cities, 
forgot the purity of their native language, 
and thence arose the term Solecismus, " an 
inelegant or improper expression." 

Solceis or Soloentia, Cape Cantin, a 
promontory of Libya at the extremity of 
Mount Atlas. 

Solon, a celebrated Athenian lawgiver, 
and considered one of the seven wise men 
of Greece, was born in the island of Salamis 
about b. c. 638. He was the son of Eu- 
phorion, or Exechestides, and one of the 
descendants of Codrus. Inheriting but a 
small patrimony, he had recourse to com- 
merce to better his circumstances, and with 
this view, or, according to others, to gra- 
tify his thirst for knowledge, he travelled 
over the greatest part of Greece, and vi- 
sited many other countries. On his return, 
finding his countrymen embroiled in in- 
ternal dissensions, and humiliated with the 
sense of recent losses and defeats, he 
placed himself at their head, and having 
made use of a stratagem to rouse them 
from their lethargy, led them against the 
Megarians, and recovered the island of 
Salamis. Being chosen archon by accla- 
mation, b. c. 594, he applied himself to 
the task of improving the condition of his 
countrymen. He abolished most of the 
cruel laws of Draco, and formed a new 
constitution, founded on the principle that 
the supreme power resided with the people. 
After he had made the most salutary regu- 
lations in the state, and bound the Athe- 
nians by a solemn oath that they would 
faithfully observe his laws for 100 years, 
he resigned the office of legislator, and re- 
moved from Athens, visited Egypt, and 
in the court of Croesus, king of Lydia, 
convinced the monarch of the instability 
of fortune. (See Crcesus. ) After an 
absence of twenty years, he returned to 
Athens, but finding the greatest part of 
his regulations disregarded by the factious 
spirit of his countrymen, and his own 
kinsman Pisistratus aiming at the sove- 
reignty, he retired to Cyprus, where he 
died at the court of Philocyprus, in his 
eighty-first year, b. c. 558. His laws were 
engraved on several tables, and, that they 
might be the better known, and more fa- 
miliar to the Athenians, written in verse. 



546 



SOL 



SOS 



Solymi, a people of Lycia, of whom 
an account is given under the head of 
Lycia, 

Somstus, son of Erebus and Nox, one 
of the deities of the lower world, and the 
god of sleep. Ovid, probably following 
some Grecian predecessor, as was usually 
the case, gives a beautiful description of 
the Cave of Sleep, near the land of the 
Cimmerians, and of the cortege which 
there attended on him, as Morpheus, Icelos 
or Phobeter, and Phantasos ; the first of 
whom takes the form of man to appear 
in dreams, the second of animals, the third 
of inanimate objects. 

Sonus, Son, a river of India, falling 
into the Ganges. 

Sophene, Zoph, a country of Armenia, 
between the principal stream of the Eu- 
phrates and Mount Masius. 

Sophocles, a celebrated Tragic poet, 
born at Colonus, a village little more than 
a mile from Athens, b. c. 495, being thirty 
years junior to iEschylus, and fifteen se- 
nior to Euripides, with both of whom he 
had frequent contests for the prize. So- 
philus, his father, a man of opulence and 
respectability, bestowed upon his son a 
careful education in all the literary and 
personal accomplishments of his age and 
country. The commencement of his dra- 
matic career was marked not more by its 
success than by the occasion on which his 
first tragedy appeared. The bones of The- 
seus having been solemnly transferred by 
Cimon from Scyros to Athens, b.c. 468, an 
eager contest between the tragedians of the 
day ensued ; and Sophocles, then in his 
twenty-seventh year, was proclaimed victor, 
though he had JEschylus for a rival. From 
this event, b. c. 468, to his death, b. c. 405, 
during a space of three-and-sixty years, he 
continued to compose and exhibit. Twenty 
times did he obtain the first prize, still 
more frequently the second, and never 
sank to the third. The life of Sophocles, 
however, was not altogether devoted to 
the service of the Muses. He commanded 
the Athenian armies in several battles, 
shared the supreme command with Peri- 
cles, and exercised the office of archon 
with credit and honour. Sophocles was 
not fortunate in his domestic relations. 
His eldest son, wishing to become imme- 
diate master of his father's possessions, 
and tired of his long life, accused him, 
before the Areopagus, of insanity ; but 
he was acquitted, amid every manifestation 
of popular sympathy, and his son covered 
with shame and confusion. He died in 
the year 405 b. c, some months before 
the defeat of /Egospotamos put the finish- 



ing stroke to the misfortunes of Athens. 
The accounts of his death are very diverse, 
all tending to the marvellous. ]ster and 
Neanthes state that he was choked by a 
grape ; Satyrus makes him to have expired 
from excessive exertion, in reading aloud 
a long paragraph out of the Antigone ; 
others ascribe his death to extreme joy at 
being proclaimed the Tragic victor. Of 
his numerous dramas, seven only have 
been preserved ; but these form one of the 
proudest monuments of Athenian genius. 
From the sweetness and harmony of his 
periods he was called by the ancients the 
Attic Bee. 

Sophonisba, a daughter of Hasdrubal 
the Carthaginian, celebrated for her beauty. 
She married Syphax, prince of Numidia ; 
but when her husband was conquered by 
the Romans, she fell a captive into the 
hands of Masinissa, who, having known 
her in infancy, married her. Scipio, who 
at that time had the command of the 
armies of the republic in Africa, desired 
the monarch to part with Sophonisba, — 
an arduous task for Masinissa ; yet, dread- 
ing the Romans, he entered Sophonisba's 
tent, and told her that, as he could not 
deliver her from captivity, and the jealousy 
of the Romans, he recommended her to 
die like the daughter of Hasdrubal. She 
obeyed, and drank the poison Masinissa 
sent to her, about b. c. 203. 

Sophron, a native of Syracuse, born 
about b. c. 420, and celebrated as a writer 
of mimes. His pieces were great favour- 
ites with Plato. 

Sophroniscus, the father of Socrates. 

Soracte, Monte Santo Silvestro, a moun- 
tain of Etruria, a little south-east of Falerii. 
On the summit were a temple and grove 
dedicated to Apollo, to whom an annual 
sacrifice was offered by a people of the 
country, called Hirpii, who were on that 
account held sacred, and exempted from 
military service and other duties. The 
sacrifice consisted in their passing over 
heaps of red-hot embers without being in- 
jured by the fire. A remarkable fountain 
the exhalations of which were fatal to birds, 
is mentioned as existing in the vicinity of 
this mountain. 

Sosigenes, an Egyptian mathematician, 
who assisted J. Cassar in regulating the 
Roman calendar. 

Sosn, celebrated booksellers at Rome, in 
the age of Horace. 

Sosipater, I., a grammarian in the reign 
of Honorius. — II. A Syracusan magis- 
trate. — III. A general of Philip, king of 
Macedonia. 

Sosistratus, a tyrant of Syracuse, in the 



SOS 



SPH 



547 



age of Agathocles. He invited Pyrrhus 
into Sicily, but afterwards revolted from 
him, and was at last removed by Hermo- 
crates. 

Sosius, a Roman of consular dignity, to 
whom Plutarch dedicated his Lives. 

Sostratus, I., a grammarian in the age 
of Augustus. He was Strabo's preceptor. 
— II. An architect of Cnidus, b. c. 284, 
who built the tower of Pharos, in the Bay 
of Alexandria. — III. A poet who wrote 
a poem on the expedition of Xerxes into 
Greece. 

Sotades, I., an Athenian poet of the 
middle comedy. — II. Called Cincedus, a 
Greek poet of Thrace, who wrote verses 
against Ptol. Philadelphus, for which he 
was thrown into the sea in a cage of lead. 

Soter, a surname of the first Ptolemy, 
but common also to other monarchs. 

Sothis, an Egyptian name of the con- 
stellation Sirius, which received divine 
honours in that country. 

Sotiates, a people of Gaul, conquered by 
Cassar. Their country, which formed part 
of Aquitania, extended along the Garumna, 
Garonne ; and some traces of their capital, 
Sotiatum, are still to be found at Sos. 

Sotion, a grammarian of Alexandria, 
preceptor of Seneca, b. c. 204. 

Sozomen, an ecclesiastical historian, 
born, according to some, at Salamis, in the 
island of Cyprus ; according to others, at 
Gaza or Bethulia, in Palestine. He died 
a. d. 450. His history extends from A. d. 
324 to a. d. 439. 

Sparta. See Laced^mon. 

Spartacus, a celebrated gladiator, a 
Thracian by birth, who escaped from the 
gladiatorial training-school at Capua along 
with some of his companions, and was 
soon followed by great numbers of other 
gladiators. Bands of desperate men, 
slaves, murderers, robbers, and pirates, 
flocked to him from all quarters ; and he 
soon found himself at the head of a force 
able to bid defiance to Rome. Four con- 
sular armies were successively defeated by 
this daring adventurer, and Rome itself 
was considered in imminent danger. But 
he was at last met and defeated by Crassus, 
and fell with 40,000 of his followers, 
B, c. 71. 

Spartani or S parti at^, the inhabitants 
of Sparta. 

Sparti (^rrapToi), a name given to the 
men who sprang from the dragon's teeth 
which Cadmus sowed. They all destroyed 
one another except five, who assisted Cad- 
mus in building Thebes. Their names are 
Chthonius, Udaeus, Pelorus, Hyperenor, 
and Echion. 



Spartianus, iExius, a Latin historian, 
in the reign of Dioclesian, who wrote the 
lives of all the Roman emperors, from J. 
Cassar to Diocletian, published among the 
" Scriptores Historias Augustas." 

Sperchius, Hellada, a river of Thessaly, 
rising on Mount Tymphrestus, and falling 
into the sea in the Bay of Malia, near An- 
ticyra ; supposed to be named from its 
rapidity (o-7repx€(r6ai). Peleus vowed to 
the god of this river the hair of his son 
Achilles, if ever he returned safe from the 
Trojan war. 

Spermatophagi, a people who lived in 
the extreme parts of Egypt, and fed on 
fruits. 

Speusippus, an Athenian philosopher, son 
of Eurymedon and Potone, and nephew, 
as also successor, of Plato. He pre- 
sided in Plato's school for eight years, but 
disgraced himself by extravagance and de- 
bauchery. He is said to have committed 
suicide, b. c. 339. 

Sphacteria, Sphagia, an island off the 
coast of Messenia, at the entrance of the 
harbour of Pylos Messeniacus ; memorable 
for the capture of many of the noblest 
Lacedaemonians during the Peloponnesian 
war. 

Sphinx, a fabled monster, half woman 
and half lion, said by the Grecian poets to 
have infested the city of Thebes, devour- 
ing its inhabitants till such time as a riddle 
it had proposed to them should be solved. 
The riddle was as follows : " What animal 
is that which goes on four feet in the 
morning, on two at noon, and on three ai 
evening?" Numerous victims fell before 
the monster, till at length QEdipus, who 
was then at Thebes, came forward, and 
answered the sphinx that it was Man ; — 
who, when an infant, creeps on all fours ; 
when he has attained to manhood, goes on 
two feet ; and, when old, uses a staff — a 
third foot. The sphinx thereupon flung 
herself down to the earth, and perished ; 
and CEdipus was, by the gratitude of the 
Thebans, chosen their king. The Grecian 
sphinx was probably borrowed from Egypt, 
where the enormous figure, now half 
buried in the sand, was probably the ar- 
chetype of the more elegant monster of 
Greece. This figure which is close to the 
pyramids of Ghizeh, was disinterred by 
the late M. Belzoni, but has been again 
nearly covered. It has been said (on the 
authority of Pliny) that the sphinx repre- 
sented the Nile in a state of flood ; that 
event regularly occurring under the signs 
of the Virgin and Lion. But others con- 
tend that the original Egyptian sphinx 
was. male (Andro-sphinx), like the speci- 



548 



SPH 



STA 



men described by Herodotus, book ii. But 
the greater part of the enormous number 
around the temples of Luxor (1500 in a 
single avenue) are said to be female. 
Sphinxes are also represented with the 
heads of rams and hawks (Crio-sphinx, 
Hieraco-sphinx). The Egyptian sphinx 
had no wings ; these appendages were 
added by the Greek artists. 

Sphragidium, a cave on Mt. Cithaeron in 
Boeotia ; the nymphs who frequented it 
were called Sphragitides. 

Spina, a city of Gallia Cisalpina, near 
the entrance of the most southern branch 
of the Padus, called from it Ostium Spine- 
ticum, and founded by a numerous band 
of Pelasgi, who arrived on this coast from 
Epirus long before the Trojan war. It 
attained to great commercial prosperity ; 
but in the time of Strabo had sunk to a 
mere village. 

Spintharus, a Corinthian architect, who 
built a new temple at Delphi after the 
conflagration of the old one, b. c. 544. 

Spoletium, a city of Umbria, north-east 
of Interamna, in the south-western sec- 
tion of the country. It was colonised 
a. u. c. 512, and is famous in history for 
having withstood an attack from Hannibal 
after the battle of Thrasymene. This 
city suffered severely in the civil wars of 
Marius and Sylla from proscription. ^ The 
modern name is Spoleto. 

Sporades, a name given by the Greeks 
to the numerous islands scattered (cnreipw, 
to scatter) around the Cyclades,with which, 
in fact, several of them are intermixed, and 
those also which lay towards Crete and 
the coast of Asia Minor. 

Spurinna, an astrologer, who told Cassar 
to beware the Ides of March. As he went 
to the senate-house on the morning of the 
ides, Cassar said to Spurinna, " The Ides are 
at last come.'" " Fes," replied Spurinna, 
" but not yet past." Caesar was assassinated 
a short time after. 

Spurius, a pra?nomen common to many 
of the Romans. 

Stabile, a maritime town of Campania, 
about two miles below the river Sarnus, 
now Castelamare di Stabia. It was once 
a place of some note, but, having been 
destroyed by Sylla during the civil wars, 
its site was chiefly occupied by villas and 
pleasure-grounds. It was at Stabia?, after 
having just left the villa of his friend Pom- 
ponianus, that the elder Pliny fell a victim 
to his ardent curiosity and thirst for know- 
ledge. It was celebrated for its fountains. 

Stagira, Stauros, a city of Macedonia, 
on the upper shore of the peninsula of 
Mount Athos, near its junction with the 



mainland, and on the coast of the Sinus 
Strymonicus. It was a colony of Andros, 
and celebrated as the birth-place of Aris- 
totle. 

Staseas, a Peripatetic philosopher, who 
resided many years at Rome with M. 
Piso. 

StasInus, an early poet of Cyprus, the 
author, according to some, of the Cyprian 
Epics, which others ascribe to Hegesias. 

Statilius, an inveterate enemy to Cassar. 
When Cato committed suicide, he attempt- 
ed to follow his example, but was pre- 
vented by his friends; and at last killed by 
the army of the triumvirs. 

Statira, L, the sister and wife of Da- 
rius, taken captive by Alexander, who 
treated her with the utmost respect. She 
died in childbed, and was buried by the 
conqueror with great magnificence. — II. 
The eldest daughter of Darius, taken in 
marriage by Alexander. The nuptials 
were celebrated at Susa with great magni- 
ficence. She appears to have changed her 
name to Arsinoe after this union. She was 
murdered by Roxana, aided by Perdiccas. 
— III. A wife of Artaxerxes Mnemon, 
poisoned by her mother-in law, Queen Pa- 
rysatis. — IV. A sister of Mithridates the 
Great, celebrated for the fortitude with 
which she met her end, when Mithridates, 
after his defeat by Lucullus, sent Bac- 
chides, the eunuch, with orders to put his 
wives and sisters to death. 

Statius, Publius Papinius, a Latin 
Epic poet, born at Neapolis a. d. 61, and 
descended from a family that came ori- 
ginally from Epirus. He received his 
education at Rome, his father having gone 
with him to this city, where he became 
one of the preceptors of the young Domi- 
tian. Statius gained the prize three times 
in the Alban games, but was defeated in 
the Capitoline. At the age of nineteen 
he married the widow of a musician, named 
Claudia, whose abilities and virtues he ex- 
tols in many of his productions. Dis- 
gusted at last, as he himself informs us, 
with the luxury of the Romans, he retired 
to a small estate in the vicinity of Naples, 
which the emperor, perhaps, had given 
him, and died a. d. 96. His chief poem is 
the Thebaid. His poems display a con- 
siderable share of real genius and talent, 
but vitiated by the false taste which then 
began to infest Latin poetry. 

Stator, a surname of Jupiter, given him 
by Romulus, because he stopped the flight 
of the Romans in their battle with the 
Sabines, after the carrying off by the 
Romans of the Sabine virgins. Romulus 
erected a temple on the spot where he had 



STE 



STO 



549 



stood when he invoked Jupiter, in prayer, 
to stay the flight of his forces. 

Stellio, a youth turned into a kind of 
lizard by Ceres, because he derided the 
goddess. 

Stentor, a Grecian warrior in the army 
against Troy. His voice was louder than 
the combined voices of fifty men. He is 
erroneously regarded by some commenta- 
tors as a mere herald. 

Stentoris liens, an estuary formed at 
the mouth of the Hebrus. 

Stephanos, a grammarian who flourish- 
ed in the fifth century. He was professor 
in the imperial college at Constantinople, 
and composed a Dictionary, containing 
adjectives derived from the names of places, 
and designating the inhabitants. Ste- 
phanus is usually quoted as Stephanies By- 
zantinus, or Stephanus of Byzantium. 

Sterope, one of the Pleiades, daughter 
of Atlas, and wife of GEnomaus, king of 
Pisa?, by Avhom she had Hippodamia, &c. 

Steropes, one of the Cyclops. 

Stesichouus, a Greek Lyric poet, anative 
of Himera in Sicily, who flourished about 
b. c. 570. To him we owe the first intro- 
duction of the triple division into strophe, 
antistrophe, epode. Hence he is said to 
have been named Stesichorus, " placer or 
arranger of the chorus ;" his previous 
name having been Tisias. He died at 
Catana, in his eighty-fifth year. 

Sthenelus, I., a king of Mycenae, son 
of Perseus and Andromeda. He married 
Nicippe, daughter of Pelops, by whom he 
had two daughters, and a son called Eu- 
rystheus, born, by Juno's influence, two 
months before the natural time, that he 
might obtain a superiority over Hercules. 
(See Hercules.) — II. A son of Capaneus, 
one of the Epigoni, and also one of the 
suitors of Helen. He went to the Trojan 
war, and was one of those shut up in the 
wooden horse. 

Sthenobcea, or Ant^ea, a daughter of 
Jobates, king of Lycia, and wife of Proetus, 
king of Argos. See Bellerophon. 

Stilicho, a Vandalic general, in the ser- 
vice of the Emperor Theodosius the Great, 
whose niece Serena he married. Theodo- 
sius having bequeathed the empire of the 
East to his son Arcadius, and that of the 
West to his second son Honorius, the 
former was left under the care of Rufinus, 
and the latter under the guardianship of 
Stilicho. No sooner was Theodosius re- 
moved by death, than Rufinus stirred up 
an invasion of the Goths, in order to pro- 
cure the sole dominion ; but Stilicho put 
down this scheme, and effected the de- 
struction of his rival. After suppressing 



a revolt in Africa, he marched against 
Alaric, whom he signally defeated at Pol- 
lentia. a. d. 406 he repelled an invasion 
of barbarians, who penetrated into Italy 
under Rhadagaisus, a Hun or Vandal 
leader, who formerly accompanied Alaric, 
and effected the entire destruction of the 
force and its leader. Having either from 
motives of policy or from state necessity, 
entered into a treaty with Alaric, he was 
charged by Olympius, an officer of the 
court, with cherishing the intention of 
placing his son on the throne, and the 
weak Honorius, overruled by the arts 
of Olympius, gave orders for his arrest. 
Escaping with difficulty from a massacre 
of his friends at Pavia, Stilicho retired to 
Ravenna, and took sanctuary in a church ; 
but by artifice and perjury, the bishop 
was induced to yield him up, and he was 
beheaded as soon as he had passed the 
threshold, a. d. 408, and his whole family 
involved in his ruin. 

Stilpo, a philosopher of Megara, who 
flourished b. c. 336. Though naturally 
addicted to pleasure, his character became 
completely changed though the influence 
of philosophy ; and few persons were more 
esteemed by their contemporaries. He 
was highly respected by Ptolemy Soter ; 
and when Demetrius plundered Megara, 
it is said that he ordered the house of 
Stilpo to be left unmolested. 

Stob^eus, a Greek writer, who flourished 
about a. d. 400, and left a collection of 
extracts from ancient poets and philoso- 
phers, which has come down to our times. 
He was a native of Stobi in Macedonia, 
whence his name. 

Stobi, Istib, a city of Macedonia, in the 
district of Paeonia, north of Edessa, and 
not far from the junction of the Erigonus 
and Axius. On the conquest of Macedo- 
nia by the Romans, Stobi was made the 
depot of the salt with which the Dardani 
were supplied from that country. At a 
later period it became a Roman munici- 
pium, a privilege rarely conferred beyond 
the limits of Italy; and in the reign of 
Constantine it was considered as the chief 
town of Macedonia Secunda, or Salutaris, 
as it was then called. 

Stcechades, lies tTHieres, five small 
islands in the Mediterranean, off the coast 
of Gaul, and in a south-east direction from 
Telo Martius, or Toulon. Their name was 
said to be derived from their being ranged 
on the same line (o-to?x°s)- 

Stoici, a celebrated sect of philosophers, 
founded by Zeno of Citium, about b. o. 360. 
They received their name from the portico 
(<n-oa) where the philosopher delivered his 



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lectures. This was the " Pcecile," adorned 
with various paintings from the pencil of 
Polygnotus and other eminent masters, 
and hence was called, by way of eminence, 
the Porch. 

Strabo, I., a Roman cognomen in the 
Fannian, Pompeian, and other families. 
It was first applied to those whose eyes 
were distorted, but afterwards became a 
general name. — IT. A celebrated geogra- 
pher, born at Amasea in Cappadocia about 
b. c. 54. He studied at Nyssa under 
Aristodemus, at Amisus under Tyran- 
nion, and at Seleucia under Xenarchus. 
Proceeding to Alexandria, he attached 
himself first to the Peripatetic Boethus of 
Sidon, and afterwards to the Stoic Athe- 
nodorus of Tarsus. He then visited vari- 
ous parts of Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, 
and Egypt, as far as Syene and the cata- 
racts of the Nile, where he formed an inti- 
mate acquaintance with iElius Gallus, the 
Roman governor. He also travelled in 
Crete, northern Greece, and some parts 
of Italy, and appears to have visited 
Rome. The period of his death is uncer- 
tain ; but it must have been later than 
a. n. 18. His " Geography," in seventeen 
books, all of which, except a portion of the 
seventh book, have come down to us, is 
celebrated for elegance, purity, and uni- 
versal knowledge. 

Stratarchas, the grandfather of the 
geographer Strabo, son of Dorylaus. 

Strato, a philosopher of Lampsacus, 
disciple and successor of Theophrastus in 
the Peripatetic school, over which he pre- 
sided from b. c. 286 to b. c. 268. He was 
surnamed Physicus, because he applied 
himself to the study of nature; and was the 
master of Ptolemy Philadelphus. His 
doctrines were strongly tinctured with 
atheism. Various other persons of this 
name are mentioned by the ancient writers ; 
but none of them are of great celebrity. 

Stratonice, a daughter of Demetrius 
Poliorcetes, who married first Seleucus, 
king of Syria, and afterwards her stepson 
Antiochus. See Antiochus I. 

Stratonicea, or Stratonice, I., Eski- 
hissar, an important city of Caria, between 
Alabanda and Atlinda, founded and forti- 
fied by Antiochus Soter, and called after 
his wife Stratonice. — II. A city near 
Mount Taurus, called Stratonicea ad Tau- 
rum, to distinguish it from the former. 

Stratonis Turris. See C^esarea. 

Strongyle, Stromboli, one of the Lipari 
isles, or the first of the JEolice Insula to 
the north-east, so called by the Greeks 
from its round figure. It was celebrated 
for its extraordinary volcano, the only one 



known whose eruptions are continued and 
uninterrupted. See Molim Insulje. 

Strophades, anciently called Plotae, Stri- 
vali, two islands in the Ionian Sea, on the 
western coasts of the Peloponnesus, so 
named from o~Tp4<pu}, because Zetes and 
Calais, sons of Boreas, returned thence by 
order of Jupiter, after they had driven the 
Harpies from the tables of Phineus. The 
fleet of iEneas stopped near the Strophades. 

Strofhius, I., a son of Crisus, and king 
of Phocis. He married a sister of Aga- 
memnon, by whom he had Pylades, cele- 
brated for his friendship with Orestes. 
After the murder of Agamemnon by Cly- 
temnestra and iEgisthus, the king of 
Phocis educated at his own house, with the 
greatest care, his nephew Orestes, whose life 
Electra had saved. — II. A son of Pylades 
by Electra, the sister of Orestes. 

Strymon, Karason, or Orphano, a large 
river of Thrace, which it separates from 
Macedonia. It rises in the chain of Mount 
Scomius, and after a course of nearly two 
hundred miles, through the territory of the 
Pseonians, the Maedi, Sinti, and Edones, 
which were Thracian tribes, falls into the 
gulf to which it communicated the name 
of Strymonicus, now GoJfo di Contessa. 

Stymphalis, I., a region of Macedonia, 
south of Orestis, and annexed to the former 
country upon the conquest of that kingdom 
by the Romans. — II. Palus Zaracea, a 
lake of Arcadia, near the town of Stym- 
phalus, famous for being the scene of one 
of the labours of Hercules, who was re- 
quired to drive away the countless mul- 
titudes of birds, called Stymphalides, which 
thronged its banks. 

Stymphalus, Kiona, an ancient city in the 
north-east corner of Arcadia, founded long 
before the Trojan war by Stymphalus, a 
descendant of Areas. Pindar calls it the 
mother of Arcadia. 

Styx (Stu£), m mythology, a nymph ; 
the daughter, according to Hesiod, of 
Oceanus and Thetis ; but other myco- 
logists relate the genealogy differently. 
She dwelt in a rock palace in the infernal 
regions, from whence one of the infernal 
rivers burst forth. This river, Styx, was 
one of the ten arms or branches of Oce- 
anus. The gods of Olympus swore by the 
water of Styx ; and a deity who took this 
oath in vain was banished from the hea- 
venly mansions for ten years, to endure 
various torments. The river Styx has 
been sought for in various places; but the 
most remarkable stream of the name was 
in Arcadia. It forms a terrific waterfall. 

Sua da, the goddess of Persuasion, equi- 
valent to the Peitho of the Greeks. 



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Suastus, a river of India, falling into 
the Indus near the modern city of Attack. 

Sublicius Pons, the most ancient bridge 
erected at Rome over the Tiber, so called 
because constructed of wood, and resting 
on piles or stakes (sublicce). It was built by 
Ancus Martius, but was rendered more 
celebrated for the gallant manner in which 
it was defended by Horatius Codes against 
the forces of Porsenna. Having fallen 
into neglect, it was rebuilt of stone by the 
censor Paulus iEmilius Lepidus, and at a 
later period repaired by Antonius Pius in 
marble. 

Suburra, one of the most populous and 
profligate parts of ancient Rome, situated 
between Mt. Viminalis and Quirinalis, and 
remarkable as the residence of the obscurer 
years of Julius Cassar. The , term Su- 
burra is sometimes used synonymously 
with that of Rome. 

Shcro, L, now Xucar, a river of His- 
pania Tarraconensis, in the territory of 
the Contestani ; it rises in Mount Idu- 
beda, and falls into the Mediterranean. — 
II. Cullera, a city of Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, in the territory of the Edetani, and 
at the mouth of the Sucro. It lay between 
Carthago Nova and the Iberus. 

Suessa, I., Pometia, an ancient Volscian 
city, the site of which appears to have 
been in the neighbourhood of the Pomp- 
tinae Paludes, to which it gave name. It 
was sacked by Tarquinius Superbus, and 
at a later period by the consul Servilius, 
from which period we lose all traces of it 
in history. It was a colony of Alba. — 
II. Aurunca, the capital of the Aurunci. 
(See Aurunci.) 

Suessiones, a people of Gallia Relgica, 
subdued by Caesar. Their territory was 
bounded on the south by Matrona, Marne; 
and their capital, Augusta, afterwards 
Suessiones, now Soissons, stood on the 
Oxona, Aisne. 

Suetonius, C.Paulinus, I., a commander 
in the reign of Claudius, and the first Ro- 
man general who crossed Mt. Atlas with 
an army. He presided over Britain as 
governor for twenty years, and was after- 
wards made consul. — II. C. Tranquillus, a 
Latin historian, son of a Roman knight of 
the same name, born about the beginning 
of Vespasian's reign. He distinguished 
himself as an advocate ; obtained the tri- 
buneship through the influence of Pliny 
the younger ; and was appointed secretary 
to the emperor Adrian, but afterwards 
banished from court for having been want- 
ing in respect to the empress Sabina. 
The period of his death is unknown. His 
" Lives of the Twelve Caesars " forms one 



of the most interesting remains of ancient 
history. 

Suevi, a powerful people of Germany, 
consisting of many tribes, among which 
were the Longobardi, Semnones, Angli, 
Catti, &c, and originally occupying the 
vast extent of country between the Elbe 
and the "Vistula ; but, in process of time, 
the names of the several tribes became 
gradually more prevalent, and that of Suevi 
less and less frequent, until the term be- 
came fixed as a designation of those that 
had settled in what, at the present day, is 
denominated Svabia. Lucan calls them 
Flavi, from their having reddish hair, 
which their name is said to signify. 

Suiones, a people of Scandinavia, famed 
for their skill in navigation as early as the 
days of Tacitus. They were the earliest 
inhabitants of what is now called Siveden. 

Sulcius, an informer whom Llorace de- 
scribes as hoarse with the number of de- 
famations he daily gave. 
Sulla. See Sylla. 
Sulmo, I., Sermonetta Vecchia, a city of 
Latinum, which must not be confounded 
with the city of the same name situated 
among the Peligni. In Pliny's time no 
vestige of it remained. — II. Sulmona, a 
city of the Peligni, about seven miles 
south-east of Corfinium, celebrated for 
being the birth-place of Ovid. It was 
said to have been founded by Solymus, a 
Phrygian, one of the companions of iEneas. 
This city was exposed to all the vengeance 
of Sylla for having been attached to the 
cause of Marius, and it afterwards fell into 
the hands of Caesar, together with Corfi- 
nium. — III. A Latin chief, killed by 
Nisus as he was going with his companions 
to destroy Euryalus. 

Sulpitia, a poetess in the time of Do- 
mitian, who wrote a poem on the banish- 
ment of the philosophers by that emperor, 
some verses of which are extant. This 
Sulpitia must not be confounded with an- 
other poetess of the same name, who lived 
in the time of Tibullus, some of whose 
elegies have been attributed to her. 

Sulpitia Gens, a distinguished patrician 
family at Rome, the two principal branches 
of which were the Camerini and Galbae. 

Sulpitius, I., Servius Rufus, a dis- 
tinguished patrician, brother-in-law of 
C. Licinius Stolo. He was highly es- 
teemed for his talents and virtues, and was 
four times military tribune with consular 
power, 400 b. c. — II. Servius Paeticus, 
was consul, b. c. 362, with Licinius 
Stolo. Scenic exhibitions are said to 
have been first given during this year ; 
and it was during this same year that Sul- 



552 



SUM 



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pitius drove a nail into the side of the temple 
of Jupiter on account of the ceasing of a 
pestilence. — III. Publius Sulpitius Sa- 
verio, was consul, b. c. 279, with P. Decius 
Mus, and defeated Pyrrhus at Asculum. 
— IV. Servius Galba. (See Galba II. 
and III.) — V. Caius Sulpitius Gallus. 
(See Gallus I.) — VI. Publius Sulpitius, 
a tribune of the commons b. c. 88, and a 
person of most turbulent character. As 
a partisan of Marius, he brought forward 
a law to deprive Sylla of the charge of the 
war against Mithridates, and to vest it in 
Marius. Sylla, however, marched upon 
Rome, of which he took possession, and a 
price having been set upon the head of 
Sulpitius, he was betrayed by his slave, 
and murdered. Cicero ranks Sulpitius 
among the greatest orators of his time. — 
VII. Servius Rufus, a contemporary and 
friend of Cicero, and one of the most emi- 
nent lawyers of his time. He had been a 
pupil, in judicial studies, of F. Balhus and 
C. Aquilius Gallus ; and was the first that 
gave a scientific form to Roman juris- 
prudence. He was consul, b. c. 50, with 
M. Marcellus. Of his legal writings 
nothing remains. — VIII. C. Apollinaris. 
See Apollinaris. 

Summanus, an Etrurian deity, whose 
worship was very early introduced into 
Rome. A temple was erected to him at 
the Circus Maximus in the time of the 
war with Pyrrhus, and his earthen statue 
stood on the top of the temple of Jupiter 
on the Capitol. His festival, the Summa- 
nulia, was on the 20th of June, when cakes 
shaped like a wheel were offered to him. 

Sunium, a promontory of Attica, forty- 
five miles from the Piraeus, where were a 
small harbour, a town, and beautiful temple 
of Minerva, hence called Sunias. 

Suovetaurili a ( Lat. sus, " a swine," ovis, 
" a sheep," taunts, "a bull"), in Roman his- 
tory a quinquennial sacrifice, which con- 
sisted of theimmolation of a sow, a sheep, and 
a bull ; hence the name. See Lustratio. 

Siterum mare, a name of the Adriatic 
Sea, because situated above Italy. 

Surena, a powerful officer in the armies 
of Orodes, king of Parthia, whom he had 
aided in raising to the throne. He was 
appointed to conduct the war against the 
Romans, and protect the kingdom of Par- 
thia against Crassus, whom he overthrew 
in the memorable battle of Charrae, and 
afterwards entrapped and put to death. 
He was afterwards himself put to death 
by Orodes, b. c. 52. 

Surrentum, Sorrento, an ancient city 
of Campania, on the lower shore of the 
Sinus Crater, and near the Promontorium 



Minerva?, said to have derived its name 
from the Sirens, who made this coast their 
favourite haunt. Surrentum became a 
Roman colony in the reign of Augustus. 
The wine of the Surrentine hills was held 
in great estimation by the ancients. 

Susa (orum), a celebrated city of Su- 
siana in Persis, on the east side of the 
Eulaeus or Choaspes, said to have been 
founded by Tithonus, the father of Mem- 
non. It was customary with the kings of 
Persia to spend the summer in the cool 
mountainous country of Ecbatana, and the 
winter at Susa, the climate being warmer 
there than elsewhere. 

Susarion, a Greek poet of Megara, sup- 
posed by some to have been the inventor 
of comedV. He lived about 562 b. c. 

Susiana or Susis, Chusistan, a province 
of Persia, to the east of Babylonia Proper. 
The chief rivers were the Eulaeus and 
Tigris, and, on the confines of Persia, the 
Oroatis. The ancient capital was Susa, 
whence the appellation of Susiana was de- 
rived. 

Susidje Pvl^, narrow passes over 
mountains from Susiana into Persia. 

Sutrium, Sutri, a considerable city of 
Etruria, west of Nepete, and north-east 
from Caere. It was colonised by the Ro- 
mans seven years after Rome had been 
taken by the Gauls. 

Syagrus, an early Greek poet, who lived 
after Orpheus and Musaeus, and was the 
first that sang of the Trojan war. Dio- 
genes Laertius writes the name Sagaris, 
and makes him to have been the contem- 
porary and rival of Homer. 

Sybaris, I., Cochile, a river of Luca- 
nia, running by the city of the same name, 
and falling into the Sinus Tarentinus. — 
II. A celebrated city of Lucania, situated 
on the Sinus Tarentinus, and between the 
rivers Sybaris and Crathis, and said to 
have been founded by the people of Trce- 
zene, not long after the siege of Troy. 
The rise and progress of this celebrated 
republic were wonderfully rapid. It held 
dominion over four different people and 
twenty-five towns; and the city extended 
fifty stadia, or upwards of six miles, along 
the Crathis. The number of its inhabit- 
ants capable of bearing arms is computed 
at 800,000. The accounts which we have 
of their luxury and opulence are not less 
extraordinary : and to such a degree, in- 
deed, did they indulge their taste for plea- 
sure, that a Sybarite and a voluptuary 
became synonymous terms. But this pros- 
perity and excess of luxury were not of 
long duration ; and the fall of Sybaris -was 
hastened with a rapidity only equalled by 



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553 



that of its sudden elevation. A demo- 
cratical party, at the head of which was 
Telys, having gained the ascendancy, ex- 
pelled five hundred of the principal citi- 
zens, who sought refuge at Crotona. This 
city, upon receiving a summons to give 
up the fugitives or prepare for war, by the 
advice of Pythagoras made choice of the 
latter alternative ; and the hostile armies 
met near the river Traens, in the Crotonian 
territory. The forces of Crotona, headed by 
the celebrated Milo, amounted to 1 00,000 
men, while those of Sybaris were triple 
that number ; the former, however, gained 
a complete victory, and but few of the 
Sybarites escaped from the sword of the 
enemy in the rout which ensued. The 
victorious Crotoniats, following up their 
success, advanced against Sybaris, and, 
finding it in a defenceless state, totally 
destroyed the town by turning the waters 
of the Crathis, and thus overwhelming it 
with the inundation. The city of Thurii 
was afterwards founded in the immediate 
vicinity. 

Sybarita, an inhabitant of Sybaris. 
See Sybaris. 

Syene, Assuan, a town of Thebais, on 
the borders of Egypt. Juvenal was ba- 
nished thither, on pretence of commanding 
a praetorian cohort stationed in the neigh- 
bourhood. Here are the quarries from 
which the obelisks and colossal statues of 
the Egyptian temples were dug. 

Syenesius, a Cilician, who, with La- 
binetus of Babylon, concluded a peace 
between Alyattes, king of Lydia, and Cy- 
axares, king of Media, while both armies 
were terrified by an eclipse of the sun, 
B. c. 585. 

Syennesis, a satrap, or rather tributary 
monarch of Cilicia, when Cyrus the 
Younger made war upon his brother Ar- 
taxerxes. The name Syennesis appears 
to have been a common appellation for the 
native princes of this country. 

Sylla, the cognomen of a branch of 
the patrician Gens Cornelia, which it ex- 
changed for Rufus, a name which it had 
formerly borne. This name was first 
borne by the Flamen Dialis, Publius Cor- 
nelius Sylla, who was prastor urbanus 
b.c. 212 ; but by far the most distinguished 
member of the family was L. Cornelius 
Sylla Felix, the dictator, who was born 
at Rome, b. c. 138. He seems to have 
enjoyed an excellent education, but on 
reaching the age of puberty, he gave him- 
self up to dissipation, and having obtained 
wealth by the bequests of a courtezan and 
of his mother-in-law, he aspired to political 
distinction, and in b. c, 107 he was chosen 



quaestor. He served with reputation under 
Marius in Africa (where his address in- 
duced Bocchus to give up Jugurtha), Pon- 
tus, and on various other occasions. Some 
time after he obtained the praetorship, and 
was appointed by the Roman senate to 
place Ariobarzanes on the throne of Cap- 
padocia, against the views and interest of 
Mithridates, king of Pontus. One battle 
left him victorious. About this period, the 
Marsian war having broken out, Sylla was 
appointed joint legatuswith Marius to bring 
it to an end ; and already had his arms 
been crowned with victory at Stabiae and 
Bovianum, and he was now laying siege 
to Nola, when he was appointed to con- 
duct the war against Mithridates. Marius, 
unable to endure that his rival should have 
this honour, obtained the recal of the de- 
cree, and got himself appointed. On re- 
ceiving this intelligence, Sylla marched to 
Rome, and compelled Marius to flee into 
Africa. He then hastened over to Greece, 
most of which submitted to him. Athens 
alone shut her gates and was gallantly de- 
fended by Archelaus, Mithridates' general : 
he, however, soon retreated to Bceotia ; 
and an engagement took place near Chae- 
ronea, in which the Pontic troops were 
totally defeated. Another battle followed 
at Orchomenus, which was equally fatal 
to the interests of Mithridates, who now 
sued for peace ; and Sylla, who, in con- 
sequence of tidings from Italy, was in 
haste to return thither, readily consented, 
promising to secure Mithridates in his 
paternal dominions, and have him entitled 
a friend and ally of Rome, that monarch 
agreeing to surrender Bithynia, Cappa- 
docia, and Asia. Meanwhile, during his 
three years' absence from Italy, his ene- 
mies had regained the superiority in Rome. 
Marius had been recalled; the blood of 
the friends of Sylla had been shed in tor- 
rents; he himself had been proscribed, 
and his property confiscated. But Marius 
was not at ease in the midst of his triumph ; 
the report of Sylla's victories had reached 
his ears. To blunt his senses against 
the thought of impending vengeance, he 
gave way to dissipation, which carried 
him off in the seventieth year of his 
age, b. c. 86. (See Marius). The con- 
queror hurried towards Rome immediately 
on the conclusion of peace, and was 
joined by the majority of the army, 
and all the wealthier orders ; but even 
when he was at the gates the Marian party 
attacked and massacred the senate in the 
Hostilian curia. The extent of his re- 
venge far exceeded the provocation, for the 
senate-house resounded with the shrieks 

B B 



554 



SYL 



SYR 



of no fewer than 8000 of the opposite 
party, who were murdered in its vicinity, 
after having surrendered ; and the names 
of 5000 citizens are said to have been pub- 
lished on the proscription lists. If blood 
had flowed in the time of Marius, it now 
poured in torrents. In these dreadful 
commotions, 33 consulars, 70 praetors, 60 
aediles, 200 senators, and 150,000 Roman 
citizens lost their lives, while thousands 
more were stripped of their property, and 
driven forth in beggary. Sylla divided 
among his legions the lands and properties 
of the Marians: he renewed and made 
perpetual in his own person the dictator- 
ship, now out of use 120 years; sought 
to bring back the republic to its old form, 
when all power lay with the patricians ; 
deprived the tribunes of the people of the 
right of proposing laws ; completed the 
reduced senate from the equestrian order ; 
increased, for the advantage of his friends, 
the colleges of pontiffs and augurs. After 
he had finished whatever the most abso- 
lute sovereign may do, from his own will 
and authority, he suddenly abdicated the 
dictatorial power, and retired to Puteoli, 
where he resigned himself chiefly to sensual 
enjoyments, which ultimately cut him off, 
b. c. 78. His body was carried to Rome 
with great pomp, and burnt in the Campus 
Martius, at his own request. Sylla was 
married five times, and left three children 
by his fourth wife, Caecilia Metella, and 
a posthumous daughter by his fifth wife, 
Valeria. His son Faustus served with 
great distinction in Asia, under Pompey, 
whose daughter he married. After the 
battle of Pharsalia, he fled into Africa, 
was taken prisoner at the battle of Thapsus, 
and murdered in Cassar's camp during a 
mutiny of the soldiers. Two brothers of 
the dictator are also noticed in history, 
as having taken part in the conspiracy of 
Catiline, but as having been acquitted. 
Sylla has been commended for patronage 
of the arts and sciences : he brought 
from Asia the extensive library of Apel- 
licon, the Peripatetic philosopher, in which 
were the works of Aristotle and Theo- 
phrastus; and he was himself the author of 
voluminous memoirs, part of which are to 
be found in Plutarch's Life of Sylla. — II. 
Son-in-law of the emperor Claudius, was 
consul a. d. 52. He was banished by Nero 
to Massilia, on a charge of conspiracy, 
A. d. 59, and put to death four years after- 
wards. 

Sylvanus. See Silvanus. 
Sylvia, or Ilia, mother of Romulus. 
See Rhea. 

Sylvius, a son of iEneas by Lavinia,from 



whom afterwards all the kings of Alba 
were called Sylvii. 

Symbolum, a place of Macedonia, near 
Philippi, on the confines of Thrace. 

Symmachus, a senator of the fourth 
century, under Theodosius. He was pre- 
fect of Rome, pontiff, augur, and pro- 
consul of Africa, and vigorously resisted the 
changes made in the national religion by 
the triumphs of Christianity, for which he 
was sent into exile. He was recalled, 
however, by Theodosius, and raised to the 
consulship a. d. 391 . He wrote some Epis- 
tles, which are still extant. 

Symplegades. See Cyaneje. 

Synesius, I., a native of Cyrene, born 
a. d. 378, of a distinguished family. He 
studied at Alexandria under Hypatia and 
other celebrated instructors, and so rapid 
was the progress he made, that, at the age 
of nineteen years, he was chosen by the 
inhabitants of Cyrene to present to the 
Emperor Arcadius a golden crown which 
had been voted him. At the persuasion 
of Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, he 
embraced Christianity; and after being 
long tossed about on the sea of doubt and 
uncertainty, he separated from a wife for 
whom he cherished a deep affection, and 
was consecrated bishop of Ptolemais in 
Cyrena'ica, a. d. 410. The period of his 
death is unknown. His works consist of 
156 epistles, on philosophical and polemical 
subjects, and are still held in high esteem. 

Synnas (adis), or Synnada (pi), a 
town of Phrygia, north-west of the plain of 
Ipsus ; famous for marble quarries. 

Syphax, a king of the Masassyli in 
Libya, who married Sophonisba, daughter 
of Hasdrubal, and forsook the alliance of 
the Romans to join himself to the interest 
of his father-in-law and of Carthage. He 
was taken prisoner by Masinissa, and given 
to Scipio, who carried him to Rome, where 
he adorned his triumph. Syphax died at 
Tibur, b. c. 201 ; and his possessions were 
given to Masinissa, 

Syracuse, a celebrated city of Sicily, 
founded about b. c. 732 by Archias, a Co- 
rinthian, and one of the Heraclida?. In 
the time of its greatest splendour, Syra- 
cuse was one of the largest cities in the 
world. It was of triangular form, and 
consisted of five parts or towns ; Ortygia, 
or the island called Nasos or Nrjcos, which 
was all that the Greeks at first occupied, 
after having expelled the Sicilians ; Acra- 
dina, that faced the sea ; Tycha or Tyche, 
joined to Acradina on the east ; Neapolis, 
or the New City, which lay along the side 
of the great port ; and at the eastern ex- 
tremity, Epipolae. These several parts 



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TAB 



555 



were all gradually surrounded by walls, 
the length of which was 180 stadia, or 
rather more than twenty-two miles. The 
original constitution of Syracuse, like that 
of so many Dorian settlements, was aristo- 
cratical. It subsequently fell under the 
power of tyrants, some of whom raised its 
prosperity to a great height. But the 
oppressions exercised by Syracuse over the 
weaker towns compelled the latter to ap- 
ply to Athens for aid, which was readily 
granted. A splendid fleet was equipped, and 
intrusted to the command of Alcibiades, 
Lamachus, and Nidas, b. c. 415; but the 
counsels and aid of Gylippus prevailed 
against the skill and plans of the Athe- 
nians ; and, in the total destruction of its 
fleet and army, Athens received a blow from 
which it never recovered, b. c. 413. A few 
years after the defeat of the Athenians the 
supreme direction of affairs at Syracuse was 
usurped by Dionysius the Eider, whose 
character presents a singular compound of 
greatness and meanness, generosity and 
cruelty. Dionysius the younger, who suc- 
ceeded his father, was finally expelled from 
Sicily by Timoleon ; who, having demo- 
lished the citadel constructed by the elder 
Dionysius, and his magnificent tomb, re- 
stored the Syracusans to their freedom, and, 
having vanquished their enemies, retired 
into private life. They did not, however, 
long preserve the liberty given them by 
Timoleon. In the course of a few years, 
Agathocles attained to the supreme au^ 
thority. After his death, the city under- 
went various revolutions, being sometimes 
the ally of the Carthaginians and some- 
times of the Romans. After a long period 
of alternate fortune, Syracuse at last fell 
into the hands of the Romans under Mar- 
cellus, after a siege of about three years, 
b. c. 212. There are some remains still vi- 
sible of the ancient Syracuse, in the ruins of 
porticoes, temples, and palaces. The famous 
fountain of Arethusa rose in the island of 
Ortygia ; but, though still a striking object 
from its discharge of waters, it now serves 
merely as a resort for washer- women. 

Syria, a large country of Asia ; gene- 
rally speaking, bounded on the east by the 
Euphrates and a small portion of Arabia, 
north by Mount Taurus, west by the Me- 
diterranean, south by Arabia ; and divided 
into several districts and provinces, among 
which were Phoenicia, Seleucis, Judaea or 
Palestine, Mesopotamia, Babylon, and As- 
syria. Syria is called in Scripture Aram, 
inhabitants Aramaeans, from Aram, fifth 
son of Shem, father of the Syrians. The 
etymology of the name is very uncertain : 
but the only derivations worth mentioning 



are two ; the first of which is from Sur, an 
ancient name (and also the modern name) 
of Tyre ; the other makes it as shortened 
from Assyria, (Major Rennell supposes 
Syria to be Assyria without the article) ; 
a supposition somewhat supported by the 
fact, that the two names are often con- 
founded or used indifferently by the an- 
cient writers. The history of Syria is 
included in that of its conquerors. It 
appears to have been first reduced by 
Tiglath Pileser, king of Assyria, about 
b. c. 750 j previously to whose invasion it 
was divided into petty territories, of which 
the kingdom of Damascus was the princi- 
pal. After the Ml of the Assyrian mo- 
narchy it came under the Chaldean yoke ; 
it shared the fate of Babylonia when con- 
quered by the Persians; and was again 
subdued by Alexander the Great. At his 
death, b. c. 323, it was erected into an 
independent monarchy under the Seleu- 
cidae, and continued to be governed by its 
own sovereigns till, weakened and devas- 
tated by civil wars between competitors 
for the throne, it was finally reduced by 
Pompey to a Roman province, about b. c. 
55, after the monarchy had subsisted two 
hundred and fifty-seven years. The Sara- 
cens, in the decline of the Roman empire, 
next became the masters of Syria, about 
a. d. 622. 

Syrinx, a nymph of Arcadia, daughter 
of the Ladon. Pan attempted to pursue 
her, but Syrinx escaped, and, at her own 
request, was changed by the gods into a 
reed called crvpiv§. 

Syros, Syra, one of the Cyclades in 
the JEgean Sea, twenty miles in circum- 
ference, very fruitful in wine and corn of 
all sorts. It was famous for having given 
birth to Pherecy des, the philosopher, the dis- 
ciple of Pittacus, and teacher of Pythagoras. 

Syrtes, two gulfs on the northern 
coast of Africa, one called Syrtis Minor, 
on the coast of Byzacium, now Gulf of 
Cabes ; the other Syrtis Major, on the 
coast of Cyrenaica, now Gulf of Sidra, 
The term Syrtis seems to be derived from 
the Greek avpetv, and has reference to the 
effect of the winds and waves on the 
quicksands in these two gulfs. The word 
has been used to denote " any part of the 
sea of which the navigation was attended 
with danger from whirlpools or hidden 
rocks." 

Syrus. See Syros, 

% 

Tabellari-s: leges, laws passed to en- 
able the Roman commons to vote by ballot, 
b b 2 



556 



TAB 



instead of by viva voce. "Voting by ballot 
was allowed by the Gabinian law, a. u. c. 
614, in conferring honours ; two years 
after, at all trials except for treason, by the 
Cassian law ; in passing laws, by the Pa- 
pirian law, a. u. c. 622 ; and, lastly, in 
trials for treason also, by the Coelian law, 
a. u. c. 630. 

Tabern^e nov^, I., a street in Rome, 
where shops were built. — II. Rhenana?, a 
city of Gallia Belgica, in the territory of 
the Nemetes, now Rhein-Zabern. — III. 
Triboccorum, Elsass- Zabern, a town of Al- 
sace in France. 

Tabor, a mountain of Galilee, west of 
Tiberias, and south-east of Dio- Cassarea ; 
called Itabyrius by the Greeks. 

Tab r ac a, a maritime town of Africa 
near Hippo, made a Roman colony. The 
neighbouring forests abounded with mon- 
keys. 

Taburnus, Taburna or Tabor, a lofty 
mountain in Samnium, the southern de- 
clivities of which were covered with olive 
grounds. It closed in the Claudine Pass 
on the southern side. 

Tacape, Capes or Gaps, a town of Afri- 
ca, at the head of the Syrtis Minor, near 
which were some medicinal waters, called 
Agues Tacapince, now El-Hamma. 

Tacfarinas, a Numidian by birth, and 
the leader of a revolt in Africa against the 
Roman power, in the reign of Tiberius. 
He had served among the Roman auxilia- 
ries, but, deserting from the forces among 
which he had been enrolled, he collected 
together some predatory bands, whom he 
trained to arms, and appeared as the leader 
of the Musulani, Mauri, and Cinithii, pow- 
erful nations on the borders of the desert. 
After he had severally defeated three offi- 
cers of Tiberius, he was routed by Dola- 
bella, and killed in the field of battle. 

Tachampso, an island in the Nile, near 
Philae, half of which was held by the 
Egyptians, and the rest by the ^Ethiopians. 
The name Tachampso is thought to signify 
" the island of crocodiles," the Egyptian 
term for these animals being x<¥"J , a i . 

Tachos or Tachus, a king of Egypt, in 
the reign of Artaxerxes Ochus, against 
whom he sustained a long war. He was 
assisted by the Greeks, but a misunder- 
standing having arisen between him and 
Agesilaus, king of Sparta, the latter em- 
braced the cause of Nectanebis, a cousin 
of Tachos, from whom he had revolted, 
ruined the affairs of the monarch, and ob- 
liged him to save his life by flight, b. c. 361. 

Tacita. See Muta. 

Tacitus, C. Cornelius, L, a celebrated 
Latin historian, supposed to have been 



born about a. d. 58 at Interamna ; but 
neither the place nor date of his birth has 
been accurately ascertained. It is even 
doubtful who his parents were, though it is 
generally supposed that his father was a 
Roman knight, who had been appointed 
governor of Belgic Gaul. He early dis- 
tinguished himself by his eloquence at the 
bar ; was raised to places of trust and 
honour under Vespasian, and equally 
favoured by his successors Titus and Do- 
mitian. a. d. 77 Agricola, then consul, 
betrothed him to his daughter. a. d. 88 
he was made praetor, and appointed one of 
the college of Quindecimviri ; but soon 
afterwards he quitted Rome, whether vo- 
luntarily or as exile is unknown, and did 
not return till the accession of Nerva. His 
father-in-law, Agricola, had died a. d. 93. 
In the short reign of Nerva, he succeeded 
Verginius Rufus as consul, a. d. 97, and 
delivered a magnificent funeral oration in 
honour of his predecessor. Under Trajan, 
a. d. 99, Tacitus, who had always lived on 
terms of friendship with the younger Pliny, 
was appointed, in conjunction with the lat- 
ter, to conduct the prosecution of Marius 
Priscus, the proconsul of Africa ; and this 
is the last public act which can be satis- 
factorily traced to him. He subsequent- 
ly quitted public affairs, and gave himself 
up in private to his historical compositions. 
The exact date of his death is not known, 
but it is generally believed to have taken 
place about a. d. 135. Tacitus wrote a 
treatise on the Manners of the Germans, a 
composition admired for fidelity and ex- 
actness. His life of Cn. Julius Agricola is 
celebrated for purity and elegance. — II. M. 
Claudius, a Roman emperor, elected to the 
imperial office on the death of Aurelian, 
a. d. 275, when in his seventy-fifth year. 
He was descended from the historian of the 
same name, and had been twice consul. His 
brief administration was very popular : he 
drove the bands of the Alani out of Asia 
with great slaughter ; but he sunk under 
the fatigues of his office at Tyana, or, ac- 
cording to a more probable statement, was 
assassinated by a band of Cilician conspi- 
rators, a. d. 276. 

Tader, Segura, a river of Spain, near 
New Carthage. 

TaENARUS, Cape Matapan, a promontory 
of Laconia, forming the southernmost 
extremity of the Peloponnesus, and of 
Europe. Near it was a large and deep 
cavern, whence issued a black and un- 
wholesome vapour ; hence the poets ima- 
gined that it was one of the entrances of 
hell, through which Hercides dragged 
Cerberus. On the promontory was a 



TAG 



TAN 



557 



temple sacred to Neptune, accounted an 
inviolable asylum. About forty stadia 
from the promontory stood the city of 
Taenarus, afterwards Cane or Ccenepolis. 
Taenarus became famous among the Ro- 
mans for the beautiful black marble of its 
quarries, now known as Nero Antico. 

Tages, an old Italian divinity, who is 
represented to have sprung as a beautiful 
boy from the earth, which a Tuscan plough- 
man had furrowed too deep. The first 
act of this earth-born god was to foretel 
from the wings of birds what was to 
happen to the peasants by whom he was 
quickly surrounded; and hence he was 
worshipped as the inventor of augury. 
A collection of his prophecies was made 
and preserved in the sacred records of 
Etruria. 

Tagus, a large river of Spain, which 
rises among the Celtiberi in Mons Idu- 
beda, and, after traversing the territories 
of the Celtiberi, Carpetani, Vellones, and 
Lusitani, falls into the Atlantic Ocean, 
after a course of about 600 miles. The 
sands of this river were said to contain 
grains of gold ; hence it was called " Au- 
rifer amnis." The ancient name remains 
in general use. 

Talthtbius, a herald in the Grecian 
camp, during the Trojan war, the particu- 
lar minister and friend of Agamemnon. 
He brought away Briseis from the tent 
of Achilles. 

Talus. See Perbix. 

Tamara, Tambre, I., a river on the 
north-western coast of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis. — II. A town of Britain, on the 
Tamarus, in the territory of the Dam- 
nonii. 

Tamarus, I., a river of Britain, now 
Tamar. Tamari Ostia is Plymouth Sound. — 
II. Or Thamarus, Tamaro, a river of Sam- 
nium, rising in the Apennines, and falling 
into the Calore. 

Tamasus or Tamaseus, a city of Cyprus, 
south-east of Soloe, and north-west of 
Mount Olympus, celebrated for its rich 
mines of copper, and for the metallic com- 
position called chalcanthum. In the vici- 
nity of Tamasus was a celebrated plain, 
sacred to Venus, and where the goddess is 
said to have gathered the golden apples 
by which Hippomenes, to whom she gave 
them, was enabled to conquer Atalanta in 
the race. 

Tamesis, a river of Britain, now the 
Thames. 

Tamos, a native of Memphis, and a 
faithful adherent of Cyrus the younger, 
whose fleet he commanded. After the 
death of Cyrus, he fled with his vessels, 



through fear of Tissaphernes, to Psammi- 
tichus, king of Egypt ; but the latter put 
him to death, together with his children, 
that he might possess himself of his fleet 
and treasures. 

Tanagra, more anciently called Graea, 
a town of Bceotia, on the northern bank of 
the Asopus, founded by Poemandros, son 
of Chseresilaus, the son of Jasius, who 
married Tanagra, daughter of iEolus, or, 
according to some, of the Asopus. 

Tanagrus or Tanager, Negro, a river 
of Lucania, rising in the central chain of 
the Apennines, and, after flowing thirty 
miles through the valley of Diano, loses 
itself under ground for the space of two 
miles. It reappears beyond La Polla, at 
a place called Pertosa, and falls into the 
Silanus below Contursi. It is remarkable 
for cascades, and the meanders of its 
streams. 

Tanais, I., now the Don, a large river of 
Europe, rising in the Valdai hills, in the 
government of Tula, and falling into the 
Palus Mseotis, after a most circuitous 
course of about 1000 miles. In ancient 
times it was considered the line of de- 
marcation between Europe and Asia. — II. 
A city in Asiatic Sarmatia, at the mouth 
of the Tanais, which soon became suffi- 
ciently powerful, by reason of its exten- 
sive commerce, to withdraw itself from 
the sway of the kings of the Bosphorus, 
and establish its independence. The ruins 
of the place are to the -west of the modern 
Azof. The Greeks in the age of Alex- 
ander confounded the Tanais with the 
Iaxartes. See Iaxartes. 

Tanaquil, called also Caia Caecilia, wife 
of Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of 
Rome. She was represented as a woman 
of high spirit, and accustomed to rule her 
husband ; hence the name is used by the 
Latin poets to indicate generally any im- 
perious consort. She was also celebrated 
as an excellent spinster (lanificd) and 
housewife ; and her distaff and spindle 
were preserved in the temple of Sancus or 
Hercules. After the murder of Tar- 
quinius Priscus, she managed adroitly to 
secure the succession to Servius Tullius, 
her son-in-law. See Tarquinius I. 

Tanis or Zoan, a city of Egypt, at the 
entrance of the Tanitic mouth of the Nile, 
to which it gives name, between the Men- 
desianand Pelusiac. 

Tantalises, a patronymic applied to 
the descendants of Tantalus, such as Niobe, 
Hermione, &c. Agamemnon and Mene- 
laus, as grandsons of Tantalus, are called 
Tantalidce fratres by Ovid. 

Tantalus, a king of Lydia, son of 

SB 3 



558 



TAP 



TAR 



Jupiter, and a nymph called Pluto ( Wealth), 
and father, by Dione, or, as others say, by 
Euryanassa, one of the Atlantides, of Pe- 
lops and Niobe. The common account 
makes him to have killed and dressed his 
son Pelops, and to have placed his remains 
as food before the gods, whom he had in- 
vited to a banquet, in order to test their di- 
vinity. ( See Pelops. ) Pindar, however, re- 
jects this legendas unbecoming the majesty 
of the gods, and says that Tantalus, being 
admitted to feast at the table of the gods 
on nectar and ambrosia, stole some of the 
divine food, and gave it to his friends on 
earth ; while Euripides says that the offence 
of Tantalus consisted in not restraining his 
tongue ; or, in other words, divulging 
the secrets of the gods. But, whatever 
may have been the crime of Tantalus, he 
is universally believed to have been severely 
punished. The Homeric account de- 
scribes him as standing up to the chin in 
water in the lower world, which constantly 
eludes his lip as often as he attempts to 
quench the thirst that torments him. Over 
his head grow all kinds of fruits ; but, 
whenever he reaches forth his hands to 
take them, the wind scatters them to the 
clouds. According to Pindar, Jupiter 
hung a vast rock in the air over the head 
of Tantalus, which, always menacing to 
descend and crush him, deprives him of 
all joy, and makes him " a wanderer from 
happiness ;" while Euripides represents 
him as swinging aloft, midway between 
heaven and earth, while a rock suspended 
from golden chains whirls about his head. 
The story of Tantalus is probably intended 
to represent the man who is flourishing 
and abounding in wealth, but whose de- 
sires are insatiable. 

Taphi^e, also called Teleboides, islands in 
the Ionian Sea, between Achaia and Leu- 
cadia. They derived their name from Ta- 
phius and Telebous, sons of Neptune, who 
reigned there. The Taphians made war 
against Electryon, king of Mycenae, and 
murdered all his sons; upon which the 
monarch promised his kingdom and his 
daughter in marriage to whoever could 
avenge the death of his children upon the 
Taphians. Amphitryon did it with suc- 
cess, and obtained the hand of the maiden. 
The chief island of this group was called 
Taphos, Taphius, and Taphiussa, now 
Meganisi. 

Taphr^e, Precop, a town on the isthmus 
of the Taurica Chersonesus. 

Taphros, Bonifacio, the strait between 
Corsica and Sardinia. 

T\probane, Ceylon, an island in the 
Indian Ocean. The existence of this island 



first became known to the Greeks after the 
expedition of Alexander ; but nothing au- 
thentic was elicited respecting it for many 
centuries, and even in the time of Ptolemy 
the most exaggerated and erroneous ac- 
counts of its extent and its inhabitants pre- 
vailed. 

Tapsus, a small and lowly situated 
peninsula on the eastern coast of Sicily, 
off Hybla, now called Isola detti Man- 
ghisi. 

Taras (-antis), I., a son of Neptune, 
who, according to some, was the founder 
of Tarentum, called in Greek Tdpas. (See 
Tarentum.) — II. Tara, a small river west 
of Tarentum. 

Tarasco, Tarascon, a city of Gaul, on 
the eastern side of the Rhone, and north 
of A relate. 

Tarbelli, a people of Gallia Aquitanica, 
who occupied the valley of the Aturus, 
Adour, at the foot of the Pyrenees, thence 
sometimes called Tarbellce. 

Tarentum, Tarentus, or Taras, Ta- 
ranto, a celebrated city of Calabria, situated 
in the north-eastern angle of the Sinus 
Tarentinus, near the mouth of the Galesus* 
It was founded, according to some, by a 
Cretan colony before the Trojan war ; but 
the real origin of the city may be ascribed 
to a body of Laconian emigrants, who set- 
tled in it under Phalanthus about b. c. 700. 
The favourable situation of Tarentum con- 
tributed to its rapid prosperity. The ad- 
jacent country was fertile in grain and 
fruit ; the pastures were excellent, and the 
flocks afforded a very fine wool, while the 
city itself enabled it to monopolise the 
whole commerce of the Adriatic, Ionian, 
and Tyrrhenian Seas. The government of 
Tarentum, like that of most other Greek 
states, was different at different periods, 
being sometimes administered by kings or 
tyrants, and sometimes by the people. It 
was distinguished not only by its wealth 
and commerce, but by the splendour of 
its public buildings and works of art. It 
also became a favourite seat of literature 
and science ; and the followers of Py- 
thagoras, though proscribed in other parts 
of Italy, found here a safe asylum. It 
has been frequently alleged that the wealth 
and civilisation of Tarentum produced a 
degree of effeminacy in its inhabitants 
which unfitted them to cope with their 
barbarous neighbours, and led ultimately 
to their ruin ; but there does not ap- 
pear to be any ground for this opinion. 
Involved in a contest with Rome, which 
had subjugated all the intermediate na- 
tions of Italy, the inhabitants, unable 
with their own efforts to meet the re- 



TAR 



TAR 



559 



sources of their powerful adversary, natu- 
rally availed themselves of foreign aid; 
but though with the assistance of Pyrrhus, 
king of Epirus, they bravely maintained 
their position against the Romans, they 
were ultimately forced to yield ; and, hav- 
ing subsequently embraced the party of 
Hannibal, they were overwhelmed by a 
stratagem of Fabius, and their city given 
up to plunder. From this period the pros- 
perity and political existence of Tarentum 
may date its decline, which was farther ac- 
celerated by the preference shown by the 
Romans to the port of Brundisium for the 
fitting out of their naval armaments, as 
well as for commercial purposes ; but the 
salubrity of its climate, the singular ferti- 
lity of its territory, its purple dye, and its 
advantageous situation on the sea, as well 
as on the Appian Way, still rendered it a 
city of consequence in the Augustan age ; 
and even in the time of Strabo it was a con- 
siderable city. That geographer describes 
the inner harbour as being 100 stadia or 
12^ miles in circuit ; a'computation, how- 
ever, which does not agree with modern 
measurements, which represent the circuit 
of the harbour at sixteen miles. Strabo 
makes the site of the town very low, but 
the ground to rise, however, a little towards 
the citadel. The modern town now oc- 
cupies the site of the ancient citadel. 

Tarichea, a strong city of Palestine, at 
the southern extremity of the Sea of Tibe- 
rias. Its situation was well adapted for 
fishing; and the town derived its name 
from the process of pickling fish, which its 
inhabitants carried on upon an extensive 
scale. Several towns on the coast of 
Egypt bore this name from a similar 
cause. 

Tarn.^:, a town mentioned by Homer. 

Tarpa, Spurius MiETius, a critic at 
Rome in the age of Augustus ; appointed 
with four others in the temple of Apollo 
to examine the merit of every dramatic 
production before it was allowed to be 
represented on the stage. 

Tarpeia, I., a daughter of Tarpeius, 
governor of the citadel of Rome. She 
promised to open the gates of the city to 
the Sabines, provided they gave her what 
they carried on their left hands. Tatius, 
king of the Sabines, consented, and, to 
punish her perfidy, threw not only his 
bracelet but his shield on Tarpeia, and his 
followers having imitated his example, 
Tarpeia was crushed under the weight of 
bracelets and shields ; she was buried in the 
Capitol, hence called Tarpeian Rock. — II. 
One of the warlike female attendants of 
Camilla in the Rutulian war. 



Tarpeius, Sp., the governor of the citadel 
of Rome under Romulus. 

Tarpeius Mons, or, more correctly, 
Tarpeia Rupes, a celebrated rock at Rome, 
forming a part of the Mons Capitolinus, 
and on the steepest side, where it overhung 
the Tiber. From this rock state criminals 
were accustomed to be thrown in the ear- 
lier Roman times. It received its name 
in commemoration of the treachery of 
Tarpeia, and of her having been killed here 
by the Sabines. Vasi gives the present 
height at fifty-five feet. 

Tarquinia, a daughter of Tarquinius 
Priscus and wife of Servius Tullius. On 
the murder of her husband by Tarquinius 
Superbus, she conveyed away the corpse 
by night, and gave it a private burial. 
She survived her consort only one day. 

Tarquinii, an ancient and powerful 
city of Etruria, northwest of Caere, founded 
either by Tarchon, the famous Etruscan 
chief so often mentioned by the poets, or 
by some Thessalians and Spinumbri, mean- 
ing, doubtless, the Pelasgi and Umbri, 
who came from Spina on the Adriatic. 
The Etrurians regarded Tarquinii as the 
metropolis or parent of all their other 
cities. See Tarquinius. 

Tarquinius, I., Priscus, the fifth king 
of Rome. According to the common ac- 
count, he was a noble and wealthy Tuscan, 
son of Demaratus, a native of Corinth, who 
had come from Greece and settled at Tar- 
quinii in Etruria. His original name was 
Lucumo ; and having married an Etruscan 
lady of the noblest birth, Tanaquil by 
name, he left Tarquinii and proceeded to 
Rome, where he was received with great 
kindness by Ancus Martius, was admitted 
a Roman citizen, and assumed the name 
of Lucius Tarquinius. His courage, his 
wisdom, and his wealth, made him greatly 
esteemed by the people generally, and on 
the death of Ancus he was chosen king. 
He defeated the Latins and Sabines, the 
inveterate enemies of early Rome, and first 
assumed the regal fasces and purple robe. 
He increased the number of the senate to 
300. Among his public works are the 
vast sewers, which exist to the present 
day. He laid out the Circus and the 
Forum, and began to surround the city 
with a wall of massy stones, and com- 
menced the erection on the Capitol of the 
united temples of the three great gods of 
Rome. After a reign of thirty-eight years, 
he was assassinated by the sons of his pre- 
decessor on the throne, B.C. 578. — II. 
Surnamed Superbus, from his pride and 
insolence, was grandson of Tarquinius 
Priscus, and seventh and last king of 

B B 4 



560 



TAR 



TAR 



Rome ; ascended the throne after Servius 
Tullius, whose eldest daughter Tullia he 
had married. (See Servius Tullius.) He 
enacted many oppressive laws against the 
plebeians, and, protected by a strong body- 
guard, tyrannised also over the patricians ; 
he nevertheless upheld the dignity of the 
Roman state, and all Latium acknowledged 
its supremacy. He built a temple to Ju- 
piter, Juno, and Minerva, on the summit 
of the Capitoline Hill, in which were de- 
posited the sacred treasures with the mys- 
terious books of the Sibyl. Soon after this 
event, Tarquinius waged war against 
Ardea, the capital of the Rutuli, a people 
on the coast of Latium ; and while his 
army lay encamped before the place, the 
affair of Lucretia occurred (see Lucretia), 
which hurled him from his throne. In 
vain did the cities of Tarquinii and Veii 
take up arms to effect his restoration ; in 
vain did Porsenna, the Lucumo of Clusium, 
endeavour to effect the same end (see 
Porsenna) ; in vain, too, did the Latins 
exert themselves in his behalf. In a bloody 
battle fought at the Lake Regillus, the 
two sons of Tarquinius were slain ; and 
the father at length gave up the contest 
with his former subjects, and retired to 
Cumae, where he ended his days a. u. c. 
259, or b. c. 495. — III. Collatinus. (See 
Collatinus. — IV. Sextius, eldest of the 
sons of Tarquin the Proud. When his father 
was besieging Gabii, Sextus is said to have 
come before that city with his body mangled 
and bloody with stripes, and to have no 
sooner declared that it proceeded from the 
oppression of his father, than the people of 
Gabii intrusted him with the command of 
their armies, and he soon delivered up the 
city to his father. After his violence to 
Lucretia had caused the expulsion of his 
family from Rome, he retired to Gabii, and 
was ultimately killed, bravely fighting in 
a battle during the war the Latins sus- 
tained against Rome, in the attempt of re- 
establishing the Tarquins on their throne. 
—V. Aruns. See Aruns. 

Tarraco, Tarragona, a town of the 
Cosetani in Hispania Citerior, on the coast 
of the Mediterranean. The Scipios landed 
here in the second Punic war, and, having 
fortified the city, made it their place of 
arms. It afterwards became the usual 
place of residence for the Roman preetors ; 
and on the division of Spain, in the reign 
of Augustus, it gave the name of Tarra- 
conensis to what had been previously called 
Hispania Citerior. Augustus resided here 
for a short period, and Hadrian enlarged 
its port, and erected a mole for the protec- 
tion of ships. 



Tarrutius. See Acca Laurentia. 

Tarsius, a river of Troas, near Zeleia, 
which, according to Strabo, had to be 
crossed, on account of its meanderings, 
twenty times by those who followed the 
road along its banks. Homer styles it 
Heptaporus, as being crossed seven times. 

Tarsus, a celebrated city of Cilicia 
Campestris, on the Cydnus, not far from 
its mouth. Nothing is known of the 
origin of Tarsus ; but it is abundantly 
certain that it was very ancient, and that 
it had either been originally founded by 
Greeks, or had subsequently received a 
Grecian colony. It was the metropolis 
of Cilicia, and was captured by both Cyrus 
and Alexander. It continued to flourish 
under the successors of the latter, and 
under the Romans. Strabo says it was 
very populous and powerful ; and he far- 
ther adds, that its schools of philosophy, 
literature, and science were superior even 
to those of Athens and Alexandria ; and 
though this is obviously an extravagant 
eulogy, there can be no question that it 
was a most distinguished seat of learning. 
St. Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was 
a native of Tarsus, where he was born in 
the second year of the Christian sera, and 
where he acquired a competent knowledge 
of Greek literature before he went to study 
the law of Moses at Jerusalem. To in- 
gratiate themselves with Julius Caesar, 
the inhabitants changed the name of the 
city to Juliopolis ; and it is plain, from 
the statement of St. Paul, that some of 
them, if not all, ranked as Roman citizens. 
Tarsus produced several other distin- 
guished individuals ; among whom may 
be specified Antipater, the Stoic, Atheno- 
dorus, the philosopher, and friend of Au- 
gustus. 

Tartarus (in the plural -a, -orum}, the 
fabled place of punishment in the lower 
world, situated as far below the earth as 
earth is below heaven. Hesiod says it 
would take nine days for an anvil to fall 
from Heaven to Earth ; and an equal space 
of time would be occupied by its fall from 
Earth to Tartarus. Tartarus was at one 
time represented as perfectly distinct from 
Erebus ; and as being the general place 
of punishment for the Titans, the hundred- 
handed, Tantalus, and others whose lives 
had been stained by crimes of the deepest 
dye ; .but in later times they came to be 
regarded as identical, and to be used for 
the place in which all the wicked suffered 
punishment for the crimes they had com- 
mitted in this world. 

Tartessus, a town of Spain, situated in 
an island of the same name at the mouth 



TAR 



TAX 



561 



of the Baetis, formed by the two branches 
of the river. But with regard to the 
actual position of the town, much differ- 
ence of opinion exists in ancient and mo- 
dern writers. According to Strabo, the 
Beetis itself was anciently called Tartessus, 
the adjacent country Tartessis. 

Taruana, a town of Gaul in the terri- 
tory of the Morini, now Terrouenne in 
Artois. 

Tarvisium, Treviso, an ancient city of 
Venetia, on the river Silis. At a later 
period it became the seat of a bishopric. 

Tatianus, a Syrian rhetorician, con- 
verted to Christianity by Justin Martyr, 
whom he followed to Rome in the latter 
part of the second century. After the 
death of Justin, the opinions of his prose- 
lyte took a turn towards those of Marcion, 
with whom he was contemporary ; but, 
differing from that heresiarch in some 
material points, he became the head of a 
sect of followers of his own. 

Tatienses, or Titienses, a name given 
to one of the tribes of the Roman people 
by Romulus, in honour of Tatius, king of 
the Sabines. 

Tatius, Titus, king of Cures among 
the Sabines, who made war against the 
Romans, after the rape of the Sabines. 
The gates of the city were betrayed into 
his hands by Tarpeia, and the army of the 
Sabines advanced as far as the Roman 
forum, where a bloody battle was fought ; 
but the cries of the Sabine virgins stopped 
the fury of the combatants, and an agree- 
ment was made between the two nations, 
by which Tatius consented to leave his 
ancient possessions, and take up his abode 
at Rome. He shared the royal authority 
with Romulus, with whom he lived for 
some time in the greatest union, but was 
subsequently murdered at Lanuvium, b. c. 
742, for cruelty to the ambassadors of the 
Laurentes. 

Tatta, Tuzla, " salt," a lake in the 
north-east part of Phrygia. 

Taunus, a mountain range of Germany, 
lying in a north-west direction from 
Frankfort on the Mayne. 

Tauri, a people of European Sarmatia, 
who inhabited Taurica Chersonesus, and 
sacrificed all strangers to Diana. 

Taurica, a surname of Diana, because 
worshipped by the inhabitants of Taurica 
Chersonesus. See Tauri. 

Taurica Chersonesus. See Cherso- 
nesus. 

Taurini, a people of Liguria, occupying 
both banks of the Padus, in the earlier 
part of its course. They are first men- 
tioned in history as having opposed Han- 



nibal soon after his descent from the Alps ; 
and their capital, Taurasia, was taken and 
plundered by that general, after an inef- 
fectual resistance of three days. As a 
Roman colony, it subsequently received 
the name of Augusta Taurinorum, now 
Turino (Turin) in Piedmont. 

Tauromenium, Taormino, a town of 
Sicily, between Messana and Catana, built 
on the site of an ancient city called Naxos. 
The hills in the neighbourhood were fa- 
mous for the fine grapes which they pro- 
duced, as well as for the extent and beauty 
of their prospects. 

Taurus, 1., a celebrated range of moun- 
tains, extending from the frontiers of India 
to the iEgean Sea. The principal chain 
was between the Caspian Sea and Euxine 
on one side, and sources of the Euphrates 
on the other. Two chains of mountains 
enter the peninsula of Asia : the one first 
confines, and then crosses the channel of 
the Euphrates near Samosata ; the other 
borders on the Pontus Euxinus. These 
two chains, one of which is in part the 
Anti- Taurus, the other the Paryadres, of 
the ancients, or the mountain Tcheldir or 
Keldir of the moderns, are united to the 
west of the Euphrates by means of the 
chain of Argaeus, Argeh-Dag. The chain, 
which bounds the ancient Cilicia to the 
north, is more particularly known by the 
name of Taurus, which, in several lan- 
guages, simply signifies "mountain." It 
sends off to the west several branches, 
some of which terminate on the shores es 
the Mediterranean, as the Cragus and the 
Masicystes of the ancients, in Lycia ; the 
others extend to the coasts of the Archi- 
pelago, opposite the islands of Cos and 
Rhodes. — II. A mountain and promon- 
tory on the eastern coast of Sicily, near 
which Tauromenium was built. It is now 
Capo di S. Croce. — III. Statilius, a friend 
of Agrippa's, who conquered Lepidus in 
Sicily, and gained also many victories in 
Africa, for which he obtained triumphal 
honours, b. c. 26. He was twice consul ; 
and is said also to have built the first 
durable amphitheatre of stone, at the desire 
of Augustus. — IV. Statilius, proconsul 
of Africa, a.d. 53, in the reign of Claudius. 
On his return, Agrippina, who was anxious 
to get possession of his fine gardens, in- 
duced Tarquitius, who had been his lieu- 
tenant in Africa, to accuse him of extortion, 
and also of having practised magic rites. 
Taurus, indignant at the charge, would 
not wait for the decision of the senate, but 
destroyed himself. 

Taxilus, or Taxiles, I„ a king of Tax- 
ila, conquered by Alexander, who treated 
b b 5 



562 



TAY 



TEL 



him with great kindness. — II. A general 
of Mithridates, who assisted Archelaus 
against the Romans in Greece; and was 
afterwards conquered by Murasna, lieu- 
tenant of Sylla. 

Taygete, or Taygeta, a daughter of 
Atlas and Pleione, and mother of Lacedae- 
mon, by Jupiter. She was one of the 
Pleiades. 

Taygetus, or Taygeta (-orum), part of 
a lofty ridge of mountains, which, traver- 
sing the whole of Laconia from the Arca- 
dian frontier, terminates in the sea at the 
promontory of Taenarus. Its elevation was 
said to be so great as to command a view 
of the whole Peloponnesus. It abounded 
with various kinds of beasts for the chase, 
and supplied also the celebrated race of 
hounds, so much valued by the ancients on 
account of their sagacity and keenness of 
scent. It also furnished a beautiful green 
marble much esteemed by the Romans. 

Teanum, Teano, a town of Campania, 
on the Appian road, called also Sidicinum, 
to be distinguished from another town of 
the same name at the west of Apulia. It 
became a Roman colony under Augustus. 

Tearus, a river of Thrace, rising in the 
same rock from thirty-eight different 
sources, some of which are hot, others cold. 

Techmessa, daughter of a Phrygian 
prince, called by some Teuthras, by others 
Teleutas. When her father was killed in 
war by Ajax, she became the property of 
the conqueror, and by him had a son* called 
Eurysaces. 

Tectosages, a numerous and powerful 
Gallic race, whose territory lay between the 
Sinus Gallicus and the Ausci, and in the 
immediate vicinity of the Pyrenees. A 
part of them were led off by Sigovesus in 
quest of other settlements, and, passing 
through the Hercynian forest, spread them- 
selves over Pannonia and Illyricum, and 
subsequently made an inroad into Mace- 
donia. From Europe a portion of them 
then passed into Asia Minor, and at last 
occupied the central portion of what was 
called, from its Gallic settlements, Galatia. 
Ancyra was their chief city. 

Tegea or Teg^ea, Paoli, one of the 
most powerful and ancient cities of Arcadia, 
founded by Tegeates, son of Lycaon, or, 
according to others, by Alcus. Apollo and 
Pan were worshipped there, and Ceres, Pro- 
serpine, and Venus had each a temple. The 
inhabitants were called Tegeates ; and the 
epithet Tegecea was given to Atalanta, as a 
native of Tegea. Tegea furnished no less 
than 3000 soldiers to the confederate Gre- 
cian army at the battle of Platea ; it was 
spoken of as a place of importance by 



Thucydides and Xenophon, and enjoyed 
considerable prosperity long after the subju- 
gation of the Peloponnesus hy the Romans. 
Teios. See Teos. 

Telamon, king of the island of Salamis, 
son of JEacus and Endeis, brother of Peleus, 
and father of Teucer and Ajax, the latter of 
whom is thence called I'elamonius heros. 
After he had accidentally killed his step- 
brother Phocus, he fled from Megara, his 
native city, and sailed to the island of 
Salamis, where he married Glauce, daughter 
of Cychreus; and at the death of his 
father-in-law became king of Salamis. 
After the death of Glauce, by whom he 
had become the father of Ajax, he married 
Periboea, the daughter of Alcathoiis ; and, 
on the conquest of Troy by Hercules, 
whom he accompanied and aided, he re- 
ceived from that hero the hand of Hesione, 
daughter of Laomedon, and sister of Priam, 
from which union sprang Teucer, who was, 
therefore, the half-brother of Ajax. Tela- 
mon distinguished himself at the Calydo- 
nian boar-hunt, and also in the Argonautic 
expedition ; and, when the Trojan war 
broke out, he despatched his sons Ajax 
and Teucer to sustain that glory, to which 
the feebleness of age precluded him from 
any longer aspiring. On the death of 
Ajax, Telamon, indignant at the supine- 
ness of Teucer in not having avenged his 
brother's death, banished him from his 
native island. 

Telamoniades, a patronymic given to 
the descendants of Telamon. 

Telchines, an ancient race in the island 
of Rhodes, said to have been originally 
from Crete. They were the inventors of 
many useful arts, and, according to Diodo- 
rus, passed for the sons of the sea. They 
were also represented as powerful enchant- 
ers, who held in control the elements, and 
could bring clouds, rain, hail, and snow at 
pleasure. 

Telebo-s:, or Teleboes, a people of iEto- 
lia, called also Taphians. See Taphi^:. 

Teleboides, islands between Leucadia 
and Acarnania. See Taphi^e. 

Telegonus, a son of Ulysses and Circe, 
born in the island of iEa?a, where he was edu- 
cated. When arrived at the years of man- 
hood, he went to Ithaca to make himself 
known to his father, but he was ship- 
wrecked on the coast, and, being destitute of 
provisions, plundered some of the inhabit- 
ants of the island. Ulysses and Telemachus 
having come to defend the property of 
their subjects against this unknown inva- 
der, a quarrel arose, and Telegonus killed 
bis father without knowing who he was. 
He afterwards returned to his native coun- 



TEL 



TEN 



563 



try, and, according to Hyginus, carried 
thither his father's body, where it was 
buried. Telemachus and Penelope also 
accompanied him in his return, and soon 
after the nuptials of Telegonus with Pene- 
lope were celebrated by order of Minerva. 
Penelope had by Telegonus a son called 
Italus. He was said to have founded Tus- 
culum in Italy, and, according to some, 
he left one daughter called Mamilia, from 
whom the patrician family of the Mamilii 
at Rome were descended. 

Telemachus, son of Ulysses and Pene- 
lope. He was still in the cradle when 
his father went to the Trojan war ; and 
at the end of this war, being anxious to 
see his father, he went in search of him, 
and visited the court of Menelaus and 
Nestor to obtain information respecting 
him. He afterwards returned to Ithaca, 
where the suitors of his mother had con- 
spired to murder him ; but he avoided 
their snares, and by means of Minerva dis- 
covered his father, who had arrived in the 
island two days before him, and was then 
in the house of Eumasus. With this faith- 
ful servant and Ulysses, he concerted how 
to deliver his mother from the importu- 
nities of her suitors, and his efforts were 
crowned with success. After the death of 
his father he is said to have gone to the 
island of JEsea, where he married Circe, 
or, according to others, Cassi phone, daugh- 
ter of Circe, by whom he had a son called 
Latinus. 

Telephus, I., king of Mysia, son of 
Hercules and Auga, daughter of Aleus. 
After numerous adventures, which will be 
found related under Auga, he married 
one of the daughters of king Priam, whom 
he valiantly assisted against the Greeks, 
and would have been victorious in the first 
onset had not Bacchus suddenly raised a 
vine from the earth, which entangled the 
feet of the monarch, and laid him on the 
ground. Achilles rushed on him, and 
wounded him mortally ; but he was in- 
formed by the oracle that he who had in- 
flicted the wound could cure it. Upon 
this application was made to Achilles, but 
in vain. At last, however, by the per- 
suasion of Ulysses, who knew that Troy 
could not be taken without the assistance 
of one of the sons of Hercules, and who 
wished to make Telephus the friend of the 
Greeks, Achilles consented ; and as the 
weapon which had given the wound could 
alone cure it, the hero scraped the rust 
from the point of his spear, and, by apply- 
ing it to the sore, gave it immediate relief. 
Telephus showed himself so grateful to 
the Greeks, that he accompanied them to 



the Trojan war, and fought with them 
against his father-in-law. — II. A friend 
of Horace, remarkable for beauty, and ele- 
gance of person. 

Telesinus, I., a general of the Samnites, 
who joined the interest of Marius, and 
fought against the generals of Sylla. He 
marched towards Rome, and defeated 
Sylla with great loss ; but was afterwards 
routed in a bloody battle, and left in the 
number of the slain, after he had given re- 
peated proofs of courage. — II. A poet of 
considerable merit in Domitian's reign. 

Tellus, the goddess of the Earth. See 
Ops and Terra. 

Telmessus, or Telmissus, a name given 
to three towns in Asia Minor : 1. in Ly- 
cia; 2. in Caria ; 3. in Pisidia. Of these 
the city of Lycia was the most celebrated. 
Its inhabitants were famous for their skill 
in augury, and were consulted at an early 
period by Croesus, king of Lydia. The 
ruins of Telmissus are found at Mei, the 
port of Mahri ; and the theatre, porticoes, 
and sepulchral chambers excavated in the 
rocks, are some of the most remarkable 
remains of antiquity in Asia Minor. 

Telo Martius, ancient name of Toulon. 

Telphusa, a city of Arcadia, north-east 
from Herasa, celebrated for the worship of 
the goddess Erinnys and Apollo Oncaeus, 
whose temples were to be seen at a place 
called Oncaeum, on the banks of the Ladon. 
The city derived its name from Telphusa, 
a daughter of the river Ladon. There was 
a fountain here whose waters were so ex- 
tremely cold that Tiresias is said to have 
died of drinking them. 

Temenus, son of Aristomachus, and 
one of the Heraclidae. See Heraclid^. 

Temerinda, the name of the Palus 
Masotis among the natives. 

Temesa, an ancient maritime town of 
the Brutii, south of Terina, celebrated 
for its copper-mines, to which Homer is 
supposed to have referred. There was also 
a town of this name in Cyprus. 

Tempe (pi. ) a valley in Thessaly, be- 
tween Mount Olympus at the north, and 
Ossa at the south, through which the Pe- 
neus flows into the iEgean. The poets 
have described it as the most delightful spot 
on the earth ; and hence the word Tempe 
has come to be applied to all delightful 
valleys. 

Tenchtheri, a nation of Germany, who, 
in conjunction with the Usipetes, crossed 
the Rhine, were defeated by the Romans, 
and found protection and new settlements 
among the Sicambri. 

Tenedos, a small and fertile island of 
the iEgean Sea, opposite to Troy, twelve 

B B 6 



564 



TEN 



TER 



miles from Sigaeum, and fifty-six north 
from Lesbos. It was anciently called 
Leucophrys, till Tenes, son of Cycnus, 
settled there and built a town, called Te- 
nedos, from which the whole island received 
its name. The position of Tenedos, so 
near the mouth of the Hellespont, has 
always rendered it a place of importance 
in both ancient and modern times. But 
it was chiefly known for its connection 
with Troy, and for being the place to 
which the Greeks retired and lay in am- 
bush while the wooden horse was received 
within the walls of the doomed city. 

Tenes, son of Cycnus, king of Colonas, 
a town of Troas, and of Proclea the 
daughter of Clytius. After the death of 
Proclea, Cycnus married Philonome, 
daughter of Craugasus, who became en- 
amoured of Tenes ; but, finding it im- 
possible to shake his principles of duty, 
she accused him to her husband of an act 
of violence. The father believed the 
charge, and, confining Tenes and his sister 
in an ark or coffer (es XapvaKa), cast them 
into the sea. They both, however, came 
safe to Tenedos, then called Leucophrys, 
the name of which Tenes changed to 
Tenedos after himself, and became monarch 
of the island. Some time after, Cycnus 
discovered the guilt of his wife Philonome, 
and, as he wished to be reconciled to his 
son, whom he had so grossly injured, he 
went to Tenedos ; but, when he had se- 
cured his ship to the shore, Tenes cut the 
fastenings with a hatchet, and suffered his 
father's ship to be tossed about in the sea. 
From this circumstance, the hatchet of 
Tenes became proverbial to intimate a re- 
sentment that could not be pacified. Te- 
nes was killed by Achilles as he defended 
his island against the Greeks, and received 
divine honours after death. 

Tenos, a small island in the jEgean, 
near Andros, called also Hydrussa, from 
the number of its springs. It produced 
excellent wines. The capital was also 
called Tenos. Near the town was situated 
a temple of Neptune, held in great vener- 
ation, and much frequented by the inhab- 
itants of the surrounding isles. 

Tentyra (plur.) and Tentyris, a city 
of Egypt in the Thebaid, situate on the 
Nile, to the north-west of Koptos. This 
city was at variance with Ombos, the for- 
mer killing, the latter adoring, the cro- 
codile. About half a league from the 
ruins of this city stands the modern village 
of Denderah. Among the remains of 
Tentyra is a temple of Isis, one of the 
largest structures in the Thebaid, and by 
far the most beautiful, and in the best pre- 



servation. The famous zodiac, which was 
framed in the ceiling of the temple, was 
taken down by the French traveller, M. 
Lelorrain, after the most persevering ex- 
ertions for twenty days, and transported 
down the Nile to Alexandria, whence it 
was shipped to France. 

Teos or Teios, Boudroun, a city on the 
east of Ionia, situated upon a peninsula 
south-west of Smyrna. It belonged to the 
Ionian confederacy, and had a harbour 
called Geraesticus. During the Persian 
sway the inhabitants abandoned their na- 
tive city and retired to Abdera in Thrace. 
This colony became so flourishing in con- 
sequence, that it quite eclipsed the parent 
state. Teos is celebrated for having given 
birth to Anacreon, Hecataeus the historian, 
Protagoras the sophist, Scythinus an Iam- 
bic poet, Andron a geographical writer, 
and Apellicon the great book- collector, to 
whom literature is indebted for the pre- 
servation of the works of Aristotle. The 
chief produce of the Teian territory was 
wine ; and Bacchus was the deity princi- 
pally revered by the inhabitants. 

Terentia, the wife of Cicero, mother 
of M. Cicero, and of Tulliola. Cicero 
having repudiated her, she married Sallust, 
Cicero's enemy, and afterwards Messala 
Corvinus. She lived to her one hundred 
and third, or, according to Pliny, to her 
one hundred and seventeenth year. 

Terentianus, I., a Roman to whom 
Longinus dedicated his treatise on the 
Sublime. — II. Maurus, a grammarian. 
See Maurus Terentianus. 

Terentius Publius, a Latin Comic poet, 
a native of Carthage, born about the 
560th year of Rome. In what manner he 
came or was brought to the latter city is 
uncertain. He was in his earliest youth 
the slave of one Terentius Lucanus at 
Rome, a Roman senator, who educated 
him, and manumitted him for the bril- 
liancy of his genius. Scipio, the elder 
Africanus, and his friend Laelius, have 
been suspected of assisting the poet in the 
composition of his Comedies ; and the fine 
language, pure expressions, and delicate 
sentiments, with which the plays of Te- 
rence abound, perhaps favour the supposi- 
tion. After he had given six comedies to 
the stage, Terence left Rome for Greece, 
whence he never returned. According to 
one account he perished at sea while on 
his voyage from Greece to Italy, bringing 
with him one hundred and eight comedies, 
which he had translated from Menander. 
According to others, he died in Arcadia 
for grief at the loss of those comedies, 
which he had sent before him by sea to 



TER 



TET 



565 



Rome. In whatever way it was occa- 
sioned, his death happened at the early 
age of thirty-four. The titles of his six 
plays are : the Andria, Eunuchus, Heauton- 
timoroumenos, Adelphi, Phormio, and Hecyra. 

Terentus, a place on the edge of the 
Campus Martius, close to the Tiber, where 
there was an altar sacred to Pluto and 
Proserpine, buried under the earth, which 
was uncovered at the celebration of the se- 
cular games only. 

Tereus, L, a king of Thrace, son of 
Mars and Bistonis. He married Progne, 
daughter of Pandion, king of Athens, 
whom he had assisted in a war against 
Megara, and became the father of Itys. 
(See Progne and Philomela.) — II. A 
friend of iEneas, killed by Camilla. 

Tergeste and Tergestum, Trieste, a 
town of Italy, on the Adriatic, at the north- 
eastern extremity of the Sinus Tergestinus, 
Gulf of Trieste, made a Roman colony. 
Traces of an amphitheatre, and of the Ro- 
man buildings, are to be seen in the modern 
city. 

Terina, St. Eufemia, a town of the 
Brutii, on the coast of the Mare Tyrrhe- 
num. The adjacent bay is called Sinus 
Terinceus. It was destroyed by Hannibal, 
but afterwards restored. 

Terioli, Tirol, a fortified town at the 
north of Italy, in the country of the Grisons. 

Termil-s:, a name given to the Lycians. 
See Lycia. 

Terminalia, an annual festival at Rome, 
observed in honour of the god Terminus, 
in the month of February. It was then 
usual for peasants to assemble near the 
principal landmarks which separated their 
fields, and, after they had crowned them 
with garlands and flowers, to make liba- 
tions of milk and wine, and to sacrifice a 
lamb or a young pig. This festival was ori- 
ginally established by Numa ; and though 
at first it was forbidden to shed the blood 
of victims, yet, in process of time, land- 
marks were plentifully sprinkled, with it. 

Terminus, a divinity at Rome, who was 
supposed to preside over boundaries. His 
worship was first introduced at Rome by 
Numa. His temple was on the Tar- 
peian rock, and he was represented with a 
human head, without feet or arms, to inti- 
mate that he never moved, wherever he 
was. It is said that when Tarquin the 
Proud wished to build a temple on the 
Tarpeian rock to Jupiter, the god Ter- 
minus alone refused to give way. 

Terpander, a lyric poet and musician 
of Lesbos, b.c. 670. When still young he 
came to Peloponnesus, and was crowned 
victor (b. c. 676), in the musical contests 



then first introduced at the feast of Apollo 
Carneius. He was also victor four suc- 
cessive times in the musical contest at the 
Pythian temple of Delphi. Terpander 
added three strings to the lyre, which pre- 
viously only had four. 

Terpsichore, one of the Muses, daugh- 
ter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She pre- 
sided over dancing, of which she was 
reckoned the inventress, and in which, as 
her name intimates, she took delight (from 
repirco, to delight, and x°P° s > a chorus or 
dance). To her was sometimes ascribed 
the invention of the cithara, and not to 
Mercury. She is represented like a young 
virgin crowned with laurel, and holding in 
her hand a musical instrument. 

Terra, one of the most ancient deities 
in classical mythology, wife of Uranus, and 
mother of Oceanus, the Titans, Cyclopes, 
Giants, Thea, Rhea, Themis, Phoebe, Tethys, 
and Mnemosyne. See Ops and Tellus. 

Terracina, originally called Anxur, a 
famous maritime city of Latium, capital 
of the Volsci, situated north-east from the 
Circeian Promontory ; and built long prior 
to the foundation of Rome. It was taken 
by the Romans b. c. 403, retaken by sur- 
prise four years afterwards, and taken 
again by the Romans b. c. 396. It after- 
wards became a Roman colony, and as- 
sumed the name of Tarracina. During the 
second Punic war the temple of Jupiter at 
Tarracina is mentioned by Livy as having 
been struck by lightning ; but it continued 
to flourish down to the period of Alaric, 
by whom it was taken and sacked. 

Tertullianus, J. Septimius Florens, 
a celebrated Christian writer of Carthage, 
flourished a. d. 196. He was origi- 
nally a pagan, but afterwards embraced 
Christianity, of which he became an able 
advocate. His writings show an ardent 
and impassioned spirit, a brilliant imagin- 
ation, powerful reasoning, a high degree 
of natural talent, and profound erudition. 

Tethys, the greatest of the sea-deities, 
wife of Oceanus, daughter of Uranus and 
Terra, and mother of the chief rivers of the 
universe, Nile, Peneus, Simois, Scamander, 
&c.,and about three thousand daughters, 
called Oceanides. The name Tethys is said 
to signify Nurse. 

Tetrapolis, I., a name given to the 
city of Antioch, capital of Syria, because 
divided into four districts, each of which 
resembled a city. (See Antioch). — II. 
The name of Doris in Greece. See Doris. 

Tetkica, a mountain of the Sabines, 
near the Fabaris. 

Tetricus, a Roman senator, one of the 
so-called thirty tyrants, who sprang up in 



566 



TEU 



THA 



the Roman empire during the third century 
of our era. After the death of Victorinus 
he was proclaimed emperor, and retained 
possession of Spain, Gaul, and Britain, till 
Aurelian was invested with the purple, 
when, disgusted with the means necessary to 
retain his powers, he resigned the crown to 
the latter at the very moment his troops 
were drawn up to fight in his behalf, a. d. 
274. Together with his son, of the same 
name, he adorned the triumph of Aurelian, 
who, however, treated him humanely, and 
even made him governor of Lucania, in 
which capacity he died. 

Teucer, I., a king of Phrygia, son of 
the Scamander by an Idsean nymph. His 
daughter Batea married Dardanus, a Sa- 
mothracian prince, who succeeded him. 
(See Dardanus. ) His subjects were called 
Teucri. — II. A son of Telamon, king of 
Salamis, by Hesione, daughter of Lao- 
medon. He was one of Helen's suitors, 
and accordingly accompanied the Greeks 
to the Trojan war, where he greatly signa- 
lised himself. His father (see Telamon) 
having refused to receive him into his king- 
dom, for having left the death of his brother 
Ajax unrevenged, he left Salamis, and re- 
tired to Cyprus, where, with the assistance 
of Belus, king of Sidon, he built a town 
called Sala?7iis, after his native country. 

Teucri, a name given to the Trojans, 
from Teucer, their king. According to 
Virgil, the Teucri were a colony from 
Crete, who settled in Troas previous to 
the founding of Troy, and were the 
founders of the Trojan race; but the 
general opinion is, that the inhabitants of 
Troas assumed this appellation from Teucer 
or Teucrus, son of the Scamander, one of 
their kings. See Teucer. 

Teucria, a name given to Troy from 
Teucer, one of its kings. 

Teuta, a queen of Illyricum, b. c. 231, 
who ordered some Roman ambassadors to 
be put to death, an act of violence which 
gave rise to a war that ended in her over- 
throw. 

Teuta s, or Teutates, a name of Mer- 
cury among the Gauls and Britons. He 
was appeased by human victims. 

Teuthras, a king of Mysia on the bor- 
ders of the Caicus. (See Telephus. ) The 
fifty daughters of Teuthras, who became 
mothers by Hercules, are called Teuthran- 
tia turba. 

Teutoburgiensis Saltus, a forest of 
Germany, lying east from Paderborn, and 
reaching to the territory of Osnabruck, 
famous for the slaughter of Varus and his 
three legions by the Germans under Ar- 
minius. 



Teutoni, and Teutones, several united 
tribes of Germany, who with the Cimbri 
made incursions into Gaul, and cut to 
pieces two Roman armies ; but were at last 
defeated by the consul Marius, near Aquas 
Sextia?, Aix. b. c. 102. — (See Cimbri.) 
The name derived from their all worship- 
ping the same deity, Tuiscon, Teut. 

Thais, a famous courtesan of Athens, 
who accompanied Alexander in his Asiatic 
conquests, and is said to have instigated 
him to burn the royal palace of Persepolis. 
After Alexander's death, she married Pto- 
lemy, son of Lagus, king of Egypt, by 
whom she had two sons, and a daughter 
named Irene. 

Thala, a town of Africa, in the domi- 
nions of Jugurtha, also called Telepte. 

Thalame, a town of Messenia, famous 
for a temple and oracle of Pasiphae. 

Thalassius, a young Roman, whose 
union with one of the Sabine maidens whom 
he had carried off was attended with so 
much happiness, that it was usual at Rome 
to use the word Thalassius at nuptials, and 
wish those who were married the felicity 
of Thalassius. He was afterwards deified, 
and worshipped, according to some, under 
the name of Hymen. 

Thales, one of the seven wise men of 
Greece, born of Phoenician parents, at 
Miletus in Ionia, b. c. 640. He travelled 
in quest of knowledge in Crete, Phoenicia, 
and Egypt, and on his return took an 
active part in public affairs. Astronomical, 
as well as mathematical, science seems to 
have received considerable improvements 
from Thales ; and he was so well ac- 
quainted with the celestial motions as to 
be able to predict an eclipse. He taught 
the Greeks the division of the heavens into 
five zones, and the solstitial and equinoc- 
tial points ; he corrected their calendar, 
and made their year contain 365 days. 
Like Homer, he looked on water as the 
principle of every thing ; and is said to 
have been the founder of the Ionian school. 
His most celebrated pupils and successors 
were Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxa- 
goras, and Archelaus, the master of So- 
crates. He died at the age of ninety-six. 

Thalestris, otherwise called Minithya, 
a queen of the Amazons, who, accompanied 
by 300 women, came twenty-five days' 
journey, through the most hostile nations, 
to have an interview with Alexander, 
during his Asiatic conquests. 

Thalia, ("the Blooming one") I., one 
of the Muses, generally regarded as the 
patroness of comedy. She was supposed 
by some, also, to preside over husbandry 
and planting, and is represented leaning on 



THA 



THE 



567 



a column, holding a mask in her right 
hand, by which she is distinguished from 
hex sisters, as also by a shepherd's crook. 
— II. One of the Graces. See Charites. j 

Thalpius, a son of Eurytus, one of j 
Helen's suitors. 

Thamiras, a Cilician, who first intro- 
duced the art of augury into Cyprus. 

Thamtris, an early Thracian bard, son ' 
of Philammon and Argiope, who having 
challenged the Muses to a trial of skill, 
was conquered, and deprived of sight for 
his presumption. 

Thapsaces, an ancient, populous, and 
commercial city of Syria, on the western 
bank of the Euphrates, nearly opposite to 
the modern Racca. Near it was the cele- 
brated ford crossed by Cyrus the Younger 
in his expedition against Artaxerxes ; 
afterwards by Darius after his defeat by 
Alexander at Issus ; and about three years 
later by Alexander in pursuit of Darius, 
previous to the battle of Arbela. 

Thafsus, I., Z)emsas, a maritime city of 
Africa Propria, south-east of Hadrumetum, 
where Scipio and Juba were defeated by 
Ceesar. — II. A town on the eastern coast 
of Sicily, a little north of Syracuse. It 
was situated on a peninsula, which was 
sometimes called an island, and now bears 
the name of Maeronisi. 

Thargelia, festivals celebrated in 
Greece in honour of Apollo and Diana : 
they lasted two days, during which the 
youngest of both sexes carried olive- 
branches, on which were suspended cakes 
and fruits. 

Thasius, or Thrasius, I., a famous 
soothsayer of Cyprus, who, having told Bu- 
siris, king of Egypt, that to stop a dreadful 
plague he must offer a foreigner to Jupi- 
ter, was himself sacrificed by the king, on 
the ground that he was a foreigner. — II. 
A surname of Hercules, worshipped at 
Thasos. 

Thasos, or Thasl's, now Thaso or Tasso, 
a small but celebrated island in the JEgean, 
on the coast of Thrace, opposite the mouth 
of the Nestus, anciently known by the 
names of Acte, iEria, JEthria, Ceresis, 
Chryse, Odonis, Ogygia. It received, at 
a very remote period, a colony of Phoe- 
nicians, under the conduct of Thasus, from 
whom it received its name, and was re- 
colonised by a party of Parians, among 
whom was the poet Archilochus, about 
b. c. 708. Histiaeus the Milesian, during 
the disturbances occasioned by the Ionian 
revolt, fruitlessly endeavoured to make 
himself master of this island, which was 
subsequently conquered by Mardonius, 
when the Thasians were commanded to j 



pull down their fortifications, and remove 
their ships to Abdera. On the expulsion 
of the Persians from Greece, Thasus, to- 
gether with the other islands on this coast, 
became tributary to Athens. The Tha- 
sians, however, having subsequently re- 
volted, were besieged for three years, and 
on their surrender their fortifications were 
destroyed, and their ships of war removed 
to Athens. After the great failure of the 
Athenians in Sicily it once more revolted, 
at which time a change was effected in the 
government of the island from democracy 
to oligarchy. Little notice is afterwards 
taken of Thasus in history. It fell into 
the possession of the Romans b. c. 197 ; 
and under the emperors it was called 
" Libera," or the free state. Besides its 
gold and silver mines, which yielded a 
large revenue, Thasus was celebrated for 
its wines, marble quarries, and numerous 
other valuable productions. The capital 
of the island, also called Thasos, occupied 
three eminences on the northern coast, 
and numerous ruins still exist to attest its 
former splendour. 

ThatjmacIj Thaurnakon, a city of Thes- 
saly, in the district of Phthiotis, north of 
the Sinus Maliacus, said to have derived 
its name from the singularity of its situ- 
ation on the pinnacle of a lofty perpen- 
dicular rock, and the astonishment (daCjua) 
produced on the minds of travellers upon 
first reaching it. 

Thaumantias and Thaemantis, a name 
given to Iris, messenger of Juno, because 
daughter of Thaumas ( Wonder), son of 
Oceamis and Terra, by one of the Ocea- 
nides. 

Theaxo, I., daughter of Cisseus, and 
sister of Hecuba. She married Antenor, 
and, being priestess also of Minerva, was 
prevailed upon by her husband to deliver 

up the Palladium to the Greeks II. 

The wife of the philosopher Pythagoras, 
daughter of Pythanax of Crete, or, accord- 
ing to others, of Brontinus of Crotona. — 
III. The daughter of Pythagoras. — IV. 
The mother of Pausanias. She was the 
first who brought a stone to the entrance 
of Minerva's temple to shut up her son, 
when she heard of his perfidy to his coun- 
try. See Pausanias L 

Theb^;, a name common to numerous 
cities in the ancient world, of which the 
most celebrated are, I., Thebae, the capital 
of Bceotia, and one of the most ancient and 
important cities of Greece, situated near 
the Ismenus in the plain between Lake 
Hylice on the north, and a range of low 
hills on the south. It was founded by a 
colony of Phoenicians under Cadmus. 



568 



THE 



THE 



whence it was also called Cadmeia, and 
fortified by Zethus and Amphion, whose 
music is said to have made the stones move 
and form the walls around the city. Long 
previously to the Trojan war it was be- 
sieged by the Argive chiefs, the allies of 
Polynices : the Thebans successfully re- 
sisted their attacks, and finally obtained 
a signal victory; but the Epigoni, or de- 
scendants of the seven warriors, having 
raised an army to avenge the defeat and 
death of their fathers, the city was on this 
occasion taken by assault and sacked. It 
took no part in the siege of Troy ; but in 
the time of Homer, who speaks of its seven 
gates, it appears to have once more attained 
considerable prosperity. It was invested 
by the Grecian army under Pausanias, 
after the battle of Plataea ; but, on the 
surrender of those who had proved them- 
selves most zealous partisans of the Per- 
sians, the siege was raised, and the con- 
federates withdrew from the Theban ter- 
ritory. Her jealousy of the Athenians 
afterwards induced her to form an alli- 
ance with the Lacedaemonians, to whom 
she was of great service in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war ; but, after its conclusion, 
the Lacedaemonians, finding a favourable 
opportunity, reduced Thebes under their 
dominion, established in it their favourite 
form of government, aristocracy, and placed 
a garrison in the citadel. It was freed, 
however, by the valour of Pelopidas, under 
whose able conduct, and that of Epami- 
nondas, it became for a time the most 
powerful city in Greece. After the battle 
of Chseronea, in which the Thebans bore a 
principal part, Philip placed a garrison in 
the citadel of Thebes ; but, on his death, 
the Thebans rose in arms against his son, 
Alexander the Great. The latter, how- 
ever, having taken the city by storm, 
B. c. 335, rased it to the foundations, the 
house that had been occupied by Pindar 
being alone excepted from the general de- 
struction ; such of the inhabitants, amount- 
ing, it is said, to 30,000, as had not been 
killed, being at the same time sold as 
slaves. But about twenty years after this 
catastrophe the city was rebuilt by Cas- 
sander, when the Athenians, forgetting the 
ancient animosities that had subsisted be- 
tween them and the Thebans, generously 
contributed towards the reconstruction of 
the walls. Subsequently the city under- 
went many vicissitudes. It appears to have 
suffered from the exactions of Sylla ; and in 
the time of Strabo it was reduced to a mere 
village. Inscriptions, and traces of monu- 
ments, and public buildings, are still found 
in Tfieba or Stiva, which occupies the site 



of the ancient city. Besides Epaminondas 
and Pelopidas, Thebes gave birth to He- 
siod and Pindar, and many other dis- 
tinguished individuals. — II. An ancient 
and celebrated city of Africa, called also 
Diospolis, and in the Scriptures No, 
situated in the centre of Upper Egypt, 
which was thence called Thebaid. Its 
origin is lost in the obscurity of anti- 
quity ; but its foundation has been ascribed 
to Osiris, and its most flourishing period 
appears to have been about b. c. 1700. 
Its greatness, wealth, and splendour are 
mentioned by Homer, who calls it " the 
city with a hundred gates" (Hecatom- 
pylos). The seat of government had been 
removed from Thebes to Memphis (near 
Cairo), previously to the invasion and 
conquest of Egypt by the Persians un- 
der Cambyses. This event took place 
b. c. 525, when, according to Diodorus, 
the Persians plundered and set fire to 
Thebes. It appears, however, to have, in 
some degree, recovered from this disaster. 
But after the conquest of Egypt by the 
Greeks, their whole attention was directed 
to the improvement and embellishment of 
Alexandria, so that the cities in Upper 
Egypt, and especially Thebes, progres- 
sively declined in importance and popu- 
lation. Its fall was accelerated by its 
having revolted against Ptolemy Philo- 
pater, by whom it was subsequently re- 
duced, and given up to military exe- 
cution. The ruins of Thebes, consisting 
of temples, sphinxes, colossi and obelisks, 
occupy an extent of nearly six miles, and 
convey an indelible impression of the former 
grandeur and splendour of this once mighty 
city. — III. A city of Mysia, surnamed 
Hypoplacia, from lying under the woody 
mountain of Placos. At the commence- 
ment of the Trojan war it was possessed 
by the Cilicians, whose king was Eetion, 
the father of Andromache ; but it was taken 
and sacked by Achilles, and never rebuilt. 
— IV. Phthioticse, a city of Thessaly, in 
the district of Phthiotis, about 300 stadia 
from Larissa, and not far from the sea. 
It possessed considerable commercial im- 
portance from the excellence of its har- 
bour ; and in a military point of view 
its influence was also great, as it com- 
manded the great roads of Magnesia and 
Thessaly, from its vicinity to Demetrias, 
Pliers, and Pharsalus. 

Thebais, L, the name given to the 
territory or district in which Thebes, the 
capital of Boeotia, was situated. In a 
similar, though in a much wider, sense 
it was the name of one of the two great 
divisions of ancient Egypt. (See ^Egyptus 



THE 



THE 



569 



IT.) — II. The title of one of Statius's 
poems. 

Thebe, I. See Theb,e. — II. Wife of 
Alexander, tyrant of Phera?, persuaded by 
Pelopidas to murder her husband. 

Themis, the Grecian goddess of Justice 
or Law, daughter of Heaven and Earth, 
and mother by Jupiter of the Fates, the 
Seasons, Peace, Order, Justice, and all 
deities beneficial to mankind. Themis is 
said to have succeeded her mother Earth 
in the possession of the Delphic oracle, 
and to have voluntarily resigned it to her 
sister Phoebe, who gave it as a natal gift 
to Phoebus Apollo. She is generally 
represented in a form resembling that of 
Athene, but carrying the horn of plenty 
in one hand, and a pair of scales in the 
other. 

Themiscyra, an ancient city of Pontus, 
capital of a district of the same name, 
whose exact site has never been ascertained. 
Diodorus ascribes its origin to the Ama- 
zons, who are said to have founded a 
powerful kingdom on the Thermodon, 
where they were afterwards conquered by 
Hercules, and many slain. The city was 
destroyed in the course of the Mithri- 
datic war. 

Themison, a famous physician, born at 
Laodicea about b. c. 90. He was a dis- 
ciple of Asclepiades, from whose opinions, 
however, he afterwards dissented, and, hav- 
ing repaired to Rome, became the founder 
of a sect called Methodici, because he 
wished to introduce a greater degree of 
precision into the science of medicine than 
existed before his time. 

Themistius of Paphlagonia, a cele- 
brated orator and philosopher, in the 
fourth century a. d., called Evphrades, 
" fine speaker," from his eloquent delivery. 
Constantius elevated him to the rank of 
senator. Julian made him prefect of 
Constantinople, a. d. 362, and kept up 
an epistolary correspondence with him. 
He was highly regarded, too, by the suc- 
cessors of this prince down to Theodosius 
the Great, who confided to him, although 
he was a pagan, the education of his son 
Arcadius. He was employed also on 
various public matters, and on several em- 
bassies. Themistius was the master of 
Libanius and St. Augustin; and an inti- 
mate friendship subsisted between him 
and Gregory of Nazianzus, who styled 
him "the king of arguments." Themis- 
tius resided for some time also at Home, 
and, both in this city as well as in Con- 
stantinople, he lectured on the systems of 
Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, but 
more particularly the latter. Several of 



his orations and philosophical works are 
still extant. 

Themisto. See Athamas. 

Themistocles, I., a celebrated general, 
son of Neocles and Euterpe, or Abro- 
tonum, a native of Caria, Thrace, or 
Acarnania, was born at Athens b. c. 514. 
Numerous anecdotes are told of his 
youthful waywardness, and of his assi- 
duous preference of the useful to the 
elegant arts ; but all his juvenile pursuits 
tended to develope those brilliant quali- 
ties, both as a statesman and a general, 
which he afterwards displayed. He fought 
at Marathon under Miltiades, and for se- 
veral years afterwards took an active part 
in public affairs ; but it was not till b. c. 
482, the year after Aristides' banishment, 
of which he had been one of the chief 
authors, that he became archon Epony- 
mus, the democratic party to which he 
was attached being then omnipotent at 
Athens. He then commenced that career 
of policy by which he sought to extend 
the naval power of Athens, and which 
resulted in making the Athenians the 
supreme power in Greece. With the de- 
sign apparently of reducing iEgina, but 
in reality with the object of making pre- 
parations for the Persian invasion, which, 
as he anticipated, was at hand, he in- 
duced the people to consent to the produce 
of the silver mines of Laurion, which used 
to be divided among them, being devoted 
to the building of ships of war ; and they 
soon had a fleet of two hundred triremes 
afloat in their harbours. He also prevailed on 
the Athenians to pass a decree that, for the 
purpose of keeping up their navy, twenty 
new ships should be built every year. The 
wisdom of his views soon became appa- 
rent. When Xerxes, son of Darius, flushed 
with the inglorious victory of Thermo- 
pylae, was advancing towards Athens, 
b. c. 480, the Athenians, by the advice of 
Themistocles, sought refuge in Salamis and 
the adjacent islands ; and the combined 
fleet of the Peloponnesians being entrusted 
to his care, Eurybiades, however, the Spar- 
tan commander, being the nominal head, he 
directed all his operations to destroy the ar- 
mament of Xerxes, and ruin his maritime 
power. An engagement had been fought 
in the spring at Artemisium, in which the 
Greeks, aided by a storm, which damaged 
the ships of the Persians, gained a consider- 
able advantage ; but the numbers of the 
enemy had struck the Greeks with great 
alarm, and a decisive battle would never 
have been fought if Themistocles, finding 
threats and entreaties to be of no avail, 
had not had recourse to a stratagem to 



570 



THE 



THE 



compel them to fight. He sent a message 
to the Persian admiral, informing him that 
the Greeks were on the point of dispers- 
ing, and that if the Persians would attack 
them while they were assembled, they 
would easily conquer them all at once, 
whereas it would otherwise be necessary 
to defeat them one after another. This 
apparently well-meant advice was eagerly 
taken up by the enemy, who now hasten- 
ed, as he thought, to destroy the fleet of 
the Greeks. But the event proved the 
wisdom of Themistocles. The unwieldy 
armament of the Persians, unable to per- 
form any movements in the narrow straits 
between the island of Salamis and the main- 
land, became an easy prey to their oppo- 
nents, who gained a most complete and 
brilliant victory, losing only forty ships, 
while the Persians lost two hundred, or, 
according to Ctesias, even five hundred. 
Very soon after the victory was decided, 
Xerxes, with the remains of his fleet, 
left the Attic coast, and sailed towards 
the Hellespont. Themistocles, in the 
mean time, in order to get completely rid 
of the king and his fleet, sent a message 
to him, exhorting him to hasten back to 
Asia as speedily as possible, for otherwise 
he would be in danger of having his re- 
treat cut off. In accordance with this ad- 
vice, Xerxes hastened from Greece, and his 
fleets became an easy conquest to the vic- 
torious Greeks. After the Persian army 
had been defeated at Platea and Mycale, 
b. c. 479, Themistocles used his influence 
with the Athenians to have the fortifications 
restored on a much larger scale than before 
the invasion of Xerxes ; and, notwithstand- 
ing the remonstrances of the Spartans, the 
three ports of Phalerum, Munychia, and 
Piraeus were fortified with a double range 
of walls, and the last-mentioned harbour 
connected by long walls with the city of 
Athens. But in the midst of his glory 
the conqueror of Xerxes incurred the dis- 
pleasure of his countrymen. He was 
accused of participating in the conspiracy 
of Pausanias ; and although nothing was 
proved against him, he was banished by 
the ostracism, b. c. 471. He first took up 
his residence at Argos, but subsequently 
found refuge with Artaxerxes, son of the 
prince whom his skill and valour had 
driven from Greece, who received him with 
kindness, made him one of his greatest 
favourites, and bestowed three rich cities 
on him, to provide him with bread, wine, 
and meat. The manner of his death is 
uncertain : some affirm that he poisoned 
himself, others that he fell a prey to a 
violent distemper. His bones were con* 



veyed to Attica, and honoured with a 
magnificent tomb by the Athenians, 
who began to repent too late of their 
cruelty to the saviour of his country. 
He died in his sixty-sixth year, about b. c. 
449. 

Theocxymencs, son of Thestor, a sooth- 
sayer of Argolis, who foretold to Penelope 
and Telemachus the speedy return of 
Ulysses. 

Theocritus, a celebrated Greek Bu- 
colic poet, son of Praxagoras and Philinna, 
a native of Syracuse, flourished under 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, 
and Hiero II. of Syracuse, b. c. 270. 
He was instructed, in his earlier years, by 
Asclepiades of Samos and Philetas of 
Cos ; subsequently he became the friend 
of Aratus, and passed a part of his days at 
Alexandria, and the remainder in Sicily. 
It has been supposed that he was strangled 
by order of Hiero, king of Sicily, in re- 
venge for some satirical invectives. Of 
his poetical compositions thirty idyllia 
and some epigrams are extant, which are 
universally admired for beauty, elegance, 
and simplicity. 

Theodamas, or Thiodamas, a king of 
Mysia, in Asia Minor, killed by Hercules 
because he refused to treat him and his 
son Hyllus with hospitality. 

Theodectes, a Greek orator and poet 
of Phaselis in Pamphylia, son of Aristan- 
der, and disciple of Isocrates. He wrote 
fifty tragedies, and was one of the poets 
selected by Queen Artemisia to pronounce 
funeral eulogiums upon her husband Mau- 
solus. He died at Athens. 

Theodora, a name common to many 
empresses of Rome and of the East, after 
the division of the empire. 

Theodoretus, one of the Greek fathers, 
a native of Antioch, and a disciple of 
Chrysostom, made bishop of Cyrrhus, in 
Syria, a. d. 420. He at first embraced the 
opinions of Nestorius, but subsequently 
wrote against that heresiarch. His zeal 
for the Catholic faith rendered him ob- 
noxious to the Eutychians, by whom he 
was deposed in the synod which they held 
at Ephesus; but he was restored to his 
diocese by the council of Chalcedon, a. d. 
451, and spent the remainder of his life 
in literary pursuits. He died a.d. 457, 
in the sixty-fifth year of his age. Besides 
various other works, Theodoret is the 
author of a history commencing a. d. 324, 
where that of Eusebius ends, and con- 
tinued down to a, d. 457. 

Theqporjcus, I,, son of Alaric, suc- 
ceeded Wallia, king of the Visigoths, a. d. 
419, He invaded Gaul during the latter 



THE 



THE 



571 



years of the reign of Theodosius IT., and 
laid siege to Aries, a. d. 425 ; but the city 
was relieved by Aetius, general of Valen- 
tinian III., with whom he concluded a 
peace which lasted three years. In con- 
sequence of a misunderstanding, Theodoric 
besieged Narbonne, a. p. 436 ; and shortly 
after, having defeated Count Litorius, 
an able general of Aetius, who had ad- 
vanced at the head of an army of Huns to 
the very gates of Toulouse, he concluded 
a treaty of amity with Aetius himself, who 
had hastened with a powerful force to 
avenge the defeat of his friend. Theo- 
doric thenceforth devoted himself to the 
promotion of the welfare of his subjects : 
but on the invasion of Gaul by Attila, 
a. d. 450, he took up arms in conjunction 
with Aetius ; and having met the forces 
of the Huns at Chalons sur Marne, he fell 
at the commencement of an engagement in 
which his troops were victorious, a. d. 
451. — II. Sur named the Great, son of 
Theodemir, king of the Ostrogoths, was 
born a. d. 451. He received his edu- 
cation at Constantinople, whither he had 
been sent as a hostage in his eighth year. 
On his return, a. d. 472, he distinguished 
himself by the subjugation of some Sla- 
vonian tribes, and accompanied his father 
on an expedition into Thessaly, which re- 
sulted in a large accession of territory to 
the Goths. He succeeded to the throne 
a. d. 475 ; and after a long reign, during 
which his talents both as a general, a states- 
man, and a legislator, were conspicuous, 
died a. ». 526. 

Theodorus, I., a disciple of Arete, 
daughter of Aristippus, and afterwards 
the successor of Anniceris in the Cy- 
renaic school, lived about the beginning 
of the fifth century b. c. Having been 
banished from Cyrene, his native city, for 
the freedom of his religious opinions, he 
took refuge in Athens; but his impiety 
would have proved fatal to him there, had 
not Demetrius Phalereus interposed in his 
favour, and procured him an asylum at the 
court of Ptolemy Soter. After a long inter- 
val he returned to Athens, where he is said 
to have at last suffered death by hemlock 
for his contempt of the Grecian supersti- 
tions. Theodorus the philosopher of Cyrene 
must not be confounded with the mathe- 
matician of the same name and place, 
who is mentioned among the teachers of 
Plato. — II. A rhetorician of Gadara, or 
more properly of Rhodes. He was the 
preceptor of Tiberius, afterwards emperor, 
whom he is said to have described as a 
mixture of mud and blood (irrjKbp a(fj.ari 
irMpvpafievov). 



Theodosia, Caffa, a town on the south- 
east side of the Tauric Chersonese. 

Theodosiopolis, I., a town of Armenia, 
built by Theodosius, east of Arze, on the 
river Araxes. It was a frontier town of 
the lower empire, and is now called Has- 
san- Gala, and otherwise Cali-cala, or the 
Beautiful Castle. — II. More anciently 
called Resaina, nowRas-ain, a city of Meso- 
potamia, on the Chaboras, founded by a 
colony in the reign of Septimius Severus ; 
hence it was sometimes called Colonia 
Septimia Resainesiorum. 

Theodosius, I., a distinguished officer 
in the reign of Valentinian I., whose 
brave and skilful conduct preserved Bri- 
tain and recovered Africa. He was un- 
justly put to death by Gratian shortly after 
the latter's accession to the throne, a. d. 376. 
— II. Flavius, surnamed "the Great," a 
celebrated Roman emperor, son of the pre- 
ceding, born a. d. 345. He was invested 
with the imperial purple by Gratian, who 
made him his colleague, and gave him the 
eastern empire, with the addition of Illy- 
ricum, a. d. 379. The first years of his reign 
were marked by different conquests over 
the barbarians. The Goths were defeated 
in Thrace, and 4000 of their chariots with 
an immense number of prisoners were the 
rewards of the victory. The inveterate 
enemies of Rome now sued for peace, and 
treaties of alliance were made with distant 
nations. His reign was not less devoted to 
religion than to polities ; and his zeal for 
Christianity led him to adopt severe mea- 
sures against pagans and heretics. Du- 
ring the civil wars in the West he made 
two successful campaigns in Italy ; and, 
after the defeat and death of the usurper 
Eugenius, he became sole emperor of the 
Roman world. Convinced, however, of 
the necessity of an emperor in each of the 
imperial cities, he assigned to his younget 
son Honorius the sceptre of the Western 
empire, and associated Arcadius the elder 
with himself in the East. Scarcely had he 
completed this arrangement, when his con- 
stitution, which had always been feeble, 
gave way, and he expired, to the universal 
regret of the empire, a. d. 395, in the 
fifty-first year of his age. — III. Grandson 
of the preceding, was born a. d. 401, and 
succeeded his father Arcadius as emperor 
of the eastern Roman empire, though only 
in his eighth year. The reins of govern- 
ment were assumed by Athenius, the prae- 
fectus pra?torio, who carried it on till a. d. 
414, when he voluntarily resigned it into 
the hands of Pulcheria, sister of the em- 
peror ; but during the whole of his subse- 
quent reign. Theodosius took no interest iu 



572 



THE 



THE 



the affairs of government, leaving in the 
hands of his sister the disposal of all offices 
of state, and all places of trust and honour. 
He married Eudoxia, or Athenais (see 
Athenais), daughter of the philosopher 
Leontius, remarkable for virtue and piety, 
and died a.d. 450, leaving one daughter, 
Licinia Eudoxia, whom he had married to 
the emperor Valentinian. In the reign of 
this emperor was compiled the Theodosian 
Code, consisting of the chief institutions 
and laws of the Christian emperors, from 
Constantine the Great to his own time. — 
IV. A mathematician of Tripolis, in Lydia, 
"who flourished probably under the emperor 
Trajan, about a. d. 100, and was the au- 
thor of three books on the doctrine of the 
sphere, of which Ptolemy and succeeding 
writers availed themselves. 

Theognis, an elegiac poet of Megara, 
who lived about the close of the sixth cen- 
tury B. c, and is said to have attained to 
the age of eighty-eight years. He was 
exiled from Megara for his political senti- 
ments; and after visiting Sicily, Eubsea,and 
Sparta, retired to Thebes, where he took 
up his permanent abode. He belonged to 
the class called Gnomic poets ; but few of 
his verses have reached our times. 

Theon, I., a Greek painter of Samos, 
who lived in the time of Philip and Alex- 
ander of Macedonia, and was reckoned one 
of the masters of his age, on account of his 
powers of invention and the gracefulness 
of his execution. — II. A native of Smyr- 
na, usually called the Elder, who probably 
lived about the commencement of the se- 
cond century of our era. He was a Pla- 
tonist in his tenets, and wrote a treatise on 
the works of Plato, so far as they related 
to geometry, arithmetic, music, and astro- 
nomy. — III. A mathematician of Alex- 
andria, (usually called the Younger, to 
distinguish him from the above,) contem- 
porary with Pappus, who lived towards 
the end of the fourth century of our era. 
He observed a solar and lunar eclipse, 
a. d. 365 ; but he is chiefly known for his 
" Commentary on the Elements of Euclid." 
He was father of the celebrated but un- 
fortunate Hypatia. See Hypatia. 

Theophane, a daughter of Bisaltus, 
whom Neptune changed into a sheep, and 
conveyed to the island Crumissa, where 
she bore him the ram with a golden fleece, 
which carried Phryxus to Colchis. 

Theofhanes, a Greek historian, born 
at Mitylene. Being expelled from his na- 
tive country he repaired to Italy, where he 
formed an intimate friendship with Pompey, 
the Roman general, whom he accompanied 
in all his expeditions, and from whom he 



procured many favours for his country- 
men. He was appointed ambassador to 
Ptolemy Auletes, b. c. 59. After the bat- 
tle of Pharsalia, he advised Pompey to re- 
tire to the court of Egypt, while he himself 
repaired to Rome, where he lived in retire- 
ment till he died. He wrote a " History 
of the Wars of the Romans in various 
Countries, under the Command of Pom- 
pey," of which there remain only a few 
fragments. 

Theophilus I., the associate of Triboni- 
anus and Dorotheus in compiling the Insti- 
tutes, of which work he has left a paraphrase 
in Greek. He also wrote a commentary on 
the Pandects, of which some fragments re- 
main. — II. A celebrated bishop of An- 
tioch, who flourished in the second century. 
He was ordained bishop a. d. 168, and was 
the first who used the term Trinity to ex- 
press the three persons in the Godhead. 

Theophrastus, a celebrated Greek philo- 
sopher, was born at Eresus, in Lesbos, b. c. 
382. He was a disciple of Plato, and after- 
wards of Aristotle. His original name 
was Tyrtamus ; but Plato induced him to 
exchange it for Euphrastus, " fine speaker," 
to intimate his excellence in speaking, 
and afterwards for Theophrastus, " divine 
speaker." When Aristotle withdrew from 
the Lyceum, Theophrastus became his 
successor, and in a short time the number 
of his auditors was increased to 2000. He 
is said to have delivered his country twice 
from the oppression of tyrants ; and died 
at the age of eighty-five, lamenting the 
brevity of human life. Several of his 
works are extant ; the principal of which 
are the "History of Plants ;" the "Treatise 
on Stones ;" and the " Characteres," or 
« Characters of Men." 

Theopolis, a name given to Antioch, 
because the Christians first received their 
name there. 

Theopompus, I., a king of Sparta, of 
the family of the Proclidae, who distin- 
guished himself by the many new regu- 
lations he introduced. He died after a 
long and peaceful reign, b. c. 723. — II. 
A Greek historian, a native of Chios, born 
about b. c. 380. His father, Damasis- 
tratus, became an object of strong dislike 
to his fellow-citizens on account of his 
attachment to Sparta; and being eventually 
exiled, repaired to Asia Minor with his son, 
who soon acquired great reputation for 
his eloquence. At the age of forty-five, 
Theopompus returned to his native city, 
on the recommendation of Alexander the 
Great ; but after the death of that prince 
he was again expelled. He next found 
protection in Egypt from Ptolemy, son of 



THE 



THE 



573 



Lagus ; but finding that his successor, 
Ptolemy Philadelphia, was hostilely dis- 
posed to him, he quitted the country, and 
nothing is known of his future history. 
The loss of the works of Theopompus, of 
which numerous fragments remain, is one 
of the greatest that ancient history has 
sustained. 

Theoxenia, a festival celebrated in 
honour of all the gods in every city of 
Greece, especially at Athens. The Dios- 
curi established a festival of the same name 
in honour of the gods who had visited them 
at one of their entertainments. 

Thera. Santorini, one of the Sporades 
in the JEgean Sea. anciently called Calliste; 
originally occupied by the Phoenicians, but 
subsequently colonised by the Lacedaemo- 
nians under Theras, a descendant of Cad- 
mus. It always remained faithful to its 
mother city, Sparta. It has acquired its 
chief importance from having founded the 
colony of Cyrene in Africa, under the con- 
duct of Battus, b. c. 631. 

Theramexes, son of Hagnon, a pupil 
of Socrates, and afterwards one of the 
Athenian generals along with Alcibiades 
and Thrasybulus. He was appointed by 
the Lacedaemonians one of the thirty 
tyrants at Athens ; but the moderation 
of his views giving offence to his col- 
leagues, Critias denounced him to the 
senate : and when he perceived a dispo- 
sition on the part of the judges to acquit 
the accused, he surrounded the tribunal 
with his creatures, and pronounced sentence 
of death against Theramenes by his own 
authority. Socrates endeavoured to save 
the life of his friend, but in vain : and 
Theramenes, finding himself overpowered 
by his enemies, drank off the fatal draught, 
b. c. 404, with the words, u To the health 
of my dear Critias." From the fickleness 
of his disposition, he has been called Co- 
thurnus, this being the name of a sort of 
sandal equally adapted for both feet. 

Therapxe, or Terap>te, a town of La- 
conia, west of the Eurotas, where Apollo 
had a temple called Phzbeum. It received 
its name from Therapne, daughter of Lelex. 
Castor and Pollux were born there, hence 
called Therapnai fratres. Helen is called 
Therapncea virgo, from this the place of her 
birth. 

Theras, son of Autesion of Lacedae- 
mon, who conducted a colony to Calliste, 
to which he gave the name of Thera. 

Therasia, a small rocky island in the 
/Egean, separated from the north-west 
coast of Thera by a narrow channel. It 
still retains its ancient name. 

Therma, a town of Macedonia, after- 



] wards called TJiessulonica, in honour of the 
wife of Cassander. See Thessalonica. 

Therms (warm baths). This term is fre- 
quently used in connection with an ad- 
j jective : thus, Thermae Selinuntiae are the 
i warm baths adjacent to the ancient Selinus, 
now Sciacea ; Thermas Himerenses, those 
; adjacent to Himera on the northern coast 
J of Sicily, now Termini, which has also be- 
i come the modern name for the remains of 
I the ancient city. So, also, in speaking of 
the warm baths constructed at Rome by 
various emperors, we read of the Thermas 
of Dioclesian. 

Thermaicus Sixes, or Macedoxicus 
Sinus, now Gulf of Salonihi, a bay of 
.Macedonia, on which stood the city of 
Therma, whence its name. 

Thermodon, Termeh, a famous river of 
Cappadocia, which rises in the mountains 
[ on the confines of Armenia Minor, and 
after flowing through the ancient country 
of the Amazons, falls into the Euxine Sea 
near Themiseyra. 

Thermopylae, a celebrated defile on the 
shore of the Malian gulf, leading from 
Thessaly into Locris and Phocis ; so named 
from the hot baths in the neighbourhood. 
It has been immortalised in history for 
! being the scene of the unequal engage- 
ment between Xerxes and the Greeks, 
b. c. 480, in which 300 Spartans, under 
Leonidas, resisted for three days the at- 
tacks of the most courageous of the Per- 
sian army, which, according to some his- 
torians, amounted to five millions, though 
this must be greatly exaggerated. After 
the final defeat of the Persians a magni- 
ficent monument, the ruins of which still 
j remain, was erected in honour of Leonidas 
and his heroic companions. It had an in- 
| scription, said by Cicero, by whom it has 
been translated, to have been written by 
j Simonides, and which has thus been ren- 
dered into English : — 

" To Lacedasmon's sons, O stranger, tell 
That here, obedient to their laws, we feil !" 

Thermits, or Thermo m, a city of iEto- 
lia, north-east of Stratos, regarded as the 
capital of the country, and supposed to 
| have derived its name from some warm 
; springs in the neighbourhood. Its situa- 
I tion among the mountains rendered it very 
j difficult of access, and hence it was re- 
garded as a kind of citadel for all iEtolia. 
It was twice pillaged by Philip III. of 
! Macedon. 

Therox, I., a king of Agrigentum, who, 
from being a private citizen, became the 
head of the state, about b. c. 500. He 
gained the prize in the Olympic games, 
and by his justice, moderation, and cour- 



574 



THE 



THE 



age, obtained the respect and esteem of 
the nation. With the aid of his son-in-law, 
Gelon, he defeated the Carthaginians in 
a great battle ; and employed the captives 
taken on that occasion in constructing 
some of the great works for which Agri- 
gentum was celebrated. — II. A Rutulian, 
who attempted to kill JEneas, but perished 
in the attempt. 

Thersander, a son of Polynices and 
Argia, and one of the Epigoni. After the 
capture of Thebes, he received the city 
from the hands of his victorious fellow 
chieftains. At a subsequent period, when 
already advanced in years, he accompanied 
the Greeks to the Trojan war, but was 
slain on the shores of Mysia by Telephus. 

Thersites, son of Agrius, brother of 
GSneus, prince of jEtolia, and cousin of 
Tydeus and Meleager. Homer repre- 
sents him as the most disgusting and most 
base in spirit of all the Grecian host who 
warred against Troy. He ultimately fell 
by the hand of Achilles, while he was ridi- 
culing the sorrow of that hero for the death 
of Penthesilea. 

Theseidje, a patronymic given to the 
Athenians, from Theseus, one of their 
kings. 

Theseus, king of Athens, and son of 
iEgeus by iEthra, the daughter of Pit- 
theus, monarch of Troezene, was one of ths 
most celebrated heroes of antiquity. He 
was reared in the palace of his grandfa- 
ther ; and when he had reached the proper 
age, his mother having led him to the rock 
under which his father had deposited his 
sword. and sandals (see JEgeus), he re- 
moved the rock, and taking possession of 
what was deposited beneath it, he resolved 
to proceed to Athens, and present himself 
to iEgeus. On his way thither, he met 
with many adventures, and destroyed Pe- 
riphates, Sinis, Sciron, Procrustes, and 
the monstrous sow Phaea, which ravaged 
the country in the neighbourhood of 
Crommyon. Having overcome all the 
perils of the road, Theseus at length 
reached Athens, where new dangers awaited 
him. He found his father's court all in 
confusion. The Pallantidae, or sons and 
grandsons of Pallas, the brother of iEgeus, 
had long seen with jealousy the sceptre in 
the hands of an old man, and now medi- 
tated wresting it from his feeble grasp. 
Thinking, however, that his death could 
not be very remote, they resolved to wait 
for that event ; but they made no secret of 
their intentions. The arrival of Theseus 
threatened to disconcert their plan. They 
feared that if this young stranger should 
be received as a son of the old king he 



might find in him a protector and avenger; 
and they resolved to poison his mind 
against him. Their plot so far succeeded 
that iEgeus was on the point of sacrificing 
his son, when he recognised him by the 
sword which he wore, and then acknow- 
ledged him in the presence of all the peo- 
ple. The Pallantidae had recourse to arms, 
but Theseus defeated and slew them. The 
bull of Marathon next engaged the atten- 
tion of Theseus. He caught the animal 
alive, led it through the streets of Athens, 
and sacrificed it to Minerva, or the god 
of Delphi. The Athenians were at this 
period in deep affliction on account of the 
tribute which they were forced to pay to 
Minos, king of Crete. (See Androgeus and 
Minotaurus.) Theseus resolved to de- 
liver them from this calamity, or die in 
the attempt. Accordingly, when the third 
time of sending off this tribute came, and 
the youths and maidens were, according to 
custom, drawn by lot to be sent, in spite 
of the entreaties of his father to the con- 
trary, he voluntarily offered himself as one 
of the victims. The ship departed as 
usual under black sails, which Theseus 
promised his father to change for white 
ones in case of his returning victorious. 
When they arrived in Crete, the youths 
and maidens were exhibited before Minos, 
previously to their being consigned to the 
Minotaur ; but Ariadne, the daughter of 
the king, who was present, becoming deeply 
enamoured of Theseus, furnished him with 
a clew of thread, which enabled him to 
penetrate in safety the windings of the 
labyrinth till he came to where the Mino- 
taur lay, whom he caught by the hair and 
slew. He then got on board with his 
companions, and sailed for Athens. Ari- 
adne accompanied his flight, but was 
abandoned by him on the isle of Dia or 
Naxos. (See Ariadne.) On his return 
to Athens, Theseus turned his attention 
to legislation. He abolished the pre- 
vious division of the people of Attica 
into four tribes, and substituted that of a 
distribution into three classes, — the nobles, 
the husbandmen, and the artisans (Eu7ra- 
rp'iSai, Tiwy-opoi., and Arjfitovpyoi). As a 
farther means of uniting the people, he 
established numerous festivals, particu- 
larly the Panathenaea, solemnised with 
great splendour every fifth year, in com- 
memoration of this union of the inhabit- 
ants of Attica. These civic cares did not 
prevent Theseus from taking part in mili- 
tary enterprises : he accompanied Her- 
cules in his expedition against the Ama- 
zons, who then dwelt on the banks of the 
Thermodon ; and he distinguished himself 



THE 



THE 



575 



so much in the conflict, that Hercules, 
after the victory, bestowed on him, as the 
reward of his valour, the hand of the van- 
quished queen. (See Antiope.) Theseus 
was also a sharer in the dangers of the 
Calydonian hunt ; he was one of the ad- 
venturous band who sailed in the Argo to 
Colchis ; and he aided his friend Piri- 
thoiis and the Lapithte in their conflict 
with the Centaurs. (See Pirithous.) 
"With the assistance of Pirithous, he carried 
off the celebrated Helen, daughter of Leda, 
then a child of but nine years, though 
already of surpassing loveliness, and placed 
her under the care of his mother iEthra, at 
Aphidna?. He then prepared to aid his friend 
in a bolder and more perilous adventure, the 
abduction of Proserpina from the palace 
of Pluto; an attempt which resulted in 
the imprisonment of both by the monarch 
of Hades. From this confinement Theseus 
was released by Hercules ; but Pirithous 
remained ever afterwards a captive. After 
the death of Antiope, who had borne him a 
son named Hippolytus, Theseus married 
Phaedra, the daughter of Minos, and sister 
of Ariadne. On the invasion of Attica by 
Castor and Pollux, for the recovery of 
their sister Helen, Theseus retired to 
Lycomedes, king of the island of Seyros, 
where he met with his death, either by ac- 
cident or by treachery of his host ; for 
ascending with Lycomedes a lofty rock 
to take a view of the island, he fell or was 
pushed off by his companion, and lost his 
life by the fall. The Athenians honoured 
his memory by feasts and temples ; placed 
him among the gods ; and at a later day ob- 
tained his bones from the island of Scyros,and 
interred them beneath the soil of Attica. 

Thesmophoria, a festival in honour of 
Ceres, surnamed the Laicgiver (&e<r/j.o<popos), 
because she first taught mankind the use of 
laws. It was celebrated by many cities of 
Greece, but with most observation and 
ceremony by the Athenians. The wor- 
shippers were free-born women, whose 
husbands defrayed the expenses of the 
solemnity, assisted by a priest and band of 
virgins. The women were clothed in 
white garments, as emblematic of purity. 

ThesmothetjE, the six inferior archons 
at Athens, who presided at the election of 
the lower magistrates, received criminal 
informations in various matters, decided 
civil causes on arbitration, took the votes 
at elections, and performed a variety of 
other offices. 

Thespia, Eremo Castro, an ancient town 
of Boeotia, at the foot of Mount Helicon, 
named from Thespia, daughter of Asopus, 
or from king Thespius. The inhabitants of 



Thespia took part in the most celebrated 
battles of antiquity, and are renowned in 
history for their valour. 

Thespiad^e, the offspring of Hercules 
by the fifty daughters of Thespius. On 
attaining to manhood, some of them were 
sent, by their father's directions, to Thebes 
and Boeotia, but the greater part as a 
colony to Sardinia. 

Thespiades, I., the fifty daughters of 
Thespius, mothers of the Thespiadae by 
Hercules. — II. An appellation given to 
the Muses, from Thespia, near which was 
Helicon, one of the mountains sacred to 
them. 

Thespis, a Greek dramatic poet, born at 
Icaria, an Athenian borough, at the be- 
ginning of the sixth century b. c. He was 
a contemporary of Solon and Pisistratus, 
and is generally regarded as the inventor of 
tragedy. His birthplace derived its name, 
according to tradition, from the father of 
Erigone. 

THEsrius, a king of Thespia in Boeotia, 
son of Erectheus, and father of the Thes- 
piades. See Thespiades. 

Thesprotia, a district of Epirus around 
the Acheron, extending along the coast 
from the mouth of the Ambraeian gulf to 
the Thyamis, and reaching inland as far 
as Mt. Tomarus. Thesprotia was one of 
the most ancient abodes of the Pelasgi, and 
the inhabitants are said to have been the 
parent-stock of the Thessali. The oraele 
of Dodona was situated within its limits. 

Thessalia, a country of Greece, whose 
boundaries differed at different periods ; but, 
properly speaking, it was bounded on the 
north by the chain of Olympus, west by 
that of Pindus, south by that of GEta, east by 
the iEgean Sea. It seems to have been 
the general opinion of antiquity, founded on 
very early traditions, that the great basin 
of Thessaly formed by the mountains just 
specified was at some remote period co- 
vered by the waters of the Peneus and its 
tributary rivers, until some great revo- 
lution of nature had rent asunder the gorge 
of Tempe, and thus afforded a passage to 
the pent-up streams. Early traditions 
ascribe to Thessaly the more ancient names 
of Pyrrha, iEmonia, and iEolis. The two 
former appellations belong rather to the 
age of mythology ; the latter refers to 
that remote period when the plains of 
Thessaly were occupied by the iEolian 
Pelasgi, previously to the country being 
occupied by the Thessalians, who are said 
to have come originally from Thesprotia. 
At what precise period it assumed the name 
of Thessaly cannot, perhaps, now be de- 
I termined. In the poems of Homer it 



576 



THE 



THO 



never occurs, although the several prin- 
cipalities and kingdoms of which it is 
composed are there distinctly enumerated 
and described, together with the different 
chiefs to whom they were subject. From 
very early times Thessaly was divided into 
four large districts, called Hestiasotis, oc- 
cupying the mountainous country between 
Pindus and Olympus ; Thessaliotis, or 
Thessaly properly so called; Pelasgiotis, or 
the Pelasgian Argos, in the southern part 
of the lower valley of the Peneus ; and 
Phthiotis, the region which included the 
ancient Hellas. Besides these great di- 
visions, Thessaly comprised politically, 
though not physically, within its limits, 
the iEnianes, Malian Dolopes, and the 
district of Magnesia. It would be im- 
possible within our limits to give even an 
outline of the varied fortunes of this cele- 
brated country. Almost all the names 
of its towns, mountains, and rivers, recal 
some association connected with the pri- 
mitive history and heroic age of the nation. 
After innumerable vicissitudes it became 
a Roman province, after the battle of Cy- 
noscephalae 

Thessaliotis, a part of Thessaly, south 
of the Peneus, and west of Magnesia and 
Phthiotis. 

Thessalonica, I., Saloniki, an ancient 
town of Macedonia, at the north-eastern 
extremity of the Sinus Thermaicus. It 
was at first an inconsiderable town under 
the name of Therma, by which it was 
known to Herodotus, Thucydides, and 
JEschines. Xerxes stayed here some days 
with his army, and it was occupied for 
a short time by the Athenians during 
the Peloponnesian war. According to 
Strabo, Cassander changed its name to that 
of his wife Thessalonica, the daughter of 
Philip, and sister of Alexander the Great. 
After the conquest of Macedonia by the 
Romans it was made the capital of the 
second of the four districts into which that 
country was divided; it was the residence 
of Cicero during a part of the time he 
continued an exile. Valerian raised it to 
the rank of a colony ; and it had an am- 
phitheatre, a hippodrome, and numerous 
splendid public buildings. It is also ex- 
tremely interesting from its connection 
with the early history of Christianity; 
having been visited by St. Paul, who made 
there many converts, to whom he addressed 
the Epistles to the Thessalonians. It was 
the scene of a dreadful calamity in the 
reign of Theodosius, who, enraged at the 
inhabitants for having put to death Bo- 
theric the commandant of the city, caused 
them to be indiscriminately massacred to 



the number of 7000, a. d, 390. — II. A 
daughter of Philip, king of Macedonia, 
sister of Alexander the Great, and wife of 
Cassander, by whom she had Antipater, 
who put her to death. 

Thessalus, I., an ancient Greek phy- 
sician, son of Hippocrates, lived at the 
court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, 
b. c. 360. He was one of the founders of 
the sect called Dogmatici, and is supposed 
to be the author of several works which 
bear the name of his father. — II. One of 
the founders of the medical sect of the 
Methodici, was born at Tralles in Lydia, 
in the first century of our era. He ori- 
ginally followed the trade of a weaver ; but 
though traces of his defective education 
were perceived in his writings, he at- 
tained to great reputation as a physician. 

Thestor, a son of Idmon and Laothoe, 
and father of Calchas, who is thence often 
called Thestorides. 

Thetis, one of the sea-deities, daughter 
of Nereus and Doris. She was courted by 
Neptune and Jupiter ; but when the gods 
were informed that the son she would bring 
forth must become greater than his father, 
their addresses were stopped, and Peleus, 
son of iEacus, was permitted to solicit her 
hand. (See Peleus and Discordia.) Thetis 
became mother of several children by 
Peleus ; but these she destroyed by fire 
in attempting to see whether they were 
immortal ; and Achilles, her most distin- 
guished offspring, must have shared the 
same fate, if Peleus had not snatched him 
from her hand. When Achilles was killed 
by Paris, Thetis issued out of the sea with 
the Nereides to mourn his death, collected 
his ashes in a golden urn, raised a monu- 
ment to his memory, and instituted fes- 
tivals in his honour. 

Thia, I., the mother of the Sua, Moon, 
and Aurora, by Hyperion. ( See 1 hea. ) — 
II. One of the Sporades, which rose out of 
the sea in the age of Pliny. 

Thirmida, a town of Numidia, where 
Hiempsal was slain by the soldiers of Ju- 
gurtha. 

Thisbe, I., a beautiful girl of Babylon. 
( See Pyramus. ) — II. A town of Boeotia, 
north-west of Ascra, and near the confines 
of Phocis, famed for its wild pigeons. The 
modern Kakosia marks its site. 

Thoas, I. a king of the Tauric Cher- 
sonese when Orestes and Pylades, in con- 
cert with Iphigenia, carried off from that 
country the statue of the Tauric Diana. 
(See Orestes and Iphigenia.) — II. King 
of Lemnos, and father of Hypsipyle. See 
Hypsipyle. 

Thomyris, called also Tamyris, Tame- 



THO 



THR 



577 



ris, Thamyris, and Tomeris, queen of the 
Massagetae. After her husband's death she 
marched against Cyrus, who wished to 
invade her territory, cut his army to 
pieces, and killed him on the spot. See 
Cyrus. 

Thor, in Scandinavian mythology, the 
son of Odin and Freya, and the divinity 
who presided over all mischievous spirits 
that inhabited the elements. His power 
is represented as irresistible. Many of his 
deeds are preserved in the Edda (which 
see) ; but it is probable that the worship 
of this divinity under the name of Donan, 
or god of thunder, spread also into Ger- 
many, where traces of him are still to 
be found in numerous local appellations, 
as Donnersberg, Thorstein, &c. As the 
worship of this god extended, nothing was 
more likely than that the Germans should 
confound him with the Jupiter of the 
Romans, who were then invading their 
country ; and hence in Germany the day 
sacred to Jupiter was denominated Don- 
nerstag, while the Scandinavian equivalent 
of the same deity has been retained by the 
English in Thursday (Thor's day). 

Thorax, a mountain near Magnesia ad 
Ma?andrum, in Lydia, on which the poet 
Daphidas was crucified for having written 
some satirical lines against Attalus, king of 
Pergamus. Hence the proverb, " Take care 
of Thorax " 

Thornax, Thornika, a mountain of La- 
conia, north of Sparta, and forming part of 
the range called Menelaium, celebrated for 
a temple of Apollo. 

Thoth, an Egyptian deity, correspond- 
ing in some degree to the Grecian Hermes 
and the Latin Mercurius, and regarded as 
the inventor of writing and Egyptian phi- 
losophy. He is represented as a human 
figure with the head of a lamb or ibis. 
Thraces, the inhabitants of Thrace. 
Thracia, a large country of Europe, 
bounded on the north by the Danube, on 
the south by the Propdntis and the iEgean 
Sea, on the east by the Black Sea, and on 
the west by the Strymon, and the ridges of 
Mt. Pangaeus and Mt. Haemus, which se- 
parated it from Macedonia. The coun- 
try is fabled to have derived its name from 
Thrax, a son of Mars ; and the inhabitants 
were described by Herodotus as a bar- 
barous and savage people ; but that it 
must have attained to a high state of civi- 
lisation long prior to the age of Hero- 
dotus is evident from the fact that the 
earliest Greek poets, Orpheus, Linus, 
and Musaeus, and Eumolpus, the insti- 
tutor of the Eleusinian mysteries, are 
all represented as having been natives 



of this country. At an early period, 
too, its inhabitants spread over southern 
Greece, and sent out numerous colonies. 
Thrace first emerges into authentic his- 
tory when Megabyzus, general of Darius, 
reduced them under the sway of the 
Persians. It, however, soon recovered 
its independence ; and a new empire 
was formed in that extensive country, 
under the dominion of Sitalces, king of 
the Odrysae. The whole country was 
eventually overrun by Philip of Macedon. 
After the death of Alexander, it was erected 
into a separate kingdom under Lysima 
chus, on whose death it again revolted 
to Macedonia, and remained under the do- 
minion of its sovereigns until the conquest 
of the latter by the Romans, b. c. 168. 
Byzantium was the capital of this eountry, 
which now forms the Turkish province of 
Romania or Rumelia. 

Thraseas, or Thrasius, I., a soothsayer. 
(See Thasius. ) — II. Partus, a senator in 
the reign of Nero, born at Patavium. He 
was a follower of the Stoic sect ; and his 
contempt of the base adulation of the se- 
nate, and manly animadversions on the 
enormities of the emperor, caused his being 
condemned to death, a. d. 66. 

Thrasybulus, I., a famous general of 
Athens, the son of Lycus, was born at 
Steiria in Attica. He was one of the com- 
manders in the naval battle of Arginusa?, 
and in various other engagements with 
the Spartans during the Peloponnesian 
war ; but he is chiefly remarkable in his- 
tory for being the deliverer of his country- 
men from the yoke of the Thirty Tyrants, 
who, after the termination of the Pelopon- 
nesian war, had been imposed upon Athens 
by Sparta, her successful rival, b. c. 404. 
Leaving Athens with thirty of his friends, 
he took up his position on the borders 
of Attica, where he was joined by about 
500 of his countrymen, and succeeded 
in taking the Pirasus; and after defeat- 
ing the Thirty, he restored the ancient 
democratic constitution, and proclaimed a 
general amnesty, b. c. 401. Thrasybulus 
was afterwards sent with a powerful fleet 
to recover the lost poAver of the Athenians 
on the coast of Asia ; and, after many suc- 
cesses, he was killed in his camp by the 
inhabitants of Aspendus, whom his soldiers 
had plundered without his knowledge, 
b. c. 391. Thrasybulus of Steiria must 
not be confounded with his contemporary 
of the same name, usually called the " Col- 
lytian," because he was a native of Colly- 
tus in Attica. The latter joined his 
namesake in his attack upon the Thirty 
Tyrants ; and having subsequently re- 
c c 



578 



THR 



THU 



ceived the command of eight Athenian 
galleys, was taken prisoner by Antalcidas, 
the Spartan admiral. — II. A son of Gelo, 
and brother of Hiero the Elder, whom 
he succeeded on the throne of Syracuse, 
b. c. 466. He was expelled for his tyranny 
within a year of his accession, and retired 
to Locri, in southern Italy, where he 
died. 

Thrasyllus, one of the Athenian com- 
manders at the battle of Arginusa?, con- 
demned to death with his colleagues for 
omitting to collect and bury the dead after 
the action. 

Thrasyjiachus, a native of Carthage, 
who came to Athens, where he became the 
pupil of Isocrates and Plato. He after- 
wards opened a school ; but met with so 
little success that he hanged himself in 
despair. 

Thrasymenus Lacus, Lago di Perugia, 
a lake of Etruria, a few miles south of 
Cortona, on whose shores Hannibal gained 
his third victory over the forces of the 
Romans under Flaminius, b. c. 217. 15,000 
Romans were left dead on the field of 
battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners; while 
the loss of Hannibal was only about 1500 
men. 

Threicius, of Thrace. Orpheus is called 
by Virgil Threicius Sacerdos. 

Tureissa, an epithet applied to Har- 
palyce, a native of Thrace. 

Thriambus, one of the surnames of 
Bacchus. 

Thrinakja, an island to which Ulysses 
came immediately after escaping Scylla and 
Charybdis. In consequence of a resem- 
blance in name, it is sometimes, though 
erroneously, identified with Sicily, one of 
whose names was Trinacria. 

Thronium, I., Bodonitza, a town of the 
Locri Epicnemidii, in Greece, near the 
mouth of the river Boagrius. Thronium 
was taken by the Athenians during the 
Peloponnesian war, and several years 
after it fell into the hands of Onomarchus, 
the Phocian general, who enslaved the in- 
habitants. — II. A town of Illyricum, at 
some distance from the coast above Oricum, 
said to have been founded by the Abautes, 
in conjunction with the Locrians on their 
return from Troy. 

Thucydides, I., a celebrated Greek his- 
torian, son of Olorus, or Orolus, and He- 
gesipyle, was born in Attica, in the village 
of Halinusia, and in the tribe of Leontium, 
b. c. 471. By the mother's side he was 
connected with the family of the great Mil- 
tiades. His youth was distinguished by 
an eager desire to excel in gymnastic exer- 
eises ; but he afterwards became the pupil 



of Anaxagoras and Antiphon. When he 
had reached manhood he appeared in the 
Athenian armies ; and in the eighth year 
of the Peloponnesian war was commis- 
sioned to relieve Amphipolis; but the 
rapid march of Brasidas, the Lacedaemo- 
nian general having defeated his opera- 
tions, he was banished from Athens in 
disgrace. He then retired to Scaptesyle in 
Thrace, where he had obtained possessions 
by marriage, and only returned to Athens 
after the lapse of twenty years, when Thra- 
sybulus had re-established the democracy 
and proclaimed an amnesty, b. c. 401. 
Nothing certain is known of the period or 
manner of his death. His " History of 
the Peloponnesian war " is one of the most 
valuable and authentic records which has 
come down to our times. It was so much 
admired by the Athenians, that Demo- 
sthenes, to perfect himself as an orator, 
transcribed it eight times. — II. A son of 
Milesias, who became leader of the aristo- 
cratic party at Athens after the death of 
Cimon ; but he was ostracised by the in- 
fluence of Pericles. 

Thuisto, one of the deities of the Ger- 
mans. 

Thule, an island in the most northern 
parts of the German ocean, called ultima, 
" farthest," on account of its remote situ- 
ation, and its being regarded as the limit 
of geographical knowledge in this quarter. 
Some suppose that it is Iceland, or part 
of Greenland; others, the Shetland Isles ; 
while some modern geographers think the 
ancients mean Scandbiavia. 

Thurii, a city of Lucania, in Lower 
Italy, near the site of Sybaris, founded b. c. 
443 by an Athenian colony, to which be- 
longed Herodotus, and Lysias the orator. 
It attained a considerable degree of pros- 
perity and power. In the Peloponnesian 
war, the Thurians are mentioned as allied to 
the Athenians, and as furnishing them with 
some few ships and men for their Sicilian 
expedition. Subsequently, the attacks of 
the Lucani, from whom they sustained a 
severe defeat, and, at a still later period, 
the enmity of the Tarentines, so reduced 
the power and prosperity of the Thurians, 
that they were compelled to seek the aid 
of Rome, which was thus involved in a 
war with Tarentum. About eighty-eight 
years afterwards, Thurii, being nearly de- 
serted, received a Roman colony, and took 
the name of Copia, 

Thurinus, a name given to Augustus 
when he was young, either because some 
of his progenitors were natives of Thurii, 
or because his father Octavius bad been 
successful in some military operations near 



THY 



TIB 



579 



Thurii, a short time after the birth of Au- 
gustus. 

Thyamts, I., Calama, a river of Epirus, 
anciently dividing Thesprotia from the 
district of Cestrine. Atticus had an es- 
tate on the banks of the Thyamis. — II. 
Cape Nissi, a promontory of Epirus. near 
a cognominal river. 

Thyatira, Ak-IEsar, a city on the 
northern confines of Lydia, not far from 
the source of the small river Lycus, found- 
ed by a colony of Macedonians, and en- 
larged by Seleucus Nicator. It was ori- 
ginally called Pelopia. It was one of the 
churches mentioned in the Revelations. 

Thyestes, a son of Pelops and Hippo- 
damia, and grandson of Tantalus ; for the 
legend relating to whom consult the ar- 
ticle Atreus. 

Thtmbra, I., a plain in Troas, through 
which a small river, called Thymbrius, 
flows in its course to the Scamander. 
Apollo had a temple here, whence he was 
surnamed Thymbrceus. — II. A small town 
of Lydia, near Sardes, celebrated for a 
battle between Cyrus and Croesus, in which 
the latter was defeated. 

Thymcetes, I. , a son of Oxinthus, the 
last of the descendants of Theseus who 
reigned at Athens. He was deposed be- 
cause he refused to meet Xanthus, the 
Boeotian monarch, in single combat. Me- 
lanthus the Messenian accepted the chal- 
lenge, slew Xanthus, and was rewarded 
with the kingdom of Attica. (See Me- 
laxthus. ) — II. A Trojan prince, whose 
wife and son were put to death by order 
of Priam. He is said, on this account, to 
have used his best endeavours to persuade 
his countrymen to admit the wooden horse 
within their walls. — III. A son of Hice- 
taon, who accompanied JEneas into Italv, 
and was killed by Turnus. 

Thyni, another name for the Bithyni, 
or inhabitants of Bithynia. Hence Thyna 
merx is applied to the commodities of that 
country. See Bithvnia. 

Thyose, a name of Semele, after she 
had been endowed with immortality. 

Thyoneus, a surname of Bacchus, from 
his mother Semele, called Thy one. 

Thykea, the principal town of Cynuria, 
in Argolis, near which a celebrated battle 
was fought between the Spartans and the 
Argives. See Othryades. 

Thyrsaget^e or Thyssagetjs, a nation 
of European Sarmatia, dwelling on the 
banks of the Tanai's, in the neighbourhood 
of the Iyrcas. 

Tiberias, a town of Galilee, built bv 
Herod, near the lake of the same name, 
and named after the emperor Tiberius. 



The lake was previously called Gennesa- 
reth. Tiberias was taken and destroyed 
by Vespasian ; but, after the fall of Jeru- 
salem, it gradually rose again into notice. 

Tiberinus, son of Capetus, and king of 
Alba, drowned in the Albula, which was 
afterwards called Tiberis, in his honour. 

Tiber is, Tyberis, Tiber, or Tibris, a 
celebrated river of Italy, on whose banks 
Rome was built, which rises in the Apen- 
nines, and, after a course of about 150 
miles, falls into the Tyrrhene Sea, six- 
teen miles below Rome. It was said 
to have been originally called Albula, from 
the whitish hue of its waters, and after- 
wards Tiberis from Tiberinus, king of 
Alba, who was drowned in it; but it is 
probable that Albula was the Latin name 
of the river, and Tiberis or Tibris the Tus- 
can one. It is often called by the Greeks 
Thymbris, 6 ®vu§pis. This stream is also 
called Tyrrhenus amnis, " the Tuscan river," 
from its watering Etruria on one side in its 
course, and also Lijdius, "the Lydian" 
stream or Tiber, on account of the popular 
tradition which traced the arts and civili- 
sation of Etruria to Lydia in Asia Minor. 
The Tiber was capable of receiving vessels 
of considerable burden at Rome, and small 
boats to within a short distance of its 
source. 

Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, L, 
the successor of Augustus on the imperial 
throne, was born b. c. 42. By the father's 
side he was descended from the ancient 
Claudian family. His mother, Livia Dru- 
silla, who was also of the same family, 
became afterwards the celebrated wife of 
Augustus. In his early years he com- 
manded popularity by entertaining the 
populace with magnificent shows and 
fights of gladiators. His first appearance 
in the Roman armies was in the war against 
the Cantabri, where he served as tribunus 
militum, but he subsequently obtained vic- 
tories in different parts of the empire, and 
was rewarded with a triumph a second 
time b. c. 7. He now retired to Rhodes, 
where he continued seven years ; and on his 
return to Rome he was nominated the 
successor of Augustus, and obtained the 
command of the Roman armies in Illyri- 
cum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia. On the 
death of Augustus, a. n. 14, Tiberius, then 
in his fifty-sixth year, assumed the reins of 
government ; but though he at first ap- 
peared to rule with moderation and justice, 
his conduct soon presented a fearful con- 
trast to the reign of his predecessor. The 
establishment of an uncontrolled despotism 
seemed to be the object of his ambition; 
and for the period of twenty-two years 
c c 2 



580 



TIB 



TIB 



during which he held sway, Rome was de- 
luged by the blood of some of her best and 
bravest citizens. While he was gaining ho- 
nours by the valour of Germanicus (see 
Germanicus) and his other faithful lieu- 
tenants in different parts of the globe, he 
left the care of the empire to Sejanus, and 
retired to the island of Capreas, a. d. 26, on 
the coast of Campania, where he buried 
himself in unlawful pleasures. It would be 
disgusting to detail the numerous cruelties 
and excesses in which Tiberius indulged 
during his sojourn in this island ; suf- 
fice it to say, that, having at last discovered 
the perfidy of Sejanus, who had been so 
long the minister of his crimes, he pro- 
cured his condemnation and execution 
from the senate, and then leaving his re- 
treat in Caprea;, he retired to Misenum, 
when he fell into a lethargy, and on ap- 
pearing to recover, was suffocated by Ma- 
cro, commander of the Prastorian guards, 
a. d. 37. He was succeeded by Cali- 
gula, son of Germanicus. Tiberius was 
twice married. His first wife was Vip- 
sania Agrippina, daughter of Agrippa. 
This lady, to whom he was deeply at- 
tached, he divorced at the instance of Au- 
gustus. He then married Julia, daughter 
of Augustus, and widow of Marcellus and 
of Agrippa ; but her scandalous conduct 
so disgusted him, that he soon found him- 
self obliged to withdraw from all intimate 
intercourse with her. — II. One of the 
Gracchi. (See Gracchi). — II L Father of 
the emperor, was qua?stor to C. Julius 
Cassar, and distinguished himself as com- 
mander of the fleet in the Alexandrian 
war. He became successively praetor and 
pontifex, and in the civil troubles during 
the triumvirate he followed the party of 
M. Antonius. Being compelled by Oc- 
tavianus to fly from Rome, he escaped by 
sea and hastened to M. Antonius, who was 
then in Greece. He afterwards made his 
peace with Octavianus, by giving up to 
him his wife Livia Drusilla, then pregnant 
with Nero Claudius Drusus, and died 
shortly afterwards, b. c. 38. 

Tibesis, a river of Scythia, flowing from 
Mount Haemus into the Ister. 

Tibiscus, Teisse, a river of Dacia, called 
also Pathyssus, falling into the Danube, 
and forming the western limit of Dacia. 
— II. or Tibiscum, Cavaran, a city of 
Dacia, on the river Temes, one of the tri- 
butaries of the Danube, and near the 
junction of the Bistra with the former 
stream. 

Tibris. See Tiberis. 

Tibula, Longo Sardo, a town on the 
northern coast of Sardinia, and on the 



strait which separates that island from Cor- 
sica. 

Tibullus, Aulus Albius, a Roman 
knight, the representative of an ancient 
and wealthy family, and a contemporary 
of Horace and Virgil, was born b. c. 59. 
He was in possession of a small portion 
only of the estates of his forefathers ; but 
whether this diminution of fortune was 
caused by the confiscations of the triumvi- 
rate, in which so many Italian estates were 
involved, or by his own extravagance, or 
by unknown circumstances, cannot be as- 
certained. Tibullus was distinguished by 
the beauty of his person. At an early pe- 
riod he attached himself to the famous M. 
Valerius Messala Corvinus, and enjoyed 
through life his patronage and friendship. 
He formed one of his retinue during a 
campaign against the tribes of Aquitania, 
the glories of which are commemorated in 
one of his most spirited elegies, and was 
accompanying his protector on an Asiatic 
mission, when he was attacked by illness, 
and obliged to remain behind at Cor- 
cyra. After his recovery he returned 
home, and spent the rest of his life at 
Pedum, a small town of Latium, be- 
tween Prameste and Tibur. He died 
in the prime of life ; but the exact period 
has not been ascertained. Four books of 
Elegies are the only remaining pieces of 
his composition ; but these entitle him to 
be ranked as the prince of elegiac poets. 

Tibitr, Tivoli, an ancient town of La- 
tium, twenty miles north-east of Rome, on 
the banks of the Anio, founded by Catillus, 
a son of Amphiaraus, who, with his two 
brothers, migrated to Italy, and, having 
conquered the Siculi, gave to one of their 
towns the name of Tibur, from his brother 
Tiburtus. Along with the other cities 
of Latium, Tibur was subjected by the 
Romans b. c. 337. In remote antiquity 
Tibur was a populous and flourishing city, 
hence called Superbum by Virgil ; but it 
appears to have been thinly inhabited even 
in the time of Augustus, hence called 
Vacuum by Horace. Its neighbourhood, 
however, from the wholesomeness of the 
air, was crowded with country seats. At 
the bottom of the eminence on which Tivoli 
stands are the ruins of a magnificent villa 
built by the emperor Hadrian. Julius 
Cassar, Cassius, Augustus, Mecamas, and 
other illustrious Romans, had also villas 
here. But Tibur is rendered chiefly in- 
teresting from its being so often celebrated 
by Horace, whose farm is generally thought 
to have been near it. Hercules was the 
deity held in the greatest veneration at 
Tibur ; and his temple, on the foundations 



TIB 



TIM 



581 



of which the present cathedral is said to 
be built, was famous throughout Italy. 
Hence the epithet of Herculean given 
by the poets to this city. 

Tiburtus, a son of Amphiaraus, and bro- 
ther of the founder of Tibur, which is hence 
often called Tiburtia Mcenia. See Tibur. 

Ticinum, a city of Cisalpine Gaul, on 
the river Ticinus, founded by the Lasvi and 
Marici. Ticinum was an important city 
in the time of Augustus. Under the 
Lombards it assumed the name of Papia, 
whence its modern name Pavia has been 
derived. 

Ticinus, Tesino, a river of Gallia Cisal- 
pina, rising on the Lepontine Alps, near 
the sources of the Rhodanus, and falling 
into the Po near Ticinum. It traversed 
in its course the Lac us Verbanus, or JLago 
Maggiore. At the mouth of this river, the 
Romans, under Cornelius Scipio, the father 
of Scipio Africanus the elder, were defeat- 
ed by Hannibal. 

Tifata, a mountain range of Campania, 
about a mile to the east of Capua, celebra- 
ted for its temples consecrated to Diana 
and Jove. 

Tifernum, I., St.Angelo in Vado,v. town 
of Umbria, near the Metaurus, called Me- 
taurense for the sake of distinction. — II. 
Citta di Castello, a town of Umbria, towards 
the sources of the Tiber, distinguished by 
the epithet of Tiberinum. Tifernum is 
ehiefly known from having been situated 
near the villa of the younger Pliny. — III. 
A town of Samnium, on the right bank of 
the river Tifernus. The Mons Tifernus 
was near the source of the same river, 
above Boiano, and is now called Monte 
Matese. 

Tifernus, a mountain of Campania. 
See Tifernum III. 

Tigellinus Sophonius, praetorian prae- 
feet at the trial of the conspirators leagued 
against Nero, who rewarded him, and ad- 
mitted him to his confidence. He was 
compelled by Otho to commit suicide 
A. n. 68. 

Tigellius, M. Hermogenes, a native of 
Sardinia, and a favourite of Julius Csesar, 
Cleopatra, and Augustus successively. He 
was celebrated for the melody of his voice 
and his courfly and insinuating address. 

Tigranes, king of Armenia, the son-in- 
law and ally of Mithridates. He rendered 
himself master of Armenia Minor, Cappa- 
docia, and Syria, but lost all these con- 
quests after the defeat of Mithridates. The 
peace concluded with the Romans in the 
year 63 b. c. left him only Armenia. 
(See Mithridates VI.) His second son, 
of the same name, atempted to dethrone 



him with the assistance of the king of 
Parthia, whose daughter he had married, 
but was afterwards sent in chains to Rome 
for his insolence to Pompey. The period 
of his death is unknown. 

Tigranocerta, Sered, the capital of Ar- 
menia, a large, rich, and populous city, 
built by Tigranes during the Mithridatic 
war, east of the Tigris, on the river Nice- 
phorius, by which it was nearly surrounded. 
It was inhabited not only by Orientals, but 
by many Grecian colonists, and by cap- 
tives who had been carried off by Tigranes 
from some of the Greek cities of Syria 
which had been conquered by him from 
the Seleucida?. Lucullus, during the Mi- 
thridatic war, took it with difficulty, b. c. 
69, and found in it immense riches. He 
also sent home the greater part of the 
foreign inhabitants, but still the city re- 
mained a considerable place. 

Tigris, a large river of Asia, rising on 
the mountains of Armenia Major, and fall- 
ing into the Euphrates, near the modern 
Koma. Besides this branch, another issues 
from a chain of mountains, now called 
Kurdistan, to the west of the Arsissa Palus, 
Lake of Van, and afterwards joins the west- 
ern Tigris. The river formed by the 
junction of the Tigris and Euphrates was 
called Pasitigris, now Shat-el-Arab, " River 
of Arabia." The Tigris, though a far less 
noble stream than the Euphrates, is one of 
the most celebrated rivers in history, and 
many famous cities, at various periods, 
have decorated its banks ; among these 
may be mentioned Nineveh, Seleucia, 
Ctesiphon, and in modern times, Bagdad, 
Mouaul, Diarbekr. The length of the Ti- 
gris is eight hundred miles. 

Tigurini, a warlike people among the 
Helvetii, whose territory is supposed to 
have corresponded to the modern Zurich. 

Timacus, Timok, a river of Moesia, falling 
into the Danube. 

TiMuEA, wife of Agis, king of Sparta, to 
whom she was unfaithful. 

Tim^eus, I., a Pythagorean philosopher 
of Locri, born e. c. 380. He was a con- 
temporary of Plato, and is said to have 
been connected with him by ties of friend- 
ship. A poem, entitled " De Anima Mun- 
di," exists, which has been attributed to 
Timaeus. Plato named one of his Dia- 
logues after him. — II. Son of Andro- 
machus, born at Tauromenium, in Sicily, 
B.C. 352. Having been driven into exile 
by Agathocles, he repaired to Athens, 
where he spent fifty years, and occupied 
himself with the composition of a great 
historical work on the affairs of Greece 
and Sicily, and the wars of Pyrrhus and 
c c 3 



582 



TIM 



TIM 



Agathocles, &c. On the capture of Athens 
by Antigonus, b. c. 26*0, he returned to 
Tauromenium, where he spent the re- 
mainder of his life, and died B.C. 256, in 
his ninety-seventh year. — III. A Greek 
Sophist, who lived in the third century of 
our era, and wrote a work entitled " Lexi- 
con Vocum Platonicarum." 

Timagenes, a Greek historian of Alex- 
andria, brought to Rome by Gabinius 
b. c. 54, and sold as a slave to Faust us, 
the son of Sylla, who gave him his free- 
dom. After practising the humhle trade 
of a cook and of a litter bearer, he opened 
a school for rhetoric, and attracted the no- 
tice of Augustus, who appointed him his 
historiographer. Being afterwards banished 
from the presence of the emperor for im- 
pertinence, Timagenes, to revenge himself 
on his patron, burnt the interesting his- 
tory he had composed of his reign. 

Timagoras, an Athenian capitally pu- 
nished for paying homage to Darius, ac- 
cording to the Persian manner of kneeling 
on the ground, when sent to Persia as 
ambassador. 

Timanthes, I., a celebrated painter of 
Sicyon or of Cythnus, contemporary of 
Zeuxis and Parrhasius, b. c. 400. The 
most important passage relating to him 
is in Pliny (35, 10). — II. A painter 
who flourished in the age of Aratus, and 
executed a picture representing the battle 
between this general and the JEtolians 
near Pellene. 

Timasitheus, a prince of Lipara, who, 
having obliged a number of pirates to spare 
some Romans going to offer the spoils of 
Veii to the god of Delphi, was rewarded li- 
berally by the Roman senate, and the same 
generosity was extended to his descendants. 

Timavus, Timaus, a celebrated river 
of Italy, in the territory of Venetia, north- 
east of Aquileia, and falling into the A- 
driatic. Few streams have been more 
celebrated in antiquity or more sung by 
poets than the Timavus ; but its numerous 
sources, its lakes and subterranean pas- 
sage, which have been the theme of the 
Latin muse from Virgil to Claudian and | 
Ausonius, are now so little known, that 
their existence has even been questioned, 
and ascribed to poetical invention. 

Timesius, a native of Clazomenae, who 
began to build Abdera, but was prevented 
by the Thracians. 

Timocreon, a comic poet of Rhodes, 
who lived about b. c. 476, and was dis- 
tinguished for his hatred of Simonides and 
Themistocles. 

Timoleon, a celebrated Corinthian, son 
of Timodemus and Demariste. Little is 



known respecting his early history ; but 
when he attained to manhood he displayed 
such an invincible hostility to tyranny in 
every form, that he did not hesitate to mur- 
der his own brother Timophanes, when he 
attempted, against his representations, to 
make himself absolute in Corinth. When 
the Syracusans solicited the aid of the 
Corinthians against the tyranny of Dio- 
nysius the Younger, he sailed for Syracuse 
in ten ships, accompanied by about 1000 
men, and after compelling Dionysius to 
withdraw from Syracuse, he defeated the 
Carthaginians in a great battle on the Cri- 
messus, b. c. 339 ; and having thus restored 
Syracuse to liberty, brought the whole is- 
land of Sicily into a more prosperous and 
tranquil state than it had been in for many 
years. He then reviewed the code of 
Syracusan laws, and though he might easily 
have assumed the sovereign power, he with- 
drew into private life, and died b. c. 337, 
respected by the Sicilians as their liberator 
and benefactor. 

Tijiomachus, a painter of Byzantium, 
who flourished in the age of Julius Ca?sar, 
and executed for him pictures of Ajax and 
Medea, which were placed in the temple 
of Venus Genetrix. For these paintings 
the artist received eighty talents. 

Timon, I., a Greek poet and philoso- 
pher, a son of Timarchus, born at Phlius 
in Sicyon about b. c. 240. He studied 
under Stilpo at Megara, and Pyrrho at 
Elis ; and subsequently retired to Athens, 
where he died in his ninetieth year. Of 
his numerous productions only a few frag- 
ments remain. — II. Surnamedthe Misan- 
thrope, a native of the borough of Colyttus 
in Attica. He lived during the Pelopon- 
nesian war ; and it is said that his hatred 
towards his fellow-men was originally ex- 
cited by their false and ungrateful conduct. 
His eccentricities gave rise to numerous 
anecdotes, which are too well known to 
be repeated here. He died from the 
effects of a broken limb, which might have 
j been cured had not his aversion towards 
; his fellow-men induced him to decline all 
medical assistance. 

Timophanes, a Corinthian, brother of 
Timoleon. See Timoleon. ■ 

Timotheus, L, a poet and musician of 
Miletus, born b. c. 446. He was a con- 
temporary of Euripides ; and after having 
distinguished himself in most of the Gre- 
cian cities, he retired to Macedonia, to the 
court of King Archelaus, where he died 
b. c. 357. He increased the number of 
the strings of the lyre to eleven — an inno- 
vation for which he was censured by a 
decree of Sparta ; and wrote numerous 



TIN 



583 



pieces, of which only a few fragments re- 
main. — II. An Athenian commander, sOn 
of Conon, whose valour and abilities he 
inherited, e. c. 375 he gained a signal 
victory over the Lacedaemonian fleet off 
Corcyra, and made himself master of this 
island. Then directing his course towards 
Thrace, he took several important cities in 
this quarter, and afterwards delivered Cy- 
zicus from the foe. He subsequently 
shared the command of the fleet with Iphi- 
crates against the Athenian allies who had 
rebelled, and especially against Samos ; 
but the expedition being unsuccessful, the 
generals were charged with the failure, 
and brought to trial. Timotheus especially 
was accused of having received bribes 
From the enemies of his country, and 
was condemned to pay a fine of 100 ta- 
lents ; but being unable to raise so large a 
sum, he retired to Chalcis, where he ended 
his days b. c. 354. — III. An Athenian 
poet of the Middle Comedy. A fragment 
of one of his plays has been preserved by 
Athenaeus. 

TrNGis, Tangier, the capital of Mauri- 
tania Tingitana, on the north-western coast 
of Africa, fabled to have been built by the 
giant Antaeus. Sertorius took it, and, as 
he caused the tomb of the founder to be 
opened, is said to have found in it a skele- 
ton six cubits long. 

Tiphys, the pilot of the ship of the Ar- 
gonauts, son of Hagnius, or, according to 
some, of Phorbas. He died before the 
Argonauts reached Colchis, at the court 
of Lycus, in the Propontis. Erginus was 
chosen in his place. 

Tiresias, a celebrated prophet of Thebes, 
son of Everus and the nymph Chariclo, 
struck blind by Juno, according to one 
account, because he had seen Minerva 
bathing, and for having divulged to man- 
kind the secrets of the gods ; while another 
story is related in the Melampodia. Ju- 
piter, to compensate for his blindness, gave 
him an extent of life for seven generations, 
and the power of foreseeing coming events. 
Tiresias was contemporary with all the 
events of the times of La'ius and (Edipus, 
and the two Theban wars. At the con- 
clusion of the last he recommended the 
Thebans to abandon their city, and he was 
the companion of their flight. It was 
still night when they arrived at the foun- 
tain of Tilphussa. Tiresias, whose period 
of life was fated to be co-extensive with 
that of the city of the Cadmeans, drank of 
its waters, and immediately died. 

Tiridates, I., a monarch of Parthia, 
~aised to the throne after Phraates had 
been expelled for his cruelty and oppres- 



sion. Tiridates, however, upon learning 
that Phraates was marching against him 
with a numerous army of Scythians, fled 
with the infant son of Phraates to Au- 
gustus. The latter restored his son to 
Phraates, but refused to deliver up Tiri- 
dates. — II. A Parthian prince, brother 
of Vologeses, king of the Parthians in 
the reign of Nero. Vologeses, having 
conquered Armenia, a. d. 58, conferred 
the sovereignty upon his brother ; but the 
Romans refused to acknowledge his pre- 
tensions ; and after a long contest of various 
success, an arrangement was at length ef- 
fected by Corbulo the Roman general, 
who agreed that Tiridates should remain 
king of Armenia on condition of his ac- 
knowledging the supremacy of Rome, and 
receiving his crown from the hands of the 
Roman emperor. For this purpose Tiri- 
dates proceeded to Rome, a. d. 66, and the 
crown was placed upon his head by Nero 
amid the acclamations of the people. The 
latter circumstances of his life are un- 
known. 

Tiro, M. Tullius, a freedmanof Cicero's, 
held in high esteem by his master, and 
made eventually his private secretary and 
the superintendent of all his affairs. He 
performed many important services for 
Cicero, who gave him a small rural do- 
main, where he passed the rest of his days 
in retirement. Tiro wrote a biography 
of Cicero, now lost ; and to him, likewise, 
is attributed the invention of stenography. 

Tiryns or Tirynthus, a city of Argolis, 
south-east of Argos, and about twelve 
stadia from Nauplia, said to have been 
founded by Prcetus, brother of Acrisius, 
who employed for the construction of his 
citadel workmen from Lycia, called Cy- 
clopes. Prcetus was succeeded by Perseus, 
who transmitted Tiryns to his descendant 
Electryon. Alcmena, the daughter of 
this prince, was married to Amphitryon, 
on whom the crown would have devolved 
had he not been expelled by Sthenelus of 
Argos. His son Hercules, however, after- 
wards regained possession of his inherit- 
ance, whence he derived the name of 
Tirynthius. Homer represents the city 
of Tiryns as subject to the kings of Argos 
at the time of the Trojan war. But it 
was afterwards destroyed by the Argives, 
probably about the same time with the 
city of Mycenae, b. c. 468. 

Tirvnthia, a name given to Alcmena, 
as being a native of Tiryns. 

Tisamenus, a son of Orestes and Her- 
mione, the daughter of Menelaus, and 
king of Argos and Lacedaemon. The Her- 
aclidas entered his kingdom in the third 
c c 4 



584 



TIS 



TIT 



year of his reign, and he was obliged to 
retire with his family into Achaia. He 
was some time after killed in a battle 
against the Ionians, near Helice. 

Tisiphone, one of the Furies. See 
Erinnyes* 

Tissafhernes, a satrap of Persia, com- 
mander of part of the forces of Artaxerxes 
at the battle of Cunaxa against Cyrus, 
and the one who first gave information to 
Artaxerxes of the designs of his brother. 
He afterwards obtained a daughter of Ar- 
taxerxes in marriage, and all the provinces 
over which Cyrus had been governor. 
This was the same Tissaphernes who seized 
Alcibiades, and sent him prisoner to Sar- 
dis, after the naval victory which the latter 
had gained over the Lacedaemonians. Tis- 
saphernes was afterwards defeated by 
Agesilaus, upon which the king of Persia 
sent Tithraustes, another satrap, against 
him, who cut ofFhis head, b. c. 395. 

Tit^a, mother of the Titans ; supposed 
to be the same as Rhea, Terra, Thea, See. 

Titan, in Grecian mythology, accord- 
ing to the more modern account, the eldest 
son of Uranus and Gaia, who relinquished 
the sovereignty of gods and men to his 
younger brother Saturn, the latter under- 
taking to destroy all his children, so that 
the monarchy might revert to those of 
Titan. He afterwards recovered the so- 
vereignty from Saturn ; but Jupiter, the 
son of the latter, vanquished him, and re- 
stored it to his father. This, however, is 
a tale altogether unknown to the original 
mythologists. ( See Titanes.) — II . A name 
applied to the sun, as the offspring of Hy- 
perion, one of the Titans. — III. An 
epithet sometimes applied to Prometheus 
by the poets, from his being the son of Ia- 
petus, one of the Titans. 

Titanes, a name given to the children 
of Coelus (or Uranus) and Terra. They were 
six males, Oceanus, Coios, Crios, Hyperion, 
Iapetus, and Kronus ; and six females, 
Theia, Rheia (or Rhea), Themis, Mnemo- 
syne, Phoebe, and Tethys. These children, 
according to the commonly-received legend, 
were hated by their father, who, as soon 
as they were born, thrust them out of sight 
into a cavern of Earth, who, grieved at 
his unnatural conduct, produced the " sub- 
stance of hoary steel," and, forming from 
it a sickle, roused her children, the Titans, 
to rebellion against him. (See Saturnus.) 
The wars of the Titans against the gods, 
so celebrated in mythology, are often 
confounded with that of the Giants ; 
but it is to be observed that the war 
of the Titans was against Saturn, and 
that of the Giants against Jupiter. 



Titania, a patronymic applied to Pyr- 
rha, as grand-daughter ^of Titan, and like- 
wise to Diana. 

Titanides, the daughters of Coelus and 
Terra. See Titanes. 

Titaresius, Saranta Poros, a river of 
Thessaly, called also Eurotas, flowing into 
the Peneus, a little above the vale of 
Tempe. The waters of the two rivers 
did not, however, mingle ; as those of the 
Peneus were clear and limpid, while those 
of the Titaresius were impregnated with a 
thick unctuous substance, which floated like 
oil upon the surface. Hence the fabulous 
account of its being a branch of the. Styx. 

Tithonus, son of Laomedon, king of 
Troy, by Strymo, daughter of the Sca- 
mander. He was so beautiful, that Aurora 
having become enamoured of him carried 
him away, and obtained for him from 
Jupiter the gift of immortality. She un- 
fortunately neglected, however, to combine 
this privilege with an immunity from age, 
and in the course of time Tithonus be- 
came so decrepid, that Aurora out of pity 
transformed him into a grasshopper, in 
which shape he still retained the garrulity 
of old age. 

Tithorea, a city on Mount Parnassus, 
called also Neon, taken and burned by 
the army of Xerxes. In its vicinity, Phi- 
lomelus, the Phocian general, was defeated 
and slain by the Thebans. 

Tithraustes, a Persian satrap, b. c 
395, ordered by Artaxerxes to murder Tis- 
saphernes. He was afterwards defeated by 
the Athenians under Cimon. This name 
was common to some officers of state in 
the court of Artaxerxes. 

Titianus, Jul., a Latin geographical 
writer in the third century of our era. 
He possessed a great talent of imitation. 

Titius and Seius, the names of two 
fictitious personages, who, like John Doe 
and Richard Roe among ourselves, were 
introduced into all law processes at Rome. 

Titormus, a shepherd of iEtolia, calkd 
Hercules, from his prodigious strength. 

Titus I. (See Tatius.) — II. (See 
Livius.) — III. A son of Junius Brutus, 
put to death for conspiring to restore the 
Tarquins. — I V. Vespasianus, son of Vespa- 
sian and FlaviaDomitilla,emperor of Rome, 
was born a. b. 4Q. He received his edu- 
cation with Britannicus, who was poisoned 
by Nero a.d. 55 ; and served with great dis- 
tinction at an early age in Britannia and 
Germany, a. d. 66. He subsequently ac- 
companied his father as quaestor to Judaea, 
where he displayed great skill and courage ; 
and when Vespasian returned to Rome he 
remained in command of the army, and sig • 



TIT 



TOL 



585 



nalised himself by the siege and subsequent 
destruction of Jerusalem, a. d. 70. On his 
father's accession to the throne, he was 
created Caesar, and, after filling various im- 
portant offices, was unanimously invested 
with the imperial purple, a. d. 79. Pre- 
viously to his accession to the throne his 
private life had not inspired the Roman 
people with a lofly idea of his character ; 
but no sooner was he raised to the throne, 
than he became conspicuous for wisdom and 
beneficence. To do good to his subjects 
seemed to be his ambition ; and he received 
the appellation of the " Darling of Man- 
kind." But the Romans did not long 
enjoy the blessings of his administration, 
for he was seized with a violent fever, 
which carried him off, in the forty-first 
year of his age, after a reign of little 
more than two years, a. d. 81. Du- 
ring his short reign the empire was 
visited by great calamities. An eruption 
of Vesuvius destroyed the towns of Hercu- 
laneum, Stabiae, and Pompeii, and carried 
ruin over the fertile coast of Campania, 
a. n. 79 ; in the following year a confla- 
gration broke out in Rome, which lasted 
three days, and destroyed a great part of 
the city ; the buildings on the Campus 
Martius, the Capitol, the library of Oc- 
tavianus were laid in ruins, and the Pan- 
theon was damaged ; and no sooner had 
the people recovered from their consterna- 
tion than a plague broke out, of which 
10,000 persons died every day for a con- 
siderable period. In these unhappy cir- 
cumstances, Titus treated his subjects with 
the greatest humanity and liberality. He 
undertook to restore the city at his own 
expense, refusing all the presents that were 
offered him for that purpose. He also 
finished a splendid amphitheatre, of which 
his father had laid the foundation, and the 
baths which still bear his name. His 
first wife was Aricidia Tertulla, the daugh- 
ter of a Roman knight, and after her 
death he married Marcia Furnilla, a lady 
of a noble family, but from whom he was 
subsequently divorced. He afterwards 
formed a strong attachment for Bere- 
nice, daughter of Agrippa, and brought 
her with him from Judaea to Rome ; but 
when he found that their union was dis- 
agreeable to his subjects, he at once, though 
with great regret, consented to separate 
himself from her. See Berenice. 

Tityrus, I., a shepherd introduced by 
Virgil. — II. A large mountain of Crete. 

Tityus, a celebrated giant, son of Terra, 
and, according to others, of Jupiter, by 
Elara, daughter of Orchomenos. He in- 
sulted Latona ; but her children Apollo 



and Diana came to her assistance, and slew 
him with their arrows. His punishment, 
however, did not end with life : he lay ex- 
tended in Erebus, covering with his vast 
frame nine entire jugera, while a vulture 
kept feeding upon his liver and entrails, 
which were continually reproduced. The 
fable of Tityus is considered by Lucretius 
as an allegorical representation of the tor- 
tures caused by the unrestrained passions 
and desires. 

Tlepolemus, son of Hercules and As- 
tyochia. He left his native country, Argos, 
after the accidental murder of Licymnius, 
and retired to Rhodes, where he was cho- 
sen king, as one of the sons of Hercules. 
He afterwards went to the Trojan war 
with nine ships, and was killed by Sar- 
pedon. 

Tmarus or Tomarus, a mountain of 
Epirus, near Dodona, where was a cele- 
brated temple of Jupiter. 

Tmolus, I., a king of Lydia, son of 
Sipylus and Chthonia, married Omphale. 
He was killed by a bull for having insulted 
the nymph Arriphe, at the foot of Diana's 
altar, and the mountain on which he was 
buried bore his name. — II. Bouz-dag, the 
name of a lofty chain of hills in the centre of 
Lydia, from which flow the sources of the 
Pactolus and the Cayster. Its slopes were 
celebrated for the wine which they yielded ; 
hence , the district was called " Nemus 
Bacchi." Its saffron was also celebrated. 
— III. A city of Lydia, in the vicinity of 
Mount Tmolus, destroyed by an earth- 
quake under Tiberius. 

Tog at a, an epithet applied to Cisalpine 
Gaul, where the inhabitants wore the Ro- 
man toga, i. e. enjoyed the rights of Ro- 
man citizenship. 

Tolenus, Salto, a river ofLatium, falling 
into the Velinus. 

Toeetum, Toledo, a town of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, on the river Tagus, and the 
capital of the Carpetani. Its origin is lost 
in obscurity. Caesar made it a place of 
arms, and Augustus rendered it one of the 
seats of justice in Spain. Few traces of 
Roman edifices exist in the modern city. 

Tolistoboii, one of the Celtic tribes in 
Galatia, in Asia Minor, occupying that 
portion of the country which extended 
along the left bank of the Sangarius from 
its junction with the Thymbris to its 
source. Their principal town was Pes- 
sinus. 

ToEMinAs, son of Tolmaeus, an Athenian 
general, who, after the death of Cimon, en- 
gaged in many successful expeditions ; but 
having, contrary to the advice of Pericles, 
marched against the Thebans, b. c. 447, 
c c 5 



586 



TOL 



TRA 



he fell with the flower of the Athenian 
troops at Coronea. 

Tolosa, now Toulouse, a town of Gallia 
Narbonensis, which became a Roman co- 
lony under Augustus. The situation of 
Tolosa was very favourable for trade, and 
under the Romans it became the centre of 
the traffic which was carried on between 
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast 
of this part of Gaul. Minerva had here a 
rich temple, which was plundered by Ca?pio 
the consul. The Romans embellished this 
city with numerous splendid edifices, few 
traces of which however now remain. 

Tolumnius. See Lars Tolumnius. 

Tolujinus, I., an augur in the army 
of Turnus, against iEneas. — II. A king 
of Veii, killed by a Roman, for having or- 
dered the Roman ambassadors to be put to 
death. 

Tolus, the name of a man whose head 
(caput) was found in digging for the foun- 
dation of the Capitol, in the reign of 
Tarquin, whence the Romans concluded 
that their city should become the head or 
mistress of the world ; hence, according 
to some, the origin of the word Capitolium. 

Tomarus. See Tmarus. 
. Tomi, or Tomis, a town on the western 
shores of the Euxine Sea, about ninety miles 
south of the most southern mouth of the 
Danube. It was founded by a Milesian 
colony, b. c. 633, and its name was fabled 
to have been derived from to/xos, a cutting 
or separation, because Medea had here, as 
was maintained, cut to pieces her brother 
Absyrtus, and strewed his remains along 
the road in order to stop her father's pur- 
suit. Tomi is still called Tomeswar, though 
sometimes otherwise styled Baba. It is 
celebrated as being the place to which Ovid 
was banished by Augustus. 

Tomyris. See Thomyris. 

Tonea, a solemnity observed at Samos, 
in commemoration of the Tyrrhenians at- 
tempting to carry away the statue of Juno. 

Topazos, an island on the western side 
of the Sinus Arabicus, called also Ophiodes, 
from its containing many serpents. The 
stone topazus was found here, whence the 
name of the island. 

Torone, or Toryne, I., a haven of Epi- 
rus, below the river Thyamis, opposite 
Corcyra, near the modern Parga. The 
fleet of Augustus was moored here for a 
short time previous to the battle of Ac- 
tium. — II. A town of Macedonia, on 
the southern extremity of the Sithonian 
peninsula, giving name to the Sinus Toro- 
naicus, or Gulf of Cassandria. The har- 
bour of Torone was called Cophos (naxpos, 
mute, silent), from the circumstance that 



the noise of the waves was never heard 
there. 

Torquata, daughter of C. Silanus, and 
one of the Vestal virgins for sixty-four years. 

Torquatus. See Manlius II. 

Trabea, Q., a Roman comic poet, who 
flourished about b. c. 132. Some of his 
verses are cited by Cicero. 

Trachis or Trachin, so called from 
the mountainous character of the country, 
a town of Thessaly, in the Melian district, 
and near the shore of the Sinus Maliacus. 
It was to this place that Hercules retired 
after having committed an involuntary 
murder, as we learn from Sophocles, who 
has made it the scene of one of his deepest 
tragedies. Trachis forms the approach 
to Thermopylae on the side of Thessaly. 
In the sixth year of the Peloponnesian 
war, b.c. 426, the Lacedaemonians, at the 
request of the Trachinians, sent a colony 
into their country, who, jointly with 
the Trachinians, built a town, to which 
the name of Heraclea was given. (See 
Heraclea VI.) — II. A town of Phocis, 
east of Panopeus, and close to the Boeotian 
frontier. It was surnamed Phocica to 
distinguish it from the city of Thessaly 
of the same name. It was destroyed in 
the Sacred War. 

Trachonitis, a part of Judaea, on the 
other side of the Jordan, on the northern 
confines of Palestine. Its name is derived 
from rpaxvs, rough, and has reference to 
its being a rugged and stony country. 

Trajanopolis, I., a city of Cilicia, the 
same as Selinus. (See Selinus.) — II. Ari- 
choro, a city of Thrace, on the Hebrus, 
below its confluence with the Zerna. It 
became the capital of the Roman province 
of Rhodope. 

Trajancs, M. Ulpius Nerva, I., 
surnamed CrinItus, from his long hair, 
a Roman emperor, born at Italica in 
Spain, a. d. 53. Very little is known re- 
specting his youth ; but he distinguished 
himself at an early age against the Parthi- 
ans, was made joint consul with Acilius 
Glabrio, a. d. 91, and a. d. 97 was solemnly 
adopted by the emperor Nerva, who gave 
him the names of Ccesar and Germanicus. 
Three months later Trajan ascended the 
imperial throne ; and the wisdom and bene- 
volence with which he immediately entered 
upon his new duties amply justified the 
discernment of Nerva in having nominated 
him his successor. He introduced order 
and economy into the imperial household, 
constructed numerous public monuments, 
and also formed the great road which 
traversed the empire from Gaul to the 
Euxine Sea. These and other peaceful 



TRA 



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587 



cares did not prevent him from watch- 
ing the barbarous nations already hovering 
on the Roman frontiers. Decebalus, the 
warlike monarch of Dacia, having begun 
hostilities, the emperor entered the enemy's 
country by throwing a bridge across the 
rapid streams of the Danube ; and after a 
determined battle, obtained the victory. 
An expedition was then undertaken into 
the east, and Parthia threatened with war. 
Trajan passed through Armenia, and hav- 
ing made himself master of the pro- 
vinces of Assyria and Mesopotamia, ex- 
tended his conquests in the east to the extre- 
mities of India, where he lamented that he 
possessed not the vigour of an Alexander, 
that he might add unexplored provinces to 
the Roman empire. The return of the 
emperor towards Rome was hastened by 
indisposition ; and in the town of Seli- 
nus, afterwards Trajanopolis, he was seized 
with a flux, and expired, a. d. 117, after 
a reign of nineteen years, in his sixty- 
fourth year, being succeeded on the throne 
by Hadrian, whom the empress Plotina 
introduced to the Roman armies as the 
adopted son of her husband. The ashes 
of Trajan were carried to Rome, and de- 
posited under the stately column which 
he had erected to commemorate his vic- 
tories over the Dacians, and which is still 
to be seen at Rome. For nearly three 
centuries after his death, it was usual to 
salute each new emperor with a prayer 
that he might be more fortunate than 
Augustus, and more virtuous than Tra- 
jan. — II. The father of the emperor, 
descended from an old Spanish or Iberian 
family. He was honoured with the con- 
sulship, and a triumph, and the rank of a 
patrician, by Vespasian. 

Trajectus Rhf.ni, Utrecht, the capital 
of one of the provinces of Holland. 

Tralles, a town of Lydia, a short 
distance north of Magnesia ad Maeandrum, 
founded by some Argives, together with a 
body of Thracians, from whom it took the 
name of Tralles. In Strabo's time it was 
one of the most flourishing cities of Asia 
Minor, and was noted for the opulence of 
its inhabitants. The country around Tral- 
li'S was much subject to earthquakes. 

Trapezus, I., Trebisond, a city on the 
north-eastern coast of Pontus, which de- 
rived its name from the square form in 
which it was originally laid out, resem- 
bling a table (rpanz(<x). It was founded 
by a colony from Sinope, but subsequently 
outstripped its parent city, and all its 
sister ports along the coast, in wealth and 
importance. It was a flourishing emporium 
when it was reached by Xenophon and 



the ten thousand at the close of their 
memorable retreat. It continued to be 
an important city of the Greek empire till 
the subjugation of the latter by the Cru- 
saders. — IT. A city of Arcadia, in the 
south-western angle of the country, and 
between the Achelous and Alpheus. 

Trasimenus. See Thrasymenus. 

Treba, Trevi, a town of the iEqui, 
near the source of the Anio, distinguished 
by the name of Augusta. 

Trebatius Testa, C, a distinguished 
lawyer in the time of Julius Csesar and 
Augustus, celebrated for his wit. Cicero 
held him in high estimation. 

Trebellius Pollio, one of the " His- 
torian Augustas Scriptores." He lived 
under Constantine the Great, and wrote the 
lives of the Roman emperors from Philip 
to Claudius II. 

Trebia, a river of Gallia Cisalpina, 
commencing in Liguria, and falling, after 
a course of about fifty miles, into the Po 
near Placentia. At the mouth of this river 
Hannibal obtained a victory over the Ro- 
mans, and defeated them with the loss of 
20,000 men. 

Trebonia Lex, De Provinciis, a law 
enacted by L. Trebonius, the tribune, 
a. u. c. 698. It assigned provinces to 
the consuls for five years : Spain to Pom- 
pey ; Syria and the command of the Par- 
thian expedition to Crassus ; and prolonged 
for a time the command in Gaul, which 
had been bestowed on Caesar by the Va* 
tinian law. Cato, for opposing this law, 
was led to prison. 

Trebonius, Caius, L, one of Caesar's 
friends, through whose interest he became 
praetor and consul. But he was afterwards 
one of the conspirators against Caesar ; 
and was ultimately killed by Dolabella at 
Smyrna. — II. Garucianus, governor of 
Africa, who put to death the proconsul 
Clodius Maca, by order of Galba. — HI. 
A tribune. See Trebonia Lex. 

Tres Tabern^c, a station on the Ap- 
pian Way, about seven miles from Aricia, 
where it was joined by a cross-road from 
Antium. It is mentioned by St. Paul in 
his journey to Rome, and likewise by 
Cicero when proceeding thither from An- 
tium. 

Treveri, an ancient and powerful nation 
of Gallia Belgica, between the Mosella or 
Moselle, and Silva Arduenna. Their chief 
city, to which the Romans gave the name 
of Augusta Treverorum, now Treves, was 
the most ancient city of Germany, and, 
according to some, of Europe. It became 
the residence of several of the later Roman 
emperors ; and Ausonius, the friend and 
c c 6 



588 



TRI 



TRI 



instructor of Gratian, who resided there, 
calls it the second metropolis of the em- 
pire. It was successively laid waste by 
the Huns, the Goths, and the Vandals, 
but was as often rebuilt ; and, in more 
modern times, almost regained its ancient 
splendour under its archbishops. Nume- 
rous buildings (among whieh are a bridge, 
a gate (Porta Martis), an amphitheatre, 
and an aqueduct), and other Roman monu- 
ments, still exist to attest the splendour 
which this ancient city must have attained 
under its Roman masters. 

Triballi, by far the most numerous 
and powerful tribe of Thracia. Alexander 
-commenced his reign by an invasion of 
their territory, and, having defeated them 
in a general engagement, pursued them 
across the Danube, whither they had re- 
treated, and compelled them to sue for 
peace. 

Tribocci, a German tribe on the left 
bank of the Rhine, and between that river 
and the Mediomatrici and Leuci. Their 
chief- city was Argentoratum, now Stras- 
bourg. 

Tribonianus, a celebrated jurist, who 
was mainly instrumental in the compila- 
tion known by the name of the Insti- 
tutes of Justinian, was a native of Pam- 
phylia. He practised first at the bar of 
the praetorian prasfects at Constantinople, 
became afterwards quaestor, master of the 
imperial household, and consul, and pos- 
sessed for about twenty years the favour 
and confidence of Justinian. His man- 
ners are said to have been remarkably mild 
and conciliating. It is well known that 
he was a courtier, and fond of money, but 
in other respects he appears to have been 
calumniated by his enemies. His death 
took place a. d. 545. 

Tribunus, properly, as the name de- 
notes, the chief magistrate of a tribe. 
There were several kinds of officers in the 
Roman state that bore the title. 1. The 
plebeian tribunes, who were first created 
after the secession of the commonalty to 
the Mons Sacer (a.u.c. 260), as one of the 
conditions of its return to the city. They 
were especially the magistrates and pro- 
tectors of the commonalty, and no patri- 
cian could be elected to the office. At 
their first appointment the power of the 
tribunes was very small, being confined to 
the assembling the plebeians, and the pro- 
tection of any individual from patrician 
aggression ; but their persons were sacred 
and inviolable, and this privilege consoli- 
dated their other powers, which, in the 
later ages of the republic, grew to an enor- 
mous height, and were finally incorporated 



with the functions of the other chief ma- 
gistracies in the person of the emperor. 
The number of the tribunes varied from 
two to ten, and each of these might annul 
the proceedings of the rest by putting in 
his veto. 2. Military tribunes were first 
elected in the year a.u.c. 310, in the place 
of the consuls, in consequence of the de- 
mands of the commonalty to be admitted 
to a share of the supreme power. This 
measure was not, however, a complete 
concession of their demands, but, in fact, 
evaded them in a great degree; for the 
tribunate was not vested with the full 
powers or honours of the consulate, not 
being a curule magistracy, and though it 
was open to all the people, patricians were 
almost invariably chosen. The number 
of the military tribunes was sometimes 
six, and sometimes three. For above se- 
venty years sometimes consuls were elected 
and sometimes military tribunes; at last 
the old order was permanently restored, 
but the plebeians were admitted to a share 
of it. 3. Legionary tribunes, or tribunes 
of the soldiers, were the chief officers of a 
legion, six in number, who commanded 
under the consul, each in his turn, usually 
about a month : in battle each led a co- 
hort. 

Tricala, also called Triocala and Tri- 
ocla, a mountain fortress and town in 
Sicily, near the lower coast, east of Selinus, 
and north of the mouth of the Crimisus. 
It came into notice during the Servile 
war in Sicily, as being the residence of the 
slave-king Tryphon. 

Tricasses, a people of Gaul, north-east 
of the Senones, and through whose terri- 
tories flows the Sequana or Seine, in the 
earlier part of its course. Their chief city 
was Augusta Bona, now Troyes. 

Tricca, a city of Thessaly, south-east 
of Gomphi, and near the junction of the 
Peneus and Lethseus. It is mentioned as 
early as the time of Homer, who places it 
under the dominion of the sons of iEscu- 
lapius. Tricca possessed a temple of iEs- 
culapius, whieh was held in great vener- 
ation. The modern Tricala appears to 
correspond to the site of the ancient city. 

Tricorii, a Gallic tribe in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, in the territory of Massilia and 
Aqua? Sextiae. 

Tridentum, now Trent or Trento, a 
city of Rhaetia, on the river Athesis or 
Adige, and a short distance from the 
northern confines of Venetia. It was built 
by the Cenomani, who were dispossessed 
by the Romans. Trent is famous in mo- 
dern history for the council of ecclesiastics 
which sat there for the purpose of regu- 



^TRI 



TRI 



589 



lating the affairs of the church. It was 
assembled by Paul III. in 1545, and con- 
tinued by twenty-five sessions till the year 
1563, under Julius III. and Pius IV. 

Trieterica, festivals in honour of Bac- 
chus, celebrated every three years. 

Trigaboli, a town of Italy, in the ter- 
ritory of Venetia, where the Padusa, or 
southern arm of the Po, separates itself 
from the main stream. Its site is near 
that of the modern Ferrara. 

Trigemina, one of the Roman gates, 
so called because the three Horatii went 
through it against the Curiatii. 

Trinacria, one of the ancient names of 
Sicily, from its three promontories (rpeis 

Trinobantes, a people of Britain, in 
Essex and Middlesex. 

Triopas or Triops, a son of Neptune by 
Canace, the daughter of iEolus. He was 
father of Erisichthon, thence called Trio- 
peius, and his daughter Triope'is. 

Triopium, a city of Caria, founded by 
Triopas, son of Erisichthon, near the pro- 
montory of Triopium, at the extremity of 
Doris. On the promontory, which took 
its name from the city, was a temple of 
Apollo, known under the name of the Tri- 
opaean temple. The Dorians here cele- 
brated games in honour of Apollo ; here 
also was held a general assembly of the 
Dorians in Asia, upon the model of that 
of Thermopylae. 

Triphvlia, the southern portion of 
Elis, which derived its name from the 
union of three different tribes (rpeis cpvAai), 
the Epei, or original inhabitants, the 
Minyae, who migrated thither, and the 
Elei. 

Tripolis, I., Tarabolus, a maritime city 
of Syria, so called because the three cities 
(rpets TroAets), Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus, 
sent each a colony thither. — II. A 
region of Africa, on the coast of the 
Mediterranean, between the two Syrtes. 
It received its name from its containing 
three principal cities, Leptis Magna, CEa, 
and Sabatra. The second of these is the 
modern city of Tripoli. — III. Triboli, a 
city of Pontus, on the coast, at the mouth 
of the river Tripolis, and north-east of 
Cerasus. — IV. A city of Lydia, on the 
western bank of the Maeander, north-west 
of Hierapolis, and near the confluence of 
the Maeander and Cludrus. 

Triptolemus, according to the more 
received opinion, son of Celeus, king of 
Attica, by Neaera, whom some have called 
Cothonea, Hyona, Metanira, or Polymnia. 
He was born at Eleusis in Attica, and 
cured of a severe illness by Ceres, who 



had been invited into the house of Celeus 
as she travelled in quest of her daughter. 
To repay the kindness, the goddess took 
notice of his son, fed him with her own 
milk, and placed him on burning coals, to 
destroy whatever of mortality he had. 
The mother, astonished at his growth, had 
the curiosity to watch Ceres, and dis- 
turbed the goddess by a sudden cry, whep 
Triptolemus was on the burning ashes. 
Ceres therefore, foiled in her attempt to 
make him immortal, taught him agricul- 
ture, and instructed him how to sow corn, 
and make bread : she also gave him her 
chariot, drawn by two dragons, in which 
he travelled over the earth, and distributed 
corn to all the inhabitants of the world. 
At his return he restored to Ceres her 
chariot, and established festivals and mys- 
teries in her honour. After his death he 
received divine honours. 

Triquetra, a name given to Sicily by 
the Latins, from its triangular form. 

Trismegistus, or " the Thrice Great," 
an epithet given to the Egyptian Hermes, 
who was said to have invented the art of 
writing, and to have first taught the sci- 
ences of astronomy, astrology, &c. Several 
works on astrological and philosophical 
subjects have been attributed to him. 

TniTiEA, a city of Achaia, near the con- 
fines of Elis, said to have been founded by 
a colony from Cumas in Italy under Calli- 
das. Extensive ruins of this ancient city 
still exist at Goumenitza. 

TritogenIa, a surname of Pallas. See 
Tritonis. 

Triton, I., a powerful sea-deity, son of 
Neptune by Amphitrite, or, according to 
some, by Celeno or Salacia. (See Tri- 
tonis.) He could calm the ocean, and abate 
storms. He was generally represented 
as blowing a shell, and with a body above 
the waist like that of a man, and below 
like a dolphin. Many of the sea-deities 
were called Tritons. — II. Gabs, a river 
of Africa, rising in Mount Usaleton, and, 
after forming in its course the two lakes of 
Tritonis and Libya, discharging its waters 
into the Syrtis Minor, near Tacape. 

Tritonis, a lake and river of Africa, 
inland from the Syrtis Minor, near which 
Minerva had a temple, hence surnamed 
Tritonis or Tritonia. The true etymo- 
logy, however, is from rpirca, "head;" 
hence Tritonia, Tpnoyeveia, have reference 
to her having sprung from the head of 
Jupiter. Athens was also called Tritonis, 
because dedicated to Minerva. 

Triujiphus, the highest military honour 
that could be obtained by a Roman gene- 
ral. It was a solemn procession, with 



590 



TRI 



TRCE 



which the victorious leader and his army 
advanced through the city to the capitol, 
accompanied by the captives taken in war, 
and vehicles bearing the spoils, and all the 
furniture that could add magnificence to 
the spectacle. On arriving at the capitol, 
the general offered up a prayer of thanks- 
giving to Jupiter and the other gods, and 
sacrificed white bulls. A triumph was 
decreed by the senate, and sometimes by 
the people against the will of the senate, 
to the general who, in a just war with 
foreigners, and in one battle, had slain 
above 5000 enemies of the state, and en- 
larged the limits of the empire. A lesser 
kind of triumph was called ovatio, from 
ovis, a sheep, which the general offered to 
Jupiter instead of a bull. The chief dif- 
ference between the ovatio and the tri- 
umphus was, that in the former the general 
entered the city on foot, and in later times 
on horseback. He also wore only the 
toga pra?texta, and was frequently unac- 
companied by his army. 

Triumvir at us, a term applied to two 
great coalitions of the three most powerful 
individuals in the Roman empire for the 
time being. The first of these was effected 
in the year b. c. 60, between Julius Ca?sar, 
Pompey, and Crassus, who pledged them- 
selves to support each other with all their 
influence. This coalition was broken by 
the fall of Crassus at Carrha? in Mesopo- 
tamia ; soon after which the civil war 
broke out, which ended in the death of 
Pompey, and establishment of Julius 
Caasar as perpetual dictator. After his 
murder, b. c. 44, the civil war again broke 
out between Antony, who wished to 
avenge the death and succeed to the for- 
tunes of Caesar, and the republic, on whose 
side were ranged Octavius and Brutus. 
Lepidus with a large army remained in 
suspense which side to take. But after 
the battle of Mutina, in which both consuls 
fell, b. c. 43, Antony, Octavius, and Le- 
pidus coalesced ; thus forming the second 
triumvirate, each party confirming the 
bond of union by the sacrifice of some of 
his friends to the hatred of the others, — 
among these was Cicero, who was delivered 
up by Octavius to the vengeance of Antony. 
Against this confederation Brutus still 
held out with the rest of the conspirators 
against Caesar, till their destruction at 
the battle of Philippi. The triumviri 
divided the provinces of the empire ; 
Octavius taking the west, Lepidus Italy, 
and Antony the east : but this union was 
soon broken by the passion of Antony 
for Cleopatra, which induced him to re- 
pudiate Octavia, the sister of Octavius. 



War ensued, which was terminated by the 
defeat and death of Antony at Actium, in 
b. c. 32 ; after which every thing fell into 
the hands of Octavius, Lepidus offering no 
obstacle. 

Triumviri, I. ( See Triumviratus. ) — 
II. The name given to a class of per- 
sons who filled various offices at Rome, 
which were considered as the first steps to 
preferment. Of these the chief were the 
Triumviri Monetales, Commissioners of the 
Mint; Triumviri Capitales, Commissioners 
who had the charge of prisoners, and at- 
tended the execution of criminals ; Trium- 
viri Nocturni, Commissioners of the Night 
Police ; Triumviri Agrarii, Colonial Com- 
missioners, Sfc. 

Triumvirorum Insula, an island in 
the small river Rhenus, one of the tribu- 
taries of the Po, where the triumvirs An- 
tony, Lepidus, and Augustus, met to divide 
the Roman empire after the battle of 
Mutina. 

Trivia, a surname given to Diana, be- 
cause she presided over places where three 
roads met. 

TrivLe antrum, a place in the valley 
of Aricia, where the Nymph Egeria re- 
sided. 

Trivicum, Tripico, a place situated 
among the mountains that separate Sam- 
nium from Apulia. 

Troades, the inhabitants of Troas. 

Troas, a district on the JEgean coast of 
Mysia, in Asia Minor, extending as far 
south as the promontory of Lectum, now 
Cape Baba, of which Troy was the capita,. 
The kingdom of Priam, if we form our 
ideas of it from the poems of Homer, must 
have been of very limited extent. Strabo, 
indeed, makes it to have comprised the 
country on the coast of the Propontis as 
far as the river iEsepus, near Cyzicus. 
Homer, however, names many expressly 
as allies of the Trojans whom Strabo would 
wish to consider as the subjects of Priam. 
The northern part of Troas was termed 
Dardania, from Dardanus, a city founded 
byDardanus, one of the ancestors of Priam. 
The Trojans were very probably of Thra- 
cian origin. 

Trochois, a lake in the island of Delos, 
near which Apollo and Diana were born. 

Trocmi, a people of Galatia between 
the Halys and Cappadocia. 

Trcezene, Tamala, more anciently called 
Posidonia, an important city in the east of 
Argolis in Peloponnesus, near the Saroni- 
cus Sinus, named from Trcezen, son of 
Pelops, one of its earliest sovereigns. 
Troezene was an independent city, with a 
considerable territory, and several town- 



TRO 



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591 



ships attached to it. The inhabitants had 
enriched themselves by commerce, and 
have become celebrated for their generous 
treatment of the Athenian women and 
children who had quitted Athens on the 
invasion of Xerxes. The harbour of Troe- 
zene, at the entrance of which lay the 
island Calauria, where Demosthenes put 
an end to his existence, was called Pogon 
(cr beard), whence the Latin proverb 
" Troezenen navigare," to wear a false 
beard. Troezene remained an important 
city down to the time of Pausanias, who 
has left an account of its temples and 
other public buildings and works of art. 
In mythological times Troezene was the 
residence of Pittheus, grandfather of The- 
seus ; hence it was called Pittheia regna ; 
hence also the epithet Troezenius heros is 
applied to Lelex, one of the companions 
of Theseus. 

Trogilie, three small islands near 
Samos. 

Trogilium, Cape Santa Maria, a bold 
promontory of Ionia, nearly opposite to 
Cape Posidium in the island of Samos. 
It is mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles. 

Troglodyte, tribes of men who have 
their dwellings in subterraneous caverns. 
Several such tribes are mentioned by an- 
cient authors, and the remains of their 
dwellings still attest their existence ; espe- 
cially along the banks of the Nile, in Upper 
Egypt and Nubia, and in parts of Syria 
and Arabia. 

Trogus Pompeius, a Latin historian, 
who flourished in the time of Augustus. 
He was descended from a Gallic family, 
to which Pompey the Great had extended 
the rights of Roman citizenship, and from 
him, in all probability, the name Pompeius 
was derived, the family name having been 
Trogus. Trogus wrote an " Universal 
History from the time of Ninus, king of 
Assyria, down to b. c. 6," of which an 
abridgment by Justinus has reached our 
times. 

TroTlus, a son of Priam and Hecuba, 
remarkable for youthful beauty, slain by 
Achilles during the Trojan war. The 
manner of his death is differently related 
by ancient writers. 

Troja, I., a celebrated city, the capital 
of Troas, which appears from Homer to 
have stood in the immediate vicinity of the 
sources of the Scamander, on a rising 
ground between that river and the Simo'is. 
The Trojans, or Teucri, appear to have 
been of Thracian origin, and their first 
monarch is said to have been Teucer. In 
the reign of this king Troy was not as 
yet built. Dardanus, probably a Pelasgic 



chief, came from the island of Samothrace 
to the Teucrian territory, received from 
Teucer his daughter Batiea in marriage, 
together with the cession of part of his 
kingdom, founded the city of Dardanus, 
and called the adjacent region Dardania. 
Dardanus had two sons, Ilus and Erich- 
thonius. Ilus died without issue, and was 
succeeded by Erichthonius, who married 
Asyoche, daughter of the Simo'is, and be- 
came by her the father of Tros. This last, 
on succeeding to the throne, called the 
country Troas or Troja, and had three 
sons, Ilus, Assaracus, and Ganymedes. 
Ilus founded a city lower down in the plain 
than the city of Dardanus, which he called 
Ilium or Troy. This city, the citadel of 
which was called Pergamus, became now 
the capital of all Troas, and, during the 
reign of Laomedon, the successor of Ilus, 
was surrounded with walls, which the poets 
fabled were the work of Apollo and Nep- 
tune. (See Laomedon.) During the reign 
of this last-mentioned monarch, Troy was 
taken by Hercules, assisted by Telamon, 
son of JEacus, but was restored by the 
victor to Priam, the son of its conquered 
king. (See Laomedon and Priamus. ) 
Priam reigned here in peace and prosperity 
for many years, having a number of ad- 
jacent tribes under his sway, until his son 
Paris, attracted to Laconia by the fame of 
Helen's beauty, abused the hospitality of 
Menelaiis by carrying off his queen in his 
absence. All the chiefs of Greece there- 
upon combined their forces under the com- 
mand of Agamemnon, to avenge this out- 
rage, sailed with a great armament to Troy, 
and, after a siege of ten years, took and 
razed it to the ground b. c. 1184. Long 
subsequently to the destruction of Troy, a 
city called Novum Ilium, by way of dis- 
tinction, was built in the Troad ; but 
whether it occupied the site of the ancient 
city or not has never been satisfactorily 
ascertained. Numerous elaborate disqui- 
sitions have been written upon the topo- 
graphy of this celebrated city ; but it would 
be impossible within our limits to enter 
upon so extensive a question, and we can 
only refer the reader, for an excellent sum- 
mary of the chief views that have been 
entertained respecting it, to Mr. M'Cul- 
loch's Geographical Dictionary, art. Troad. 
— II. A small town, or rather village, in 
Egypt, east of Memphis, fabled to have been 
founded by some Trojan captives under 
Menelaiis. In its vicinity was the Mons 
Troicus, whence the stones for the Pyra- 
mids were obtained. 

Trojanx and Trojugene, inhabitants of 
Troy. 



592 



TRO 



TUL 



Trojani ludi, a sort of sham fight per- 
formed on horseback, said to have been 
invented by ^neas, but often exhibited 
by Augustus and the succeeding empe- 
rors. It is described by Yirgil {JEn. v.). 

Trophonius, in Greek mythology, a 
son of Erginus, king of Orchomenos, 
who, together with his brother Agamedes, 
built the temple of Apollo at Delphi. 
Having prayed for a reward from the 
god, it was promised him on the seventh 
day ; but on the day on which he was 
to receive it, he and his brother were 
both found dead. The story is told in 
other ways. He had a temple at Lebadea, 
as Jupiter Trophonius. In this temple 
was the celebrated cave into which those 
who descended spoke oracularly on their 
return ; and in this way responses were 
made. But the impressions produced by 
the descent were thought so to work upon 
the spirit of a visitor, that he remained a 
victim to melancholy the remainder of his 
life. Hence arose the proverb applied to 
a serious man — that he looked as if he 
came out of the cave of Trophonius. Some 
thought that the priests had secret access 
to the cavern, and that those whose minds 
did not give way under the terror of the 
scene which they encountered were mur- 
dered by them. See Agamedes. 

Tros, a son of Erichthonius, king of 
Troy. He married Callirrhoe, daughter 
of the Scamander, by whom he had Assa- 
racus, Ganymedes, and Ilus, and gave the 
name of Troja to the adjacent country. 

Trossulum, a town of Etruria, west of 
Ferentinum, which gave the name of i 
Trossuli to the Roman knights, who had j 
taken it without the assistance of foot- j 
soldiers. 

TRYrmoDORUS, a Greek poet in the sixth 
century. A poem on the destruction of 
Troy is the only one of his productions 
which has reached us. 

Trypho, a grammarian of Alexandria in 
the age of Augustus, some of whose works 
are still extant. 

Tubeko, Q. JElivs, a Roman consul, 
son-in-law of Paulus, conqueror of Per- j 
seus, celebrated for his poverty and in- i 
tegrity. 

Tuburbo, two towns of Africa, Major 
and Minor : the first is now Tuhernok ; the ! 
latter, on the Bagradas, retains its ancient 1 
name. 

Tucca, Plautius, a friend of Horace j 
and Virgil, ordered by Augustus to revise \ 
the JEneid, which, from the premature ! 
death of the author, had remained uncor- j 
rected. 

Tuder, Todi, a strong town of Umbria, 



north-west of Spoletium, and near the 
Tiber. It was famous for its worship of 
Mars. 

Tuiscon or Tuiston*, an ancient Ger- 
man divinity, said to have sprung origi- 
nally from the earth, and to have been the 
founder of the German race. His son's 
name was Mannus, a term equivalent to 
the German word mznn, and the English 
man. 

Tulingi, a people of Gaul, but of Ger- 
manic origin. The modern Stuhlingen is 
thought to preserve traces of their name. 

Tullia, I., a daughter of Servius Tul- 
lius, king of Rome. She married Tarquin 
the Proud after she had made away with 
her first husband, Aruns Tarquinius. 
(See Servius Tullius.) — II. Another 
daughter of Servius Tullius, and wife of 
Tarquin the Proud, by whom she was 
murdered that he might marry her am- 
bitious sister of the same name. — III. 
or Tulliola, a daughter of Cicero by 
Terentia. She was three times mar- 
ried ; first to Caius Piso, secondly to 
Furius Crassipes, and thirdly to P. Cor- 
nelius Dolabella. Cicero entertained the 
deepest affection for this his favourite 
child, and her death, b. c. 44, at the age 
of thirty-two, proved to him a source of 
the bitterest sorrow. 

Tullianum, a name given to part of 
the public prison at Rome. The prison 
was originally built by Ancus Marcius, 
and was afterwards enlarged by Servius 
Tullius, whence that part of it which was 
built by him received the name of Tul- 
lianum. This dungeon now serves as a 
subterranean chapel to a small church 
built on the spot, called San Pietro in Car- 
cere, in commemoration of St. Peter, who 
is supposed to have been confined there. 

Tulliola. See Tullia III. 

Tullius, I., Cimber. See Cimber. — 
II. Cicero. See Cicero. — III. Servius. 
See Servius. — IV. Senecio. See He- 

RENNIUS. 

Tullus Hostilius, the third king of 
Rome. After the death of Numa, b. c. 
673, a short interregnum took place; but 
Tullius Hostilius was at last chosen his 
successor. The new king sought to rival 
the military glory of Romulus. He first 
turned his arms against the people of 
Alba, whom he conquered and transferred 
to Rome (see Horatii and Curiatii), 
and afterwards carried his arms against 
the Latins and neighbouring states with 
success. He is said to have been struck 
by lightning, and to have perished with 
all his family about b. c. 640, after a reign 
of thirty-two years. The tribe of the Lu- 



TUN 



TYD 



593 



ceres is said to have received its develop- 
ment in the reign of Tullus Hostilius. 

Tunes, Tunis, a city of Africa, 120 
stadia south-west of Carthage. It first 
rose into consequence after the fall of Car- 
thage. 

Tungri, a German tribe, probably the 
same with the Aduatici of Caesar, and the 
first that crossed the Rhine. They became 
subsequently a powerful people in Ger- 
mania Inferior. 

Turanius, C, a Latin tragic poet in 
the age of Augustus. 

Turdetani, a people of Hispania Baetica, 
extending along the coast from the Anas 
to the Bastuli Poeni. Their territory was 
famed for its beauty and fertility. The 
inhabitants carried on an extensive com- 
merce with the interior by means of the 
Bastis, which traversed it. 

Turduli, a people of Hispania Bastica, 
north and north-east of the Turdetani. 

Turias, Guadalaviar, a river of Spain, 
in the territory of the Edetani, flowing 
past Valentia into the Mediterranean. 

Turnus, king of the Rutuli, son of 
Daunus, king of Apulia, and Venilia, a 
nymph, who was sister to Amata, the wife 
of Latinus. Lavinia, the daughter of 
Latinus, was betrothed to him ; but the 
arrival of ^Eneas deprived him of his in- 
tended bride, and in the war which took 
place between the Latins and the Trojans 
Turnus was slain by ^Eneas. 

Turones, L, a people in the interior 
of Gallia Lugdunensis, whose territory 
answers to the modern Touraine. — II. 
A German tribe settled in what is now 
the southern part of Hesse. 

Turris Hannibalis, I., Mahdia, a 
small place on the coast of Africa, below 
Thapsus, from which Hannibal took his 
departure for Asia when banished by his 
ungrateful countrymen. — II. Stratonis. 

See CiESAREA. 

Tusci, the'inhabitants of Etruria. See 
Hetruscj. 

TuscuLANinr, the name of Cicero's villa 
near Tusculum, where the scenR of his 
Tftsculan Disputations is laid. 

Tusculum, a town of Latium, on the 
summit of the ridge of hills which forms 
the continuation of the Alban Mount, and 
above the modern town of Frascati. This 
was one of the most ancient cities of Italy, 
its foundation being ascribed to Telegonus 
the son of Circe. It was strong, as well from 
its position as from the walls by which it 
was surrounded, portions of which still 
exist. It was also one of the most faith- 
ful of the allies of Rome ; and successfully 
resisted an attack by Hannibal. The top 



of the hill on which Tusculum was built, 
2,079 French feet above the level of the 
sea, was surmounted by a citadel, now 
wholly destroyed. Like Frascati, in mo- 
dern times, Tusculum was crowded with 
the villas of distinguished Roman citizens, 
among which may be mentioned those of 
Lucullus and Maecenas. 

Tuscum Mare, a part of the Mediter- 
ranean, on the coast of Etruria. See 
Ttrrhenum. 

Tuscus, belonging to Etruria ; hence 
the Tiber is called Tuscus Amnis, because 
it formed the boundary between Latium 
and Etruria. 

TuscusVicus, a small village near Rome, 
named from the Etrurians of Porsenna's 
army, who settled there. 

Tuta. See Teuta. 

Tutia, L, a Vestal virgin, who, when 
accused of having violated her vow, proved 
her innocence by carrying water from the 
Tiber to the temple of Vesta in a sieve. 
— II. A small river six miles from Rome, 
where Hannibal pitched his camp when 
he retreated from the city. 

Tyana, Ketch-Bissar, a strongly fortified 
city of Cappadocia, at the foot of Mt. 
Taurus, said to have been founded by 
Thoas, king of the Tauric Chersonesus. 
It was the birthplace of Apollonius ; and 
at a later period it became the see of a 
Christian bishop, and the capital of Cappa- 
docia Secunda. 

TyanItis, a district in the southern part 
of Cappadocia, near Cilicia. It derived 
its name from Tyana, its chief city. 

Ttbris. See Tiberis. 

Tyche, I., one of the Oceanides. — II. 
A part of the town of Syracuse ; famous 
for a temple of Fortune (Tuytj) ; hence the 
name. 

Tychius, a celebrated artist of Hyle in 
Bceotia, who made Hector's shield, which 
was covered with the hides of seven oxen. 

Tydeus, a son of CEneus, king of Calydon. 
Having accidentally killed a friend, he fled 
to the court of Adrastus king of Argos, 
whose daughter Deiphvle he married, and 
became the father of Diomede. When 
Adrastus wished to replace his son-in-law 
Polynices on the throne of Thebes, Tydeus 
undertook to declare war against Eteocles, 
who usurped the crown. The reception 
he experienced having provoked his resent- 
ment, he challenged Eteocles and his offi- 
cers to single combat, and defeated them. 
On leaving Thebes, he fell into an ambus- 
cade of fifty of the foe, purposely planted to 
stroy him ; but he slew all but one, who 
was permitted to return to Thebes, to bear 
the tidings of the fate of his companions. 



594 



TYD 



TYR 



He was one of the seven chiefs of the army 
of Adrastus, and during the Theban war 
behaved with great courage ; but was at 
last wounded by Menalippus. As he lay 
expiring, Minerva hastened to him with a 
medicine which she had obtained from 
Jupiter, and which would make him im- 
mortal ; but Amphiaraus,who hated him as 
a chief cause of the war, perceiving what 
the goddess was about, cut off the head 
of Menalippus, whom Tydeus, though 
wounded, had slain, and brought it to him. 
The savage warrior opened it and de- 
voured the brain, and Minerva, in disgust, 
withheld her aid. His remains were in- 
terred at Argos, where a monument, said 
to be his, was still seen in the age of Pau- 
sanias. 

Tydioes, a patronymic of Diomedes, as 
son of Tydeus. 

Tylos, an island in the Sinus Persicus, 
on the Arabian coast, the pearl fishery on 
whose coasts has rendered it famous in 
antiquity ; and the same circumstance still 
contributes to its renown under the name 
of Bahrain, which in Arabic signifies two 
seas. 

Tymolus. See Tjiolus. 

Tyndarid^e, a patronymic of the chil- 
dren of Tyndarus ; as Castor, Pollux, He- 
len, &c. 

Tyndaris, I., a patronymic of Helen 
and Clytemnestra, as daughters of Tyn- 
darus. — II. An important town on the 
northern coast of Sicily, south-west of 
Messana, founded by the elder Dionysius. 
A part of the ancient site «has been in- 
undated by the sea. — III. A name given 
by Horace to one of his mistresses, as ex- 
pressive of all female accomplishments. — 
IV. A name given to Cassandra. 

Tyndarus, a son of CEbalus and Gor- 
gophone, or, according to some, of Peri- 
eres. He was king of Laeedasmon, and 
married the celebrated Leda, who had by 
him Timandra, Philonoe, Castor, Cly- 
temnestra, &c 3 and who also became mo- 
ther of Pollux and Helen by Jupiter. See 
Castor, Pollux, Clytemnestra, Leda, 
&c. 

Typhoeus (three syllables), a monstrous 
giant, who warred against the gods. See 
Typhon. 

Typhon, or Typhaon, a monstrous giant, 
whom Earth, enraged at the destruction 
of her previous giant progeny, brought 
forth to contend with the gods. The 
stature of this being reached the sky ; fire 
flashed from his eyes ; he hurled glowing 
rocks, with loud cries and hissing, against 
heaven, and storms burst from his mouth. 
The gods, in dismay, fled to Egypt, and 



concealed themselves under the form of 
different animals. But Jupiter, at last, 
after a severe conflict, overcame him, and 
placed him beneath iEtna, or, as others said, 
in the Palus Serbonis, or " Serbonian bog." 
Typhon is the same apparently with Ty- 
phoeus, though Hesiod makes a difference 
between them. Typhon is made the 
sire of the Chimasra, Echidna, and other 
monsters. Typhon was the evil genius of 
Egyptian mythology, and the great oppo- 
nent of Osiris. See Osiris. 

Tyrannion, a Greek grammarian, a 
native of Amisus in Pontus, made prisoner 
by Lucullus, b. c. 72. His original name 
was Theophrastus, but he received that of 
Tyrannion from his austerity to hie pupils. 
He devoted himself to study and teaching, 
by which he amassed a considerable for- 
tune. He collected a library of 30,000 
volumes, and died at an advanced age of a 
paralytic stroke. All his works are lost. 

Tyras, Tyra, or Danastus, Dniester, 
a river of European Sarmatia, rising in 
the. Carpathian mountains, and falling 
into the Euxine, between the Danube and 
Borysthenes, after a course of about 600 
miles. 

Tyres, brother of Teuthras, and one of 
the companions of iEneas in his wars 
against Turnus. 

Tyro, a beautiful nymph, daughter of 
Salmoneus, king of Elis, and Alcidice. She 
was treated with severity by her mother-in- 
law Sidero, but was at last removed from 
her father's house by her uncle Cretheus. 
She became mother of Pelias and Neleus 
by Neptune, and afterwards married Cre- 
heus, by whom she had ^Eson, Amythaon. 
and Pheres. She is often called Salmoms 
from her father. 

Tyros, a city of Phoenicia. See Tyrus. 

Tyrrheid^e, a patronymic of the sons 
of Tyrrheus, who kept the flocks of La- 
tinus. 

Tyrrheni, the inhabitants of Etruria. 
See Hetrusci. 

Tyrrhenijm Mare, that part of the 
Mediterranean which lies on the coast 
of Etruria: it is also called Inferum, as 
washing the lower shore of the peninsula. 

Tyrrheus, a shepherd of king Latinus, 
whose stag, killed by the champions of 
Ascanius, was the first cause of war be- 
tween iEneas and the inhabitants of La- 
tium. Hence the word Tyrrheidce. 

Tyrt^eus, of Miletus, a celebrated 
Greek Elegiac poet, who settled at Athens 
about b.c. 670. In the war between the 
Lacedasmonians and Messenians, the Spar- 
tans, by the advice of the oracle, applied to 
the Athenians for a general ; and the latter, 



TYR 



ULY 



595 



unwilling to assist the Spartans in extend- 
ing their dominion in the Peloponnesus, yet 
reluctant to obey the oracle, sent them, in 
derision, Tyrtaeus, a poor schoolmaster, who 
was lame, and had never shown any sign of 
talent. The bard, however, so inspired the 
Spartans by his warlike songs, that they 
reduced the Messenians to subjection. He 
was accordingly treated with great respect, 
and granted the rights of citizenship ; and 
his martial airs were constantly sung 
by the Spartans before they went out to 
battle, as long as their republic existed. 
We have several fragments remaining of 
the elegies of Tyrta?us. They are written 
in the Ionic dialect, though addressed to 
Dorians, and are full of enthusiastic and 
patriotic feeling. 

Tyrus or Tyros, Sur, a vely ancient 
city of Phoenicia, founded by a colony of 
Sidonians, b. c. 1690. It was on a small 
island south of Sidon, 200 stadia from the 
6hore called in the Old Testament Zor ; 
and the Roman traders called it Sar and 
Sarra, hence Sarranus in Virgil. Origi- 
nally the city was built on the mainland ; 
but having been besieged for a lengthened 
period by the Babylonian monarch Ne- 
buchadnezzai*, the inhabitants conveyed 
themselves and their goods to an island 
at a little distance, where a new city was 
founded, which enjoyed an increased de- 
gree of celebrity and commercial pros- 
perity. The old city was, on that account, 
entitled Palaetyre, and the other simply 
Tyre. The new city continued to flou- 
rish, extending its colonies and its com- 
merce on all sides, till it was attacked by 
Alexander the Great. In despite, how- 
ever, of the cruelties inflicted on the city, 
she rose again to considerable eminence. 
But the foundation of Alexandria, by di- 
verting the commerce that had formerly 
centered at Tyre into a new channel, gave 
her an irreparable blow ; and she gradually 
declined till, consistently with the denun- 
ciation of the prophet, her palaces have 
been levelled with the dust, and she has 
become " a place for the spreading of nets 
in the midst of the sea." See Phoenicia. 

Tysdrus, a city of Africa Propria, not 
far from the coast ; supposed to coincide 
with the modern El-Jem. 



U. 

Uk.ii a people of Germany, near the 
Pthine, transported across the river by 
Agrippa. Their chief town, Ubiorum 
Oppidum or Ara, afterwards called Agrip- 



pina Colonia, is now Cologne. See 
Agrippina Colonia. 

Ucalegon, a sagacious Trojan chief, 
whose house was first burnt by the Greeks. 

Ufens, 1., the Aufente, a sluggish river 
of JLatium, rising in the Volscian Moun- 
tains, above Setia and Privernum, and, in 
consequence of the want of a sufficient fall 
in the Pontine plains, through which it 
passed, contributing, with other streams, 
to form the Pontine marshes. It commu- 
nicated its name, which was originally 
written Oufens, to the tribe Oufentina. — 
II. A prince who assisted Turnus against 
JEneas, and was slain by Gyas. He was 
leader of the Nursian forces. 

Ufentina, or, more correctly, Oufen- 
tina, a Roman tribe, first created a. u. c. 
435, with the tribe Falerina, in conse- 
quence of the great increase of population 
at Rome. 

Ulpia Trajana, Varhely or Varhel, a 
city of Dacia, the residence of Decebalus, 
taken by Trajan, and called by his name. 
Its previous appellation appears to have 
been Sarmizegetusa. 

Ulpianum, I., Giustendil, a town of 
Upper Moesia, repaired and embellished by 
Justinian, and called Justiniana Secunda. 
— II. One of the principal towns of Dacia, 
now perhaps Kolsovar. 

Ulpianus Domitius, an eminent Roman 
civilian, was born at Tyre. Under Sep- 
timius Severus, he became the colleague of 
Sextus Pomponius, and continued to dis- 
charge his judicial duties under Caracalla 
and Macrinus. After the death of Helio- 
gabalus he was banished, but was recalled 
by Alexander Severus, whose tutor he had 
been, and who made him his secretary, and 
afterwards praetorian praefect. The va- 
rious reforms he introduced roused against 
him the hostility of the soldiers, Avho at 
last broke out into open mutiny, and mur- 
dered him, a. d. 228. The heathen writers 
have concurred in eulogising Ulpian, but 
the Christians have reproached him for 
inciting the emperor to a persecution of 
their sect. Of Ulpian's numerous works 
there remain only twenty-nine chapters of 
the treatise entitled " Regulae Juris." 

Ulubr^e, a small town of Latium. Its 
marshy situation is alluded to by Cicero, 
who calls the inhabitants little frogs. 

Ulysses, a king of Ithaca, son of An- 
ticlea and Laertes, or, according to some, of 
Sisyphus. (See Sisyphus and Anticlea.) 
He became, like the other princes of Greece, 
one of the suitors of Helen, but had no 
sooner obtained the hand of Penelope than 
he returned to Ithaca, where his father re- 
signed him the crown. The abduction of 



596 



ULY 



UMB 



Helen, however, by Paris, did not long 
permit him to remain in his kingdom ; for 
as he was bound, in common with the rest, 
to defend her against every intruder, he 
was summoned to the war with the other 
princes of Greece. Pretending to be in- 
sane, not to leave his beloved Penelope, he 
yoked a horse and a bull together, and 
ploughed the sea-shore, where he sowed 
salt instead of grain. The artifice, how- 
ever, was soon detected ; for Palamedes, 
by placing before the plough of Ulysses his 
infant son Telemachus, proved satisfac- 
torily that the father who had the foresight 
to turn away the plough from the furrow, 
not to hurt his child, could not be insane. 
Ulysses was therefore obliged to go to the 
war ; but he did not forget him who had 
exposed his pretended insanity. (See Pa- 
lamedes.) During the Trojan war, the 
king of Ithaca distinguished himself by 
bis prudence and sagacity as well as by 
his valour. By his means Achilles was 
discovered among the daughters of Lyco- 
medes, king of Scyros (see Achilles); 
and Philoctetes was induced to abandon 
Eemnos, and to come to the Trojan war 
with the arrows of Hercules. (See Phi- 
loctetes.) With the assistance of Dio- 
medes he slew Rhesus, destroyed many 
of the Thracians in the midst of their 
camp (see Rhesus and Dolon), and, 
in conjunction with the same warrior, 
carried off the Palladium of Troy. (See 
Palladium, where, however, other ac- 
counts are given. ) These, as well as other 
services, obtained for him the armour of 
Achilles, which Ajax had disputed with 
him. After the Trojan war Ulysses em- 
barked on board his ships to return to 
Greece, but he was exposed to a number 
of misfortunes before he reached his na- 
tive country : he was thrown by the winds 
upon the coast of Africa, visited the coun- 
try of the Lotophagi (see Lotophagi), and 
afterwards that of the Cyclopes, where his 
adventure in the cave of Polyphemus oc- 
curred. (See Cyclopes and Pol vphemus. ) 
After visiting iEolia, he was thrown on the 
coasts of the Lasstrygones and the island 
JEea, where Circe changed all his compa- 
nions into swine. (See Circe.) He then 
visited the infernal regions, where he re- 
ceived information respecting his homeward 
voyage, and on his return to earth passed 
along the coasts of the Sirens unhurt, by 
the directions of Circe (see Sirenes), and 
escaped the whirlpools and shoals of Scylla 
and Charybdis. On the coasts of Sicily his 
companions having killed some oxen sacred 
to Apollo, the god destroyed the ships ; and 
all the crew were drowned except Ulysses, 



who saved himself on a plank, and swam 
to the island of Calypso, in Ogygia. After 
eight years' residence with this ocean 
nymph (see Calypso), Ulysses resumed 
his wanderings on a raft of his own con- 
struction ; and he had already come in 
sight of the island of the Phseacians (see 
Phjsacia), when Neptune, still mindful 
that his son Polyphemus had been de- 
prived of sight by means of the king of 
Ithaca, raised a storm and sunk his raft. 
Breasting the waves, after this, he was car- 
ried along by a strong northerly wind for 
two days and nights, and on the third day 
landed on the island of Phaeacia, where he 
was kindly received by King Alcinoiis 
and his daughter Nausicaa. Here he re- 
cited the narrative of his adventures, and 
after this he was conveyed in a Phaeacian 
vessel to the shore of Ithaca. He had 
been absent twenty years, and he found, 
on his return, his palace beset by nume- 
rous suitors for the hand of Penelope, who 
were indulging day after day in riotous 
carousals, and wasting the resources of the 
kingdom. Disguising himself as a beggar, 
Ulysses made himself known merely to his 
son Telemachus and his faithful herdsman 
Eumaeus, with whom he concerted mea- 
sures to re-establish himself on his throne. 
These measures were crowned with success. 
The suitors were all slain, and Ulysses was 
restored to the bosom of his family. (See 
Laertes, Penelope, Telemachus, Eu- 
maeus.) He lived about sixteen years 
after his return, and was at last killed 
by his son Telegonus, who had landed in 
Ithaca with the hope of making himself 
known to his father. This event had 
been foretold to him by Tiresias, who as- 
sured him that he should die by the vio- 
lence of something that was to issue from 
the bosom of the sea. (See Telegonus.) 
The adventures of Ulysses, on his return 
from the Trojan war, form the subject of 
the Odyssey. 

Umbria, a country of Italy, east of 
Etruria and north of the Sabine territory. 
The Umbri were settled in Italy long be- 
fore the arrival of the Tyrrhenian colony. 
Their primary seat was the country around 
Reate, a district formerly occupied by the 
aborigines. On the rise of the Etrurian 
nation, the Umbrian people were forced 
to withdraw from the right bank of the 
Tiber, while nearly the whole of Northern 
Italy fell under the power of their more 
enterprising and warlike neighbours. Both 
nations, however, had soon to contend with 
a formidable foe in the Gauls who invaded 
Italy, and, after vanquishing the Tuscans, 
drove the Umbri from the shores of the 



UMB 



VAD 



597 



Adriatic into the mountains. The sub- 
mission of Southern Umbria to the Ro- 
mans appears to have taken place a. u. c. 
446, and the northern and maritime parts 
were reduced after the total extirpation of 
the Senones, about twenty-five years after- 
wards. 

Umbro, a general who assisted Turnus 
against iEneas. He could assuage the 
fury of serpents by songs, and counteract 
the poisonous effects of their bites ; but 
he was killed during the war. 

Unca, a surname of Minerva. 

Undecemviri, magistrates at Athens, to 
whom such as were publicly condemned 
were delivered to be executed. 

Unelli, a people of Gallia Lugdunensis 
Secunda, whose country formed part of the 
Tractus Armoricus, and answers to part of 
modern Normandy. Their capital, at first, 
was Crociatonum, answering to the modern 
Falognes, but at a later period Constantini 
Castra, now Coutances. 

Unxia, a surname of Juno (ungere), 
because it was usual among the Romans 
for the bride to anoint the threshold of her 
husband ; thence wives were called Unxores, 
afterwards Uxores, from Unxia, who pre- 
sided over them. 

Urania, I., the muse of Astronomy, 
usually represented as holding in one hand 
a globe, in the other a rod, with which she 
is employed in tracing out some figure. 
By some she was said to be the mother of 
Hymenasus. — II. A surname of Venus, 
the same as Celestial. She was said to be 
the daughter of Uranus or Ccelus by the 
JLight, and was supposed to preside over 
beauty and generation. 

Uranopolis, a city on the peninsula of 
Athos, founded by the brother of Cassan- 
der. 

Uranus or Ouranus, a deity, the same 
as Coelus, the most ancient of all the gods. 
He married Terra or Earth, by whom 
he had, first, the children called the hun- 
dred-handed, Briareus, Cottus, and Gyges ; 
secondly, the Cyclopes, Arges, Steropes, 
and Brontes ; and, thirdly, the Titanes, 
Oceanus, Cceus, Saturnus, &c. ; and, lastly, 
the Giants. He was dethroned and muti- 
lated by his son Saturnus, and from his 
blood sprang the Furies, Alecto, Tisiphone, 
and Megasra. 

Urba, Orbe, a town of the Helvetia, on 
a river of the same name. 

Urbicus, an actor at Rome in Domi- 
tian's reign. 

Urcinium, Ajaccio, a town on the west- 
ern coast of Corsica, east of the Rhium 
Promontorium. It was fabled to have been 
founded by Eurysaces, the son of Ajax. 



Uria (Ureium or Hyreium), a town on 
the coast of Apulia, giving name to the 
Sinus Urias, or Gulf of Manfredonia. The 
position of this town has never been very 
clearly ascertained. 

Usipetes or Usipii, a German tribe. 
Driven by the Suevi from the interior of 
Germany, the Usipetes presented them- 
selves on the banks of the Lower Rhine, 
which they crossed, and passed through the 
territories of the Menapii into Gaul. 
Cassar drove them back over the Rhine ; 
and they ultimately merged into the Ale- 
manni. 

Ustica, a mountain and valley in the 
Sabine territory near Horace's farm. 

Utens, Montone, a river of Gaul, falling 
into the Adriatic near Ravenna. 

Utica, a celebrated city of Africa 
Propria, on the coast of the Mediterra- 
nean, founded by a Syrian colony above 
287 years before Carthage. It was origin- 
ally a free and independent city, like all 
the other large settlements of the Phoeni- 
cians, and had a senate and suffetes, or 
presiding magistrates, of its own ; but as 
Carthage rose gradually into power, it as- 
sumed a kind of protection over Utica. 
It became the metropolis of Africa after 
the destruction of Carthage in the third 
Punic war; but it is chiefly celebrated for 
the death of Cato, thence called Vticensis. 
The ruins of Utica are still visible near 
Porto Farina. 

Uxantis, Ushant, an island on the coast 
of Brittany. 

Uxellodunum, Pueche d' Issolon, a town 
of Aquitanic Gaul, defended by steep 
rocks. 

Uxentum, Ugento, a town of Calabria. 

Uxii, a mountaineer race occupying the 
ranges that run on each side of the river 
Orontes, and separate Persis from Su- 
siana. 

Uzita, an inland town of Africa, de- 
stroyed by Caesar. 

V. 

Vacca. See Vaga. 

Vacc^i, a people at the north of Spain, 
occupying what is now the greater part of 
Valladolid, Leon, Palencia, and Toro. 

Vacuna, a goddess at Rome, who pre- 
sided over leisure and repose (vacare~). She 
has been identified with Victoria, Ceres, 
Diana, and Minerva. 

Vadimonis Lacus, a lake of Etruria, 
whose waters were sulphureous. It is 
celebrated in the history of Rome for 
having witnessed the total defeat of the 



598 



VAG 



VAL 



Etruscans by the Romans, a.u.c. 444. An- 
other battle was again fought here by the 
Etruscans, in conjunction with the Gauls, 
against the Romans, with the same ill 
success. 

Vaga, Vegja or Beja sometimes, but 
improperly, written Vacca, a town of 
Africa, west of Carthage, on the Rubri- 
catus, celebrated among the African and 
Numidian cities for its extensive traffic. 

Vageni, or, more correctly, Vagienni, 
a people in the interior of Liguria, near 
the angle formed by the separation of the 
Apennines and Alps. Their capital was 
Augusta Vagiennorum, now Vico. 

Vahalis, Waal, the western arm of the 
Rhine. 

Valens, Flavius, I., a son of Gratian, 
appointed emperor of the East by his 
brother Valentinian, a. d. 364. His go- 
vernment was at first disturbed by an in- 
surrection of Procopius, a. d. 365, but the 
next year witnessed the defeat of the rebel. 
Valens now retired to Antioch, where he 
spent several years in endeavouring to 
augment the commerce and improve the 
finances of the empire ; but he was roused 
from his inactivity by an outbreak of the 
Goths, to whom he had granted a settle- 
ment in Thrace ; and hastening in person 
from the east, he attacked them at Adri- 
anople, when he sustained a terrible defeat, 
losing two thirds of an army of 300,000 
men. He himself took refuge, with a 
few followers, in a lonely hut ; but the 
Goths set it on fire, and he perished in 
the flames, in his fiftieth year, a. d. 378. — 
II. Valerius, a proconsul of Achaia, who 
proclaimed himself emperor of Rome, 
when Macrian, invested with the purple 
in the East, attempted to assassinate him. 
He reigned six months, being murdered 
by his soldiers a.d. 261. — III. Fabius, 
a distinguished Roman general, and a 
friend of Vitellius, whom he saluted em- 
peror in opposition to Otho. He was 
killed at Urbino by the troops of Vespa- 
sian. 

Valentia, I., a sacred name of Rome. 
— II. Valence, a town of the Segalauni, 
in Gallia Narbonensis. — III. A city of 
the Edetani or Contestani, in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, near the mouth of the 
Tusia. It was taken and sacked by Pom- 
pey, but was afterwards colonised and 
became an important place. It is now 
Valentia. — IV. or Vibo Valentia. See 
Hipponium. 

Valentinian us, I., the first of the 
name, born at Cibalaa in Hungary, was 
made emperor by the army, a. d. 364, 
being, at the time of Jovian's death, the 



commander of the body-guard. He asso- 
ciated with himself Valens, his brother, 
and, after some time, Gratian, his son, in 
the empire, reserving to himself the empire 
of the West. "While his colleague Valens 
was engaged in quelling the insurrection 
of Procopius in the East, Valentinian's 
attention was occupied by the Alemanni, 
who invaded and ravaged Gaul. But the 
skill and valour of his generals Jovinus 
and Theodosius were every where crowned 
with success ; and the Africans, the Goths, 
and various other tribes, were all succes- 
sively defeated. But in the midst of his 
conquests, the emperor having burst into a 
furious passion while receiving the am- 
bassadors of the Quadi, broke a blood- 
vessel, and died, a. d. 375. — II. Was pro- 
claimed Augustus at four years old, as the 
colleague of Gratian, and resided with his 
mother, the empress Justina, at the court 
of Milan. Maximus having established 
himself in Britain and Gaul, drove Valen- 
tinian out of Italy, whereupon he presented 
himself a suppliant before the throne of Con- 
stantinople, with the empress-mother and 
his sister Galla ; and the hand of the latter 
became a pledge of the hospitality and aid 
of the enamoured Theodosius, who restored 
him to the throne of the Western empire. 
He removed the seat of the court to Vienna, 
now Vienne on the Rhone ; but his reign 
was of short duration, for he was assas- 
sinated, a. d. 392, by Arbogast, a general 
in the service of Theodosius, who aspired 
to the empire. — III. A son of Constan- 
tius and Placidia, daughter of Theodosius 
the Great, proclaimed emperor a. d. 423, 
about the sixth year of his age. During 
his minority the reins of government were 
placed in the hands of his mother, who, 
aided by the skill and valour of Aetius, 
preserved for the empire the territory of 
Gaul, and forced the Franks, the Goths, 
the Burgundians, and the Alani to sue 
for peace. When Valentinian attained his 
majority, the sole use he made of his power 
was to commit crimes and to disgrace him- 
self by acts of debauchery. Aetius having 
gained a complete victory over Attila, in 
the plains of Duro-Catalaunum ( Chalons), 
Valentinian, jealous of his glory, had him 
sent for, and, on a sudden, stabbed him to 
the heart, a.d. 454. He did not, how- 
ever, long survive this treacherous act ; 
for the following year Petronius Maximus, 
a man of consular rank, whose wife he 
had violated, having formed a conspiracy 
against him, cut him off, and ascended his 
throne. 

Valeria, I., a name common to many 
ladies of antiquity, of whom one of the 



TAL 



VAL 



599 



most distinguished was Valeria, daughter 
of the emperor Diocletian and Prisca, and 
wife of Galerius. After the death of her 
husband her hand was sought by Maxi- 
min. who., on being refused, treated her 
with great indignr.y. She afterwards 
sought refuge, together with her mother, 
at the court of Licinius : but soon finding 
that he was not well disposed to them, 
they fled to Thessalonica, where they 
were murdered, a. d. 314. — II. A daughter 
of Publicola, given as a hostage to Por- 
senna by the Romans. Together with 
Clcelia she fled from the enemy, and swam 
across the Tiber. — III. A daughter of 
INIessala, sister of Hortensius and wife of 
Sylla. — IV. The wife of Valentinian I. 

Valeria Lex, L, de Provocatione, a law 
enacted by P. Valerius Publicola (see 
Valerius I. ), which granted to every one 
the liberty of appealing from the consuls 
to the people, and declared that no ma- ! 
gistrate should be permitted to punish a 
Roman citizen who thus appealed. This j 
law was afterwards frequently renewed, 
and always by persons- of the Valerian 
family. — II. (Via), a road in Sicily, which 
led from Messana to Lilybamm. — III. A 
town of Spain. 

Valeriakus, Publics Licinius, pro- 
claimed emperor by the armies in Rhaetia, 
a. d. 254. Having appointed his son Gal- 
lienus his colleague in the empire, he left 
him to defend it against the Goths and ( 
Scythians, while he himself engaged in an 
expedition against Sapor, king of Persia : 
but his arms being attended with ill suc- 
cess, he was carried to the capital of the : 
conqueror in triumph, and exposed to 
the ridicule and insolence of his subjects. 
Sapor at last ordered him to be flayed 
alive, a. d. 260 ; and his skin, stuffed in 
the form of a human figure, and dyed • 
with scarlet, was preserved in a temple in 
Persia, 

Valerius, Pcelius. I., a celebrated Ro- 
man, surnamed Poplicda (see Plblicola \ 
who shared with Junius Brutus the glory 
of having driven out the Tarquins and of 
founding the Roman commonwealth, b. c. 
569. Brutus having fallen on the field of . 
battle, and Collatinus, the colleague of the ' 
former, having been compelled eventually 
to retire from Rome, in consequence of his ! 
relationship to the Tarquin family, Vale- 
rius was chosen consul along with Sp. 
Lucretius Tricipitinus. The latter died 
during his term of office ; and Valerius, 
because he did not immediately substitute 
a colleague in place of Brutus, and hap- 
pened to be building a house in an ele- 
vated situation, was suspected of aiming at 



the sovereignty. But he soon removed 
these suspicions. He passed several popu- 
lar laws ^see Valeria Lex), allowing an 
appeal to the people from the sentence of 
a magistrate, and granting leave to any 
one to kill the person who should attempt 
making himself king. He likewise ap- 
pointed that the lictors should not carry 
an axe among their rods within the city; 
and introduced the custom, that, when the 
consuls came into an assembly of the peo- 
ple, their lictors, in token of submission 
to the people, should lower the fasces. 
He was continued in the consulship for the 
two succeeding years, b. c. 508 and 507, 
was chosen consul anew in 504, and ap- 
pears to have died not long after. The dis- 
interestedness of this illustrious citizen was 
so great, that, after having been four times 
consul, he died a poor man, and the ex- 
pense of his funeral had to be borne by 
the state. The Roman matrons mourned 
for him a whole year. — II. Corvus Cor- 
vinus, a tribune of the soldiers under Ca- 
millus. When the Roman army was chal- 
lenged by one of the Senones remarkable 
for his strength and stature, Valerius un- 
dertook to engage him, and obtained an 
easy victory by means of a crow or raven 
{corvus) that assisted him, and attacked 
the face of the Gaul ; whence his surname 
of Corvus, or Corvinus. Valerius triumphed 
over the Etrurians and the neighbour- 
ing states that made war against Rome, 
and was six times honoured with the con- 
sulship. He died in the hundredth year 
of his age. — III. Antias, a Roman histo- 
rian, who flourished about a. u. c. 670, 
b. c. 84. He is referred to by Pliny and 
Aulus Gellius. — IV. Alessala (see Mes- 
sai.a). — V. Maximiis, a Roman writer, 
born at Rome during the reign of Augus- 
tus, of a patrician family. He served in 
Asia under Sextus Pompey, who was 
consul the year that Augustus died. On 
his return to Rome he abstained entirely 
from public affairs, but lived until the time 
of the conspiracy of Sejanus, a. d. 31. "VVe 
have no other particulars of his life. He 
wrote an account of all the most celebrated 
sayings and actions of the Romans, &c. in 
ten books, nine of which are still extant. 
— VI. Flaccus, a Latin poet, of Padua, 
who lived under Vespasian, and wrote a 
poem on the Argonautic expedition, which 
has come down to us. His premature 
death, which took place a. d. 88, prevented 
him from completing it. — VII. Asiaticus, 
accused of having murdered one of the re- 
lations of Claudius, and condemned, though 
innocent, by the intrigues of Messatina. 
He opened his veins, and bled to death. 



600 



VAL 



VAT 



Valerus, a friend of Turnus against 
iEneas. 

Vaegius Rufus, a Roman poet, in the 
Augustan age, intimate with Horace and 
Tibullus, who held his poetry in high es- 
timation. 

Vandalii, a German people of Gothic 
origin, so called from the Teutonic wenden, 
" to wander." They began to be trouble- 
some to the Romans a. d. 160. a. d. 410, 
they mastered Spain in conjunction with 
the Alani and Suevi, and received for their 
share Vandalusia, Andalusia, a. d. 429, 
they crossed into Africa under Genseric, 
who not only obtained possession of By- 
zacium, Gastulia, and part of Numidia, 
but crossed over into Italy, a. d. 455, and 
plundered Rome. After the death of Gen- 
seric the Vandal power declined. 

Vangiones, a people of Germany, whose 
capital was Borbetomagus, now Worms. 

Vannia, Civita, a town of Italy, north 
of the Po. 

Varanes, a name of some Persian mo- 
narchs in the age of the Roman emperors. 

Vardanus, or Vardanius, called also 
Hypanis, Kuban, a river of Asia, rising in 
the central part of Caucasus, and falling 
into the Palus Maeotis by several mouths. 

Varius, L., a contemporary of Horace 
and Virgil, and one of the best tragic and 
epic poets of his time. He was one of 
those whom Augustus appointed to re- 
vise Virgil's /Eneid. 

Varro, M. T. I., a joint consul with 
M. Paulus at the battle of Cannae. (See 
Livy, 22.) — II. A celebrated Latin writer, 
born b. c. 11 3. He wrote 500 volumes, 
all of which are lost except a treatise " De 
Re Rustica,' and another " De Lingua 
Latina." He served under Pompey in his 
piratical w?rs, and obtained a naval crown. 
In the civil wars his property was seized 
by Mark Antony, and he himself was pro- 
scribed ; but after the battle of Actium 
he returned to Rome, where he reigned 
until his decease, b. c. 23. St. Augus- 
tine says that it cannot but be wondered 
how Varro, who read so many books, could 
find time to compose so many volumes, 
and how he who composed so many vo- 
lumes could be at leisure to peruse so many 
books. — III. P. Terentius, surnamed 
Atacinus, from the river Atax (Aude) 
in Gallia Narbonensis, on the banks of 
which he was born about b. c. 82. He 
translated into Latin verse the " Argonau- 
tica " of Apollonius Rhodius, with great 
elegance, and wrote a poem, " De Bello 
Sequanico," besides some Satires, Epi- 
grams, and Elegies, a few fragments of 
which only remain. He died b. c. 37 • 



Varus, Quintilics, I., a Roman com- 
mander, descended from an illustrious fa- 
mily. Though his father had fought under 
the standard of Brutus at Philippi, Varus 
obtained the favour of Augustus.who named 
him joint consul with Tiberius, b. c. 13, 
and afterwards appointed him governor of 
Syria. Being subsequently nominated to 
the command of the forces in Germany, he 
was surprised by the enemy under Armi- 
nius, and his army cut to pieces; whereupon 
seeing that every thing was lost, he killed 
himself, a. t>. 9. The father and grand- 
father of Varus slew themselves with 
their own swords, the one after the battle 
of Philippi, the other in the plains of 
Pharsalia. — II. Quintilius, an acute 
critic in the Augustan age, with whom 
Horace was intimate, and whose death he 
mourned in the 24th Ode of his First 
Book. He was a native of Cremona. — 
III. Alfenus. See Alfenus. — IV. A 
tragic poet mentioned by Ovid. — V. Far, 
a river of Italy, flowing into the Mediter- 
ranean, west of Nica?a ( A r /ce). It separated 
Liguria from Gallia Narbonensis, and 
formed at a later period the western limit 
of Italy. 

Vascones, a people of Spain, occupying 
what is now part of Navarre. Their chief 
town was Pampelo, now Pampeluna. The 
inhabitants, when reduced to famine by 
Metellus, fed on human flesh. 

Vaticanus, Mons, a hill at Rome, 
forming the prolongation of the Janiculum 
towards the north, and supposed to derive 
its name from the Latin word votes ("a 
soothsayer"), as it was once the seat of 
Etruscan divination. The Campus Vati- 
canus included all the space between the 
foot of this range and the Tiber ; and the 
air of this part of Rome was considered 
very unwholesome. Here Caligula erected 
a circus, in which he placed the great 
Egyptian obelisk that now stands in front 
of St. Peter's. It is now covered by St. 
Peter's, and the papal palace, museum, and 
gardens. 

Vatiexus, Saterno, a river rising in the 
Alps, and falling into the Po. 

Vatinia Lex, De Provinciis, a law enacted 
by P. Vatinius, tribune, a. u, c. 694, ap- 
pointing Caesar governor of Gallia Cisal- 
pina and Illyricum for five years, without a 
decree of the senate, or the usual custom 
of casting lots. 

Vatinius, I., a Roman of most impure 
life. Having been brought forward on 
one occasion as a witness against an in- 
dividual whom Cicero was defending, the 
orator inveighed against him with so much 
bitterness, and excited so much odium 



VEC 



VEL 



601 



against him by the picture which he drew 
of his vices, that odium Vatinianum became 
proverbial for bitter and implacable hatred. 
— II. A shoemaker of Beneventum, de- 
formed in body, and addicted to scurrilous 
invective against the members of the 
higher class. He lived in the reign of 
Nero, and exhibited a show of gladiators 
when that emperor passed through Bene- 
ventum. He is said to have invented a 
peculiar species of cup, called after his 
name. 

Vectis Insula^ the Isle of Wight. 

Vedius Pollio. See Pollio. 

Vegetius, a Latin writer who flourished 
a. d. 386, in the reign of the emperor 
Valentinian, to whom he dedicated his 
treatise " De Re Militari." Modern critics 
distinguish between this writer and an- 
other Vegetius who composed a treatise 
on the veterinary art. 

Veientes, the inhabitants of Veii. 

Veiento. See Fabricius 

Veii, a powerful city of Etruria, about 
twelve miles from Rome. It sustained 
many long wars against the Romans, but 
was at last taken and destroyed by Ca- 
millus, after a siege of ten years. At the 
time of its destruction Veii was larger 
and more magnificent than Rome itself. 
Its situation was so eligible that the Ro- 
mans, after the burning of their own city 
by the Gauls, were inclined to migrate 
thither, and totally abandon their native 
home; and this design would have been car- 
ried into execution had it not been opposed 
by the authority and eloquence of Camillus. 
Veii became a Roman colony under Julius 
Caesar, who divided its lands among his 
soldiers ; but during the civil wars which 
ensued after his death it was nearly de- 
stroyed, and remained in a desolate state 
till the time of Tiberius, when it rose to 
municipal rank. It existed till the reign 
of Constantine. The site of ancient Veii 
answers to the spot known by the name 
of Vlnsola Farnese, near which numerous 
remains of antiquity have been recently 
discovered. 

Vejovis, or Vedius, an Etruscan di- 
vinity worshipped at Rome, and supposed 
to hurl lightnings, which had the property 
of causing deafness in those whom they 
struck. His temple stood in the hollow 
between the Arx and the Capitol. His 
statue was that of a youth with darts in 
his hand ; a she-goat stood beside it, and a 
she-goat was the victim offered to him. The 
nature of this god, and the meaning of 
his name, were alike matters of controversy 
even in the Augustan age. 

Velabrum, a name generally applied to 



all the ground lying on the left bank of 
the Tiber, between the base of the Capitol 
and the Aventine, but subsequently re- 
stricted to two streets, distinguished from 
each other by the titles of Velabrum Majus 
and Minus. In this quarter were the shops 
of the oil-venders, &c. 

Velia, originally called Helia, a mari- 
time city of Lucania, between the pro- 
montories of Palinurum and Posidium, 
about three miles from the left bank 
of the river Heles. It was founded by 
the Phoca?ans after their abandonment of 
Alalia in Corsica. (See PHoaasA.) Velia 
is celebrated for the school of philosophy 
formed within it, under the auspices of 
Zeno and Parmenides, and commonly 
known by the name of the Eleatic sect. 
It received a colony of Thurians about 
b. c. 440, and became a Roman colony after 
the colonisation of Paastum. Owing to 
the salubrity of its climate, it was a 
favourite resort of the Romans ; but in 
Strabo's time it was greatly reduced, the 
inhabitants, from the povei'ty of the soil, 
being forced to betake themselves to fish- 
ing and similar occupations. Castelamara 
delta Bruca occupies the site of Velia. 

Velina, the name of one of the Roman 
tribes, said to be so called from Velinus, a 
lake in the Sabine territory. Its locality 
was in the vicinity of Mt. Palatine. 

Velinus, Velino, a river in the Sabine 
territory, rising in the Apennines and 
flowing into the Nar. In its course it oc- 
casionally overflowed its banks, and formed 
some small lakes, the chief of which was 
the Lacus Velinus, now Lago di Pi£ di 
Lugo, between some hills near Reate. 
The drainage of the stagnant waters pro- 
duced by the lakes and the overflow of 
the river was first attempted by Curius 
Dentatus, b. c. 274, who cut an artificial 
channel, by which the waters of the Velinus 
were carried into the Nar over a precipice 
six or seven hundred feet in height, called 
in Italian Cascata del Marmore, about four 
miles from Terni. 

VelitrjE, Velletri, one of the most con- 
siderable cities of the Volsci, situated 
south-east of Aricia, on the road between 
Rome and Tarracina. It engaged in fre- 
quent hostilities with the Romans, and 
revolted so often that it at last became 
necessary to raze the walls and remove 
the inhabitants to Rome. Velitrae was 
the residence of the Octavian family before 
they settled in Rome, and is celebrated for 
being the birthplace of Augustus. 

Vellaunodunum, Beaune, a town of 
the Senones, between Agendicum and 
Genabum. 

D D 



602 



VEL 



VEN 



Veixeda, or Welda, a woman of Ger- 
many in the reign of Vespasian, belonging 
to the tribe of the Bructeri, who was be- 
lieved to be gifted with prophetic powers, 
and exercised, in consequence, very great 
influence over the minds of her country- 
men, who ascribed to her a species of divine 
character. 

Velleius Paterculus, a Roman his- 
torian, descended from an equestrian family 
of Campania. The year of his birth is 
commonly fixed at b. c. 1 9, the year in 
which Virgil died. In his youth he tra- 
versed, along with Caius Caosar, a part of 
the east. Augustus named him, at the 
age of twenty years, a praefect of horse ; 
and in this capacity, and afterwards as 
quasstor and lieutenant, he accompanied 
Tiberius on his campaigns in Germany, 
Pannonia, and Dalmatia, and was thus, 
for the space of nineteen years, his com- 
panion in arms and the witness of his ex- 
ploits. He returned to Rome with Ti- 
berius, and held the office of praator the 
year that Augustus died. a. n. 31 he was 
involved in the disgrace of Sejanus, who 
had been his patron, and was put to death 
along with the other friends of that aspir- 
ing minister. He wrote an " Epitome of 
the History of Greece and Rome," &c, but 
of this composition only some fragments 
remain. — II. Caius, grandfather of the 
historian, one of the friends of Livia. He 
killed himself when he was unable, by rea- 
son of his old age, to accompany Livia in 
her flight. 

Velocasses, or Belocasses, a people of 
Gallia Belgica, along the northern bank 
of the Sequana. Their capital was Roto- 
magus, Rouen. 

Venafru:u, a town of Campania, said 
to have been founded by Diomedes. It 
abounded in olive-trees, and was famed for 
oil. 

Venedi, a people of Germany, near the 
mouth of the Vistula, Gulf of Dantzic, 
They gave name to the Venedicus Sinus, 
off this coast, and to the Montes Venedici, 
or the low range of mountains between 
East Prussia and Poland. 

Veneti, I., a people of Italy in Cisal- 
pine Gaul, near the mouths of the Po, 
fabled to have sprung from the Heneti, a 
people of Paphlagonia, and to have settled 
in Italy under the guidance of Antenor 
after the Trojan war. Mannert, however, 
has clearly proved that the Heneti never 
came to Italy, and that the Veneti were 
of German or Slavonic extraction. The 
Veneti are remarkable for being the only 
people of Italy who offered no resistance 
to the ambitious projects of the Romans. , 



After the subjugation of the Gauls, their 
territory was included under the gene- 
ral denomination of Cisalpine Gaul, and 
they were admitted to all the privileges 
which that province successively obtained. 
On the invasion of Italy in the fifth 
century by the Huns, and the general 
desolation that every where appeared, 
great numbers of the people who lived 
near the Adriatic took shelter in the 
islands in this quarter, where now stands 
the city of Venice. These islands had 
previously, in a. d. 421, been built upon 
by the inhabitants of Patavium, for the 
purposes of commerce. The arrival of 
fresh hordes of barbarians in Italy increased 
their population, until a commercial state 
was formed, which gradually rose to power 
and opulence. — II. A nation of Gaul, 
south of Armorica, on the western coast. 
Their chief city is now called Vannes. 

Venetia, the country of the Veneti in 
Gallia Cisalpina, bounded by the Alps 
on the north, the Adriatic as far as the 
river Florino on the east, the main branch 
of the Po on the south, and the Athesis, 
and a line drawn from that river to the Po, 
on the west. See Veneti. 

Venetcs Paulus, I., a centurion who 
conspired against Nero with Piso. — II. 
Lacus, the same with Brigantinus Lacus, 
Lake of Constance. 

Venilia, a nymph, sister of Amata, 
and mother of Turnus, by Daunus. 

Vennones, a people of the Rhaetian 
Alps. 

Venta Belgarum, I., Winchester, a 
town of Britain. — II. Silurum, a town of 
Britain, Caerwent, in Monmouthshire. — 
III. Icenorum, Lymi. 

Venti, the Latin name for the winds, 
which were held in high veneration by 
the ancients, especially the Athenians. The 
four principal winds were, Eurus, Auster, 
Zephyrus, and Boreas. (See these terms.) 
Those of inferior note were, Solanus, more 
commonly Subsolanus, (Gr. Apeliotes,) 
answering to the east, and represented 
as a young man holding fruit in his lap ; 
Africus, south-west, represented with black 
wings and melancholy countenance ; Corus, 
north-west, drives clouds of snow before 
him; Aquilo, north-east by north, equally 
dreadful in appearance, from aquila, " an 
eagle," to denote the swiftness and impe- 
tuosity of this wind. See iEoms. 

Ventidius Bassus, a native of Pice- 
num, brought captive to Rome, while yet 
an infant, along with his mother. He fol- 
lowed for some time the humble occupa- 
tion of a mule driver ; but he afterwards 
I accompanied Cassar into Gaul, and dis- 



VEN 



VER 



603 



played such valour and adroitness that 
the general conferred upon him succes- 
sively the offices of tribune and praetor. 
After the death of Caesar he attached him- 
self to Antony, and, having subsequently 
attained the consulship, marched against 
the Parthians, whom he defeated in three 
battles, b. c. 39, and was the first Roman 
honoured with a triumph over this for- 
midable enemy. He was honoured with a 
public funeral. 

Venus, I., the Latin name of the Grecian 
Aphrodite ('A^poStTTj). This goddess is 
generally supposed to have been of eastern 
origin, and to have been the same as the 
Phoenician Astarte. By the Grecian poets 
she was called the daughter of Jupiter and 
Dione ; or, according to some accounts, 
arose from the foam of the sea. She was 
worshipped as the goddess of beauty and 
love, her principal seats being the islands 
of Cyprus and Cythera. The Romans re- 
garded her as the progenitress of their 
nation, which was fabled to have sprung 
from JEneas, the offspring of her union 
with the Trojan Anchises. She was mar- 
ried to Vulcan, but was not remarkable 
for fidelity to her husband. Her amour 
with Adonis is particularly celebrated in 
ancient poetry. The power of Venus over 
the heart was supported and assisted by a 
girdle, ((dopy, cestus,) which gave beauty, 
grace, and elegance, even to the most 
deformed, excited love, and rekindled ex- 
tinguished flames. The contest of Venus 
for the golden apple of Discord is well 
known ; she gained the prize over Pallas 
and Juno, and rewarded her impartial 
judge with the hand of the fairest woman 
in the world. The rose, myrtle, and apple 
were sacred to Venus. Among birds, the 
dove, swan, and sparrow were her favour- 
ites ; and among fishes, the aphya and lyco- 
stomus. She is generally represented with 
her son Cupid in a chariot drawn by doves, 
or, at other times, by swans or sparrows. — 
II. A planet called by the Greeks Phos- 
phorus, (Lat. Lucifer,) when it rises before 
the sun, but when it follows it Hesperus 
or Vesper. 

Venusia, or Venusium, Venosa, a city 
of Apulia on the Via Appia, about fifteen 
miles south of the Aufidus. It became 
a Roman colony some time before the 
war with Pyrrhus, and, after the battle 
of Cannae, afforded a retreat to the consul 
Varro, and the handful of men who escaped 
from that bloody field ; but it is chiefly 
memorable for being the birthplace of 
Horace. 

Veragri, an Alpine tribe, living among 
the Graian and Pennine Alps ; but Cella- 



rius reckons them as belonging to Gallia 
Narbonensis. 

Verbanus Lacus, Lago Maggiore, a lake 
of Gallia Cisalpina, through which flows 
the river Ticinus. It is twenty-seven miles 
long, and, on an average, eight broad, and 
contains the Borromean Islands, which are 
the admiration of every traveller. 

VERCEixiE, a city of Gallia Cisalpina, 
north-west of Ticinum, situated on the 
river Sessites,now la Sesia, and correspond- 
ing to the modern Borgo Vercelli. Tacitus 
styles it a municipium. 

Vercingetorix, a young nobleman of 
the Arverni, distinguished for his abilities, 
and for his enmity to the Romans. He 
was chosen commander-in-chief of the 
Gallic confederate army when the great 
insurrection broke out against the Roman 
power, and he used every endeavour to 
free his native land from the Roman yoke. 
His efforts, however, were unsuccessful ; 
he was besieged in Alesia, compelled to 
surrender, and, after being led in triumph 
to Rome, was put to death in prison, 

Vergellus, a small river near Cannae, 
falling into the Aufidus. It is said to 
have been choked with the dead bodies of 
the Romans on the day of their disastrous 
overthrow. 

VergilLe, a name given to the Plei- 
ades from their rising in the spring (Lat. 
Ver, spring). 

Verginius Rufus, a Roman general, 
who served with great distinction in Ger- 
many and other parts of the empire, under 
Nero, Galba, and Otho. He was twice 
offered the imperial crown, but refused to 
accept it ; and after escaping numerous 
dangers, he died in the reign of Nerva, 
a.d. 97, in his third consulship, and in the 
eighty-third year of his age. His funeral 
oration was pronounced by Tacitus. 

Vergobretus, a term used among the 
ancient Gauls as a judicial appellation and 
a title of office ; Ver-gobreith, " a man for 
judging," or " a judge." 

Verianus, a governor of Britain under 
Nero, and the successor of Didius Gallus. 

Veromandui, a people of Gallia Belgica 
Secunda, below the Nervii and Atrebates. 
Their capital was Augusta Veromandu- 
orum, now St. Quentin. 

Verona, a city of Gallia Cisalpina, in 
the territory of the Cenomanni, on the 
river Athesis, east from the southern ex- 
tremity of the Lacus Benacus. The history 
of its foundation is somewhat, uncertain ; 
but it was probably founded by the Ceno- 
manni in the territory previously possessed 
by the Rhaeti and Euganei. Under the 
dominion of the Romans it soon became 
d d 2 



604 



VER 



VES 



a large and flourishing city ; and Tacitus 
speaks of it in later times as a most opu- 
lent and important colony, the possession 
of which enabled Vespasian's party to be- 
gin offensive operations against the forces 
of Vitellius, and to strike a decisive blow. 
Verona was famous for being the birthplace 
of Catullus, Macer, Cornelius Nepos, and 
Pliny the Elder. The famous Rhaetic 
wine, so highly commended by Virgil, was 
grown in the neighbourhood of Verona. 

Verres, C, a Roman who governed the 
province of Sicily as praetor. The oppres- 
sion and rapine of which he was guilty 
while in office were of the most flagrant 
description," and he was accused by the 
Sicilians of extortion on the expiration of 
his office. Cicero undertook the cause of 
the Sicilians, and Verres was defended by 
Hortensius; but after Cicero's first oration 
against him he left Rome without waiting 
for his sentence, and lived in great affluence 
in one of the provinces. He afterwards 
perished in the proscription of Antony, 
whom he had offended by refusing to 
share with him his Corinthian vases. The 
other five orations of Cicero against Verres 
were afterwards written, as if Verres had 
stood his trial. 

Verrius Flaccus, M. See Flaccus. 

Vertico, one of the Helvetii who de- 
serted to Caesar's army. 

Verticordia, one of the surnames of 
Venus (Apostrophia of the Greeks), be- 
cause implored to turn the hearts of the 
Roman matrons, and teach them to follow 
virtue and modesty. 

Vertumnus, an Italian deity of rather 
obscure character. Some make him pre- 
side over merchandise, and others over the 
spring or the seasons in general. Ceres 
and Pomona were usually associated with 
him. (See Pomona.) His festivals were 
celebrated in October. He was generally 
represented as a young man crowned with 
flowers, holding in his right hand fruit, and 
a crown of plenty in his left. 

Verus, L. iEuus, L, father of the em- 
peror Verus, was adopted by the emperor 
Hadrian, and received from him the title of 
Caesar, a. d. 136. He died, however, a 
few months before Hadrian. — II. L. 
JElius Aurelius Ceionius Commodus, son 
of the preceding, was adopted by Anto- 
ninus Pius, along with Marcus Aurelius, 
in acordance with the express wish of 
Hadrian. At the time of his adoption, 
he was only in the seventh year of his 
age. He married Lucilla, the daughter 
of his adopted parent. After the death of 
Antoninus Pius, the senate declared Mar- 
cus Aurelius sole emperor ; but this good 



prince hastened to share the throne with 
his adopted brother Verus. Verus took 
the command of the army which was sent 
against the Parthians, and, by the skill and 
valour of his generals, obtained several con- 
siderable victories, while he himself was 
revelling in debaucheries at Antioch. At 
the conclusion of this war. he returned to 
enjoy the honours of a triumph. Not long 
after this, when the war with the Marco- 
manni and other tribes of similar origin 
broke out, the two emperors left Rome to 
take the field in person against these dan- 
gerous antagonists. Verus died, however, 
of apoplexy, soon after the commencement 
of the war, in his thirty-ninth year, a. n. 169. 

Vesevus. See Vesuvius. 

Vespasianus, Titus Flavius, a Roman 
emperor, descended from an obscure family 
at Reate, about a. d. 10. He commenced 
his public life as tribune in the army in 
Thrace, where he rose to the rank of 
praetor; served as legate in Germany and 
Britain, in which he greatly distinguished 
himself ; afterwards obtained the govern- 
ment of Africa, and was selected by Nero 
to conduct the Jewish war, a. d. 64, which 
finally resulted in the destruction of Jeru- 
salem. While Vespasian was prosecuting 
the war with great success, Nero was cut 
off ; Galba hardly reached the capital 
before he lost his crown and life ; Otho, 
his successor, slew himself after the defeat 
at Bedriacum ; and, amid the ferment and 
agitation that everywhere prevailed, in- 
fluenced by the ardour of his troops, and 
the wishes of a large portion of the East, 
Vespasian was induced to contest the crown 
with Vitellius, and was proclaimed em- 
peror by his legions, a. p. 69. Immediately 
on his accession, he set about the task of 
reforming the numerous abuses in the 
state that had been conspicuous during 
the reign of his two immediate predeces- 
sors ; and after effecting valuable reforms in 
every department of the state, he died a.d. 
79, leaving his son Titus his successor. It 
is worthy of remark, that Vespasian was 
the second of the Roman emperors that 
died a natural death, and the first that was 
succeeded by his own son on the throne. 

Vesta, a Roman goddess, identical with 
the Grecian Hestia, the goddess of the 
domestic and public hearth, and generally 
regarded as the eldest daughter of Kronos 
and Rhea. This deity was evidently of 
Pelasgian origin, and her worship was said 
to have been introduced into Rome by 
Numa, who built a temple in her honour 
between the Capitoline and Aventine hills. 
Here the goddess had no statue, but was 
represented by the sacred fire which blazed 



VES 



VES 



605 



perpetually on her altars, and which was 
tended by the Vestal Virgins. ( See Ves- 
tales Virgixes. ) The fire was never per- 
mitted to expire ; but if such an accident 
occurred through neglect, it was considered j 
an omen of the worst description, and re- 
quired the most careful and solemn expia- | 
tions. It was renovated on the Kalends 
of March. A great deal of mystery is at- i 
tached to the history and attributes of ! 
Vesta, In the Augustan age she was re- ! 
presented as a personification of Terra or I 
the Earth, and at a later period we find 
her confounded with Ops, Rhea, Cybele, 
Bona Dea, and Maia. Her festivals, called 
Vestalia, were celebrated June 8th, and 
on these occasions, besides the solemn sa- 
crifices offered by the Vestal Virgins, the 
mill-stones were wreathed with garlands, 
and the mill-asses adorned with flowers j 
and necklaces made of cakes, because Vesta 
presided over the fire by which the flour 
was rendered available for the wants of 
man. On the seventh day after the fes- 
tival the sweepings of the temple were 
carried forth, and solemnly thrown into the 
river ; and it was held unlucky to marry 
in June until this ceremony was over. 

Vestales Virgixes, the name given to 
the virgin priestesses who had charge of 
the temple of the goddess Vesta at Rome, 
and the superintendence of the sacred fire, 
which blazed perpetually on her altar. 
Their number was originally four, but was 
afterwards increased to six ; and the period 
of their service extended to thirty years. 
The first ten years were spent in acquiring 
a knowledge of their duties, the second in 
discharging them, and the third in in- 
structing the novices. During the whole 
of this time they were bound to continue 
in a state of maidenhood ; but at the ex- 
piration of the period they were free to 
return to the world, and even to marry if 
they thought fit ; but few availed them- 
selves of the privilege, and it was always 
regarded as ominous. When a vacancy 
occurred in their number, it was filled up 
by the Pontifex Maximus, to whose con- 
trol they were subject. The Vestal Virgins 
enjoyed particular privileges, and were 
treated with great distinction, both in 
public and private. If, however, through 
carelessness they allowed the sacred fire to 
be extinguished, they were chastised with 
rods by the pontifex maximus ; and if 
any of them violated their vows of chas- 
tity, they were condemned to be buried 
alive in the Campus Sceleratus. The 
abolition of the Vestal Virgins was effected 
in the reign of Theodosius. 
YEvrALiA. See Vesta. 



Vestalium Mater, a title given to 
Livia, mother of Tiberius, with permission 
to sit among the Vestal Virgins at plays. 

Vestini, a mountaineer race of Italy, 
whose territory was bounded on the south 
and south-west by the Peligni and Marsi, 
on the east by the Adriatic, and on the 
north and north-west by the Pra?tutii and 
Sabines. The Vestini are first noticed in 
the Roman annals as allies of the Sam- 
nites, to whom they are said not to have 
been inferior in valour ; but the Vestini, 
being separately attacked by the Romans, 
were too weak to make any effectual re- 
sistance, and were compelled to submit, 
a. n. c. 451. They bore an active part in 
the exertions and perils of the Social War, 
and received their share of the rights and 
privileges which, on its termination, were 
granted to the confederates. Their chief 
city was Pinna, now Civ it a di Pe/uia. 

Vesulus, now Monte Viso, a mountain 
at the termination of the Maritime and 
the commencement of the Cottian Alps, 
celebrated as giving rise to the Padus 
or Po. 

Vesuvius, called also Vesvius, Vesevus, 
and Vesbius, a mountain of Campania, 
about six miles south-east of Naples, cele- 
brated for its volcano. The first great 
eruption on record took place on the 24th 
of August, a. d. 79, and on the same day 
the towns of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and 
Stabife were buried under showers of vol- 
canic sand, stones, and scoria?. Such was 
the immense quantity of volcanic sand 
thrown out during this eruption, that the 
whole country was involved in pitchy 
darkness ; and, according to Dion, the 
ashes fell in Egypt, Syria, and various 
parts of Asia Minor. This eruption 
proved fatal to the elder Pliny. Since the 
destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii 
there have been forty-five authenticated 
eruptions ; but, luckily, none of them have 
been equal to it in destructive power. Of 
those which happened down to the twelfth 
century we have few accounts : and from 
1138 t'o 1631 there were but two slight 
eruptions : during this interval, however, 
Etna was in a state of great activity, and 
the formation of Monte Nuovo, See. in the 
Phlegrsean Fields, took place. In 1631 a 
violent eruption occurred, during which 
seven streams of lava poured from the 
crater; and from 1666 to the present time, 
there has been a series of eruptions, the 
longest intervals between them having 
rarely exceeded ten years : the last was in 
Jan. 1 839. Vesuvius rises to the height 
of 3800 feet above the sea. It has two 
summits, the more northern one of which 

D D 3 



606 



VES 



VIE 



is called Somma, the other is properly 
called Vesuvius. 

Vesvius. See Vesuvius. 

Vetera Castra, a Roman encampment 
in Germany, which afterwards became a 
town, Santen, near Cleves. 

Vettius, Sp., I., a senator, made inter- 
rex at the death of Romulus, till the elec- 
tion of another king. — II. A Roman 
knight, who raised a tumult among the 
slaves, by whom he was proclaimed king ; 
but he was betrayed by one of his adher- 
ents, and laid violent hands on himself. 

Vettones, a nation of Lusitania, lying 
along the eastern boundary. They gave 
the name Vettoniana Colonia to the city 
of Augusta Emerita, Merida. 

Vetulonii, one of the most powerful 
and distinguished of the twelve cities of 
Etruria, a few miles south-west of Ve- 
terna. Ximenes proved its ruins to exist in 
a forest still called Silva di Vetleta. Vetu- 
lonii first used the insignia of magistracy, 
with which Rome afterwards decorated her 
consuls and dictators. 

Veturia, one of the Roman tribes, di- 
vided into the two branches of the Junii 
and Senii ; named from the Veturian fa- 
mily, originally called Vetusian. — II. The 
mother of Coriolanus. See Coriolanus. 

Vetufuus, a Roman family name. 

Viadrus, or Viadus, a river of Germany, 
generally regarded as answering to the 
modern Oder. 

Vibius, Crispus, I., a Latin rhetorician, 
to whom some ascribe the declamation 
against Cicero which has come down to 
us. (See Porcius.) — II. Sequester, a 
Latin writer, who has left a geographical 
work, containing a kind of nomenclature 
of rivers, fountains, lakes, forests, marshes, 
mountains, and nations mentioned by the 
poets. The work was compiled for the 
use of Virgilianus, the author's son. Ober- 
linus believes that he lived after the fall 
of the Western empire, in the fifth, sixth, 
or seventh century. 

Vibo, Valentia. See Hipponium. 

Vica Pota, a goddess at Rome, who 
presided over victory, "potis vincendi atque 
potiundi." 

Vicentia, Vicenza, a town of Gallia Ci- 
salpina, situated in the territory of Ve- 
netia, between Patavium and Verona. It 
was a Roman municipium, but of little 
consideration. 

Victor, Sext. Aurelius, I., a Latin 
historian, born in Africa of very humble 
parents, but who raised himself by his 
merit to some of the highest offices in the 
state. The emperor Julian, who became 
acquainted with him at Sirmium, a.d. 360, 



gave him the government of Pannonia 
Secunda, and erected in honour of him a 
statue of bronze. Sixteen years after this, 
Theodosius the Great appointed him pre- 
fect of Rome. The period of his death is not 
ascertained. His works are, " Origo Gentis 
Romanae," " De Viris illustribus Urbis 
Roma?," and "De Caesaribus,"&c. — II. Sur- 
named, by way of distinction, the Younger, 
a contemporary of Orosius, who made an 
abridgment of one of the works of the 
elder Victor, which he entitled " Epitome 
de Ca?saribus," or, according to others, 
" De Vita et Moribus Imperatorum Ro- 
manorum," and which he continued down 
to the death of Theodosius the Great. 
He made some changes also in the ori- 
ginal work, and added some new facts and 
circumstances. 

Victoria, one of the deities of the 
Romans, called by the Greeks NtK?7. She 
was sister of Strength and Valour, and 
was one of the attendants of Jupiter. 
Sylla raised her a temple at Rome, and 
instituted festivals in her honour. She 
was represented with wings, crowned with 
laurel, and holding the branch of a palm- 
tree in her hand. A golden statue of this 
goddess, weighing 320 pounds, was pre- 
sented to the Romans by Hiero, king of 
Syracuse, and deposited in the temple of 
Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. 

Victorina, a celebrated matron, who 
placed herself at the head of the Roman 
armies, and made war against Gallienus. 
On the assassination of her son Victorinus, 
who had been associated in the empire 
with Latienus Posthumus, Victorina in- 
vested with the imperial purple one of her 
favourites, Tetricus ; but she was after- 
wards poisoned, a. d. 269, according to 
some, by Tetricus himself. 

Victorinus, I., an African philosopher, 
who became a convert to Christianity in 
the fourth century. He gained such a 
degree of reputation by teaching rhetoric 
at Rome, that a statue was erected to him 
in one of the public places. He was the 
author of several works of no great value 
contained in the "Bibliotheca Patrum." — 
II. See Victorina. 

Viducasses, a people of Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis Secunda, on both sides of the river 
Olina or Orne. Their chief city was 
Araegenus, now Bayeux. 

Vienna, Vienne, a city of the Allobroges 
in Gallia Transalpina, on the banks of the 
Rhone, famed for its wealth and the civil- 
isation of its inhabitants. At a later 
period it became the capital of the province 
of Viennesis, and in the fifth century the 
residence of the Burgundian kings. The 



VIM 



VIR 



607 



classical name of this city must not be 
confounded with the modern appellation 
of the ancient Vindobona, on the Danube. 

Viminalis, one of the seven hills on 
which Rome was built, so called from the 
number of osiers (vimina) which grew 
there. Servius Tullius first made it part 
of the city. Jupiter had a temple there, 
whence he was called Viminalis. 

Vindelici, a people of Germany, whose 
territory, called Vindelicia, extended from 
the city of Brigantia, on the Lacus Brigan- 
tinus, or Lake of Constance, to the Da- 
nube ; while the lower part of the CEnus 
or Inn separated it from Noricum. Their 
country answered, therefore, to part of 
Wirtemberg and Bavaria. In the angle 
formed by the rivers Vindo and Licus, 
now the Wertach and the Lech, from which 
the Vindelici derived their name, was 
situated their capital Augusta Vindelico- 
rum, now Augsburg. 

Vindex, Julius, a governor of Gaul, 
who revolted against Nero, and determined 
to deliver the Roman empire from his 
tyranny. He wrote to Galba, then in 
Spain, to take the chief command, and aid 
him in effecting his purpose ; but, before 
any junction could be effected, he was de- 
feated by the forces of Verginius Rufus, 
and destroyed himself, a. d. 68. 

Vintdius, a miser mentioned by Horace. 

Vinius, T., a friend of Galba, on whose 
accession to the imperial throne he be- 
came consul, commander of the praetorian 
guards, and principal minister of the new 
monarch. He employed his newly-acquir- 
ed power in criminal and oppressive acts. 
He advised Galba to adopt Otho for his 
successor ; but Galba having nominated 
Piso, Otho revolted, dethroned Galba, and 
Vinius perished along with the latter, not- 
withstanding his vehement protestations 
to the soldiery that Otho had not ordered 
his death. It is probable that he was im- 
plicated in the conspiracy of Otho against 
his friend and protector. 

Vinnius, Asella, a servant of Horace. 

Vipsania, a daughter of M. Agrippa, 
mother of Drusus. She was the only 
daughter of Agrippa who died a natural 
death. She was married to Tiberius when 
a private man, and, when he repudiated 
her, she married Asinius Gallus. 

Virbius (qui vir bis fuit), a name given 
to Hippolytus after he had been brought 
back to life by iEsculapius, at the instance 
of Diana, who pitied his unfortunate end. 
Virgil makes him son of Hippolytus. 

Virgilius, Maro Publius, the prince 
of Latin poets, born at the village of 
Andes, a few miles distant from Mantua, 



about 70 b. c. The studies of Virgil com- 
menced at Cremona, where he remained 
till he assumed the toga virilis. At the 
age of sixteen he removed to Mediolanum, 
and shortly afterwards to Neapolis, where 
he laid the foundation of that multifarious 
learning which shines so conspicuously 
in the JEneid. During his residence in 
this city he perused the most celebrated 
Greek writers, being instructed in their lan- 
guage and literature by Parthenius Nicenus 
Here also he studied the Epicurean system- 
of philosophy under Syro, a celebrated 
teacher of that sect ; but medicine and 
mathematics were the sciences to which 
he was chiefly devoted. After the battle of 
Mutina, Virgil at first enjoyed the pro- 
tection of Asinius Pollio, who had been 
appointed to the command of the district ; 
but when it was found necessary to add 
the territory of Mantua to that of Cre- 
mona, to be distributed among the vete- 
rans of the triumvirate, the patronage 
of Pollio no longer sufficed, and the 
poet was dispossessed of his property 
under circumstances of peculiar violence, 
and which even threatened danger to his 
personal safety ; being compelled on one 
occasion to escape the fury of the centurion 
Arrius by swimming over the Mincius. He 
had the good fortune, however, to obtain 
the favour of Alphenus Varus, with whom 
he had studied philosophy at Naples, and 
who now either succeeded Pollio in the 
command of the district, or was appointed 
by Augustus to superintend in that quarter 
the division of the lands. Under his 
protection Virgil twice repaired to Rome, 
where he was received, not only by Mae- 
cenas, but by Augustus himself, from 
whom he procured the restoration of the 
patrimony of which he had been deprived. 
It was about this time that he wrote all 
his Eclogues, except the last. It was 
probably, also, during this period of fa- 
vour with the emperor and his minister, 
that he contributed the verses in cele- 
bration of the deity who presided over the 
gardens of Maecenas ; and v/rote, though 
without acknowledging it, that well-known 
distich in honour of Augustus, 

" Nocte pluit tota ; redeunt spectacula mane ; 
Divisum imperium cum Jove Caesar habet." 

The story goes on to relate, that Bathyl- 
lus, a contemptible poet of the day, claimed 
these verses as his own, and was liberally 
rewarded. Vexed at the imposture, Virgil 
again wrote the verses in question near 
the palace, and under them 

" Hos ego versiculos feci, tulit alter honores ;" 
p D 4 



608 



VIR 



VI R 



with the beginning of another line in these 
words, 

" Sic vos non vobis," 

four times repeated. Augustus wished 
the lines to be finished ; Bathyllus seemed 
unable ; and Virgil at last, by completing 
the stanza in the following order, 

" Sic vos non vobis nidificatis aves ; 
Sic vos non vobis vellera fertis oves ; 
Sic vos non vobis mellificatis apes ; 
Sic vos non vobis fertis aratra boves," 

proved himself to be the author of the 
distich, and the impostor became the sport 
and ridicule of Rome. During his re- 
sidence at Rome, Virgil inhabited a house 
on the Esquiline Hill, which was fur- 
nished with an excellent library, and was 
pleasantly situated near the gardens of 
Mascenas. But he retired to Naples in 
the thirty-third year of his age, and con- 
tinued during the remainder of his life 
to reside there chiefly, or at a delight- 
ful villa which he possessed in the neigh- 
bourhood of Nola, ten miles east of that 
city. About the time when he first went 
to reside at Naples he commenced his 
Georgics, by order of Mascenas, and con- 
tinued, for the seven following years, closely 
occupied with the composition of that 
inimitable poem. The jEneid was com- 
menced b. c. 30, the same year in which 
he had completed his Georgics. After he 
had been engaged for some time in its 
composition, the greatest curiosity and in- 
terest concerning it began to be felt at 
Rome. Augustus himself at length be- 
came desirous of reading the poem so 
far as it had been carried ; and, b. c. 25, 
while absent from Rome on a military 
expedition against the Cantabrians, he 
wrote to the author from the extremity of 
his empire, entreating him to be allowed 
a perusal of it. Prevailed on at length, 
by these importunities, Virgil, about a 
year after the return of Augustus, recited 
to him the sixth book, in presence of his 
sister Octavia, who had recently lost her 
only son Marcellus, the darling of Rome, 
and the adopted child of Augustus. The 
poet, probably in the prospect of this re- 
citation, had inserted the affecting passage 
in which he alludes to the premature death 
of the beloved youth : 

" O nate, ingentem luctum ne quaere tuorum," &c. 

But he had skilfully suppressed the name 
of Marcellus till he came to the line, 

" Tu Marcellus eris — manibus date lilia plenis." 

It may well be believed that the widowed 
mother of Marcellus swooned away at the 



pathos of these verses, which no one, even 
at this day, can read unmoved. Virgil is 
said to have received from the afflicted 
parent 10,000 sesterces (dena sestertia) for 
each verse of this celebrated passage. 
Having brought the JEneid to a conclu- 
sion, Virgil resolved to travel into Greece, 
and had been engaged for some months 
at Athens in revising his great work, when 
Augustus arrived there on his return 
to Italy from a progress through his 
eastern dominions, and the poet embraced 
the opportunity of returning to Italy in 
the retinue of the emperor. But the hand 
of death was already upon him. From 
his youth he had been of a delicate con- 
stitution ; and, as age advanced, he was 
afflicted with frequent headaches, asthma, 
and spitting of blood. The vessel in 
which he embarked with the emperor 
touched at Megara, where he was seized 
with great debility and languor. "When 
he again went on board, his distemper in- 
creased by the motion and agitation of the 
vessel, and he expired a few days after he 
had landed at Brundisium, b. c. 19, in the 
fifty-first year of his age. When he felt 
the near approach of death, he ordered his 
friends Varius and Plotius Tucca, who 
were then with him, to burn the jEneid 
as an imperfect poem ; an injunction 
which, happily for posterity, was not 
obeyed. Virgil bequeathed the greater 
part of his wealth, which was consider- 
able, to a brother. The remainder was 
divided among his patron Mascenas, and 
his friends Varius and Tucca. The body 
of the poet, according to his own di- 
rections, was conveyed to Naples ; and 
interred with solemnity in a monument 
erected on the road from Naples to Pu- 
teoli. The following epitaph, which Pietro 
Stefano, who lived in the thirteenth cen- 
tury, mentions he had seen on an urn, is 
said to have been written by the poet him- 
self a few moments before his death : 

" Mantua me genuit ; Calabri rapuere ; tenet nunc 
Partnenope. Cecini pascua, rura, duces." 

Virginia, a young Roman lady of sin- 
gular beauty, the daughter of Virginius, a 
centurion of rank in the army, and be- 
trothed to Icilius, who had been a tribune 
of the commons. Appius, the decemvir, 
having seen her passing through the Forum 
to school, conceived a criminal passion for 
her ; and having in vain attempted to bribe 
the nurse to whose care she had been com- 
mitted after the death of her mother, 
employed Claudius, one of his clients, to 
claim the girl as his slave. The affair of 
course was brought before Appius as judge. 



VI R 



VIT 609 



In the meantime Icilius, the lover of the 
virgin, and Numitorius, her uncle, had in- 
fluence to prevent sentence from being 
immediately pronounced. Virginius being 
informed of what was going on, returned 
from the camp, and next day went with 
his daughter, in the garb of criminals, at- 
tended by a great number of his relations 
and friends, to the tribunal of Appius. The 
decemvir, blinded by passion, and regard- 
less of justice, decreed that Virginia should 
be given up as a slave to Claudius. When 
she was about to be carried away, Virgi- 
nius requested that, since the virgin had 
been declared not to be his daughter, he 
might be allowed to ask her nurse a few 
questions in her presence, that if he had been 
falsely called her father, he might return 
to the camp with less uneasiness. Leave 
being granted, he took them both aside to 
an adjoining shop ; where, having snatched 
a knife from a butcher, he plunged it m 
the breast of his daughter, saying, " In this 
manner only can I free thee, my daughter:" 
and looking back to Appius, he said, " By 
this blood I devote thy head to the infernal 
gods." Appius, alarmed by the cry raised 
at so atrocious a deed, ordered Virginius 
to be apprehended. But Virginius, waving 
aloft the bloody knife, burst through the 
multitude, flew to the gates, mounted a 
horse, and spurred headlong to the camp 
near Tusculum. The wild and frantic 
aspect of Virginius, his attire stained with 
blood, and the bloody knife still held convul- 
sively in his grasp, instantly drew a crowd 
of the soldiery around him. In brief but 
burning terms he told his tale, and called 
aloud for vengeance. One thrilling sen- 
timent of sympathising indignation filled 
every bosom ; they called to arms, plucked 
up their standards, and, marching to Rome, 
seized upon the Aventine. After a little 
hesitation on the part of the senate, the 
decemvirate was abolished, and the tri- 
bunate of the people restored. Appius 
died in prison by his own hand, and his 
colleagues went into voluntary exile. 

Virginius, father of Virginia, tribune 
of the people. See Virginia. 

Viriathus, a shepherd of Lusitania, a 
hunter, a robber, and finally a military 
hero, almost unrivalled in fertility of re- 
sources under defeat, skill in the conduct 
of his forces, and courage in the hour of 
battle. He maintained a contest for six 
years against the disciplined troops of the 
Romans ; and at length the consul Caepio, 
unable to subdue him in the field, procured 
his assassination. The Lusitanians, de- 
prived of their brave leader, were soon 
afterwards completely subdued, b. c. 40. 



Viridomakus, a young man of great 
power among the iEdui ; Caesar greatly 
honoured him, but he at last took up arms 
against the Romans. 

Viriplaca, a goddess among the Ro- 
mans, who presided over the peace of 
families, whence her name (virum placare). 

Virro, a fictitious name introduced by 
Juvenal. 

Vishnu, one of the three principal deities 
of the Hindoo mythology, the other two 
being Brahma and Siva. He is commonly 
called the Preserver, the other two being 
respectively the Creator and the De- 
stroyer. The great objects of his provi- 
dence are brought about by his successive 
incarnations or avatars, in which he ap- 
pears and acts on earth. Nine of these 
have taken place. The last is said to 
have been the appearance of Buddha, 
which is supposed by some learned ori- 
entalists to have taken place about a. tt. 
1014; and hence the Buddhists reject 
the Vedas, which were compiled before 
that event. The tenth avatar of Vishnu 
is yet to take place, when he will ap- 
pear on a white horse, with a blazing 
scimitar, for the everlasting punishment 
of the wicked. 

Vistula, a river falling into the Baltic, 
the eastern boundary of ancient Germany, 
now the Vistula, or, as the Germans write 
the word, the Weichsel. 

Visurgis, Weser, a river of Germany, 
on whose banks Varus and his legions 
were cut to pieces. 

Vitei.lius Aulus, I., a Roman emperor, 
descended from one of the most illustrious 
families of Rome, succeeded Otho, a. d. 68. 
From Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, he 
received great distinctions. Unlike the 
generality of favourites, he did not fall 
with his patrons ; on the contrary, the 
death of an emperor seemed to raise 
him to greater honours. Having passed 
through all the offices of the state, and 
gained the soldiery by donations and 
liberal promises, he was proclaimed em- 
peror by the Roman legions in Germany 
in opposition to Otho; and after three 
unsuccessful attempts to defeat his adver- 
sary, he was left master of the field and 
of the Roman empire. On his acces- 
sion to the throne he devoted himself to 
the pleasures of the table, and viewed the 
imperial power only as affording the means 
of unbounded indulgence. But he was 
soon roused from his dream of luxury, by 
tidings of the Syrian army having invested 
their general Flavius Vespasianus with the 
purple ; and after an ineffectual attempt to 
maintain his ground by force of arms, he 

D D 5 



610 



VI T 



VUL 



returned to Rome, where he was igno- 
miniously put to death, after a reign of 
about eight months. — II. Lucius, father 
of the preceding, who obtained great ho- 
nours by flattery of the emperors. 

Vitricus, a surname of Mars. 

VitruvTcjs Pollio, M., a celebrated ar- 
chitect in the age of Augustus, born at 
Formias. Under Augustus, he was appointed 
inspector of public buildings ; and it was at 
the request of this prince that Vitruvius 
published his work on Architecture, — 
the only work on this art that has come 
down to us from antiquity. 

Voconia Lex, de Testamentis, by Q, 
Voconius Saxa, the tribune, a. u. c. 
584, enacted that no one should make a 
woman his heiress, nor leave to any one, 
by way of legacy, more than to his heir 
or heirs. This law was intended to prevent 
the extinction of opulent families. On 
account of its severity, however, it fell into 
disuse. 

Vocontii, a people of Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, in the immediate vicinity of the 
Alps, on the banks of the Druma or Drome. 
Their principal cities were Vasio, now 
Vaison; Lucus Augusti, now Luc; and 
Dea Vocontiorum, now Die. 

Vogesds, la Vosge, a mountain of Belgic 
Gaul, a branch of the chain of Jura, 
in which are the sources of the Arar, 
Savne, the Mosa, Meuse, and the Mosella, 
Moselle. 

VoLATERRiE, Volterra, a city of Etruria, 
north-west of Sena, on the right bank of 
the river Caecina. Its Etrurian appellation 
was Velathri. Volaterras occupied a place 
among the twelve principal cities of ancient 
Etruria ; and the extent of its remains, its 
massive walls, vast sepulchral chambers, 
and numerous objects of Etruscan art, 
suffice to show its antique splendour and 
importance. Its walls were formed, as may 
yet be seen, of huge massive stones, piled 
on each other without cement ; and their 
circuit, which is still distinctly marked, 
embraced a circumference of between three 
and four miles. In the second Punic war 
Volaterraa, like the other cities of Etruria, 
was zealous in its offers of naval stores to 
the Romans. Many years afterwards it 
sustained a two years' siege against Sylla, 
and finally became a Roman colony some- 
what prior to the reign of Augustus. 
Persius the satirist was a native of this 
city. 

Vol ate rr an a Vada, Vada, a harbour on 
the coast of Etruria, deriving its name 
from the city of Volaterra, which lay in- 
land. 

VoLC-a?, a numerous and oowerful nation 



! of Southern Gaul, divided into two great 
branches, the Arecomici and Tectosages. 
The chief city of the former was Nemau- 
sus, now Nismes. The latter lay without 
the Roman province, in Gaul. Their 
capital was Tolosa, now Toulouse. 

Volesi, a Roman family sprung from 
one of the three noble Sabines who settled 
at Rome with king Tatius in the reign of 
Romulus. 

Vologeses, a name common to many 
of the kings of Parthia, who made war 
against the Roman emperors. 

Volscens, a Latin chief, who discoverea 
Nisus and Euryalus as they returned from 
the Rutulian camp loaded with spoils. 
He killed Euryalus, but was immediately 
stabbed by Nisus. 

Volsci, or Volci, a people of Latium. 
bounded on the south by the Tyrrhene 
Sea, north by the country of the Hernici 
and Marsi, west by the Latins and Rutu- 
lians, east by Campania. Their chief 
cities were Antium, Anxur, Arpinum, 
Corioli, Fregella?, &c. The Volsci were 
first attacked by the Romans under the 
second Tarquin, and war was carried on 
afterwards between the two nations, with 
short intervals, for upwards of two hundred 
years. 

Vols ini dm. See Vdlsinii. 

Voltdmn^e Fandm, a spot in Etruria 
where the general assembly of the Etru- 
rians was held on solemn occasions. Some 
trace of the ancient name is preserved in 
that of a church called Santa Maria in 
Volturno. 

Voldbilis, Walili, a city in Mauritania 
Tingitana, between Tocolosida and Aqua? 
Dacicas, in a fruitful part of the coun- 
try. 

Voldmnia, the wife of Coriolanus. 

Voldmnds and Voldmna, deities pre- 
siding over the will, but invoked at mar- 
riages to preserve concord between husband 
and wife. They were particularly distin- 
guished by the Etrurians. 

Voldsiands, a Roman, associated on the 
imperial throne with his father Gallus. 
He was killed by his soldiers. 

Vonones, a king of Parthia expelled by 
his subjects, but afterwards placed on the 
throne of Armenia. 

Vopiscds, a native of Syracuse, and 
contemporary with Trebellius Pollio, one 
of the writers of the Augustan History. 
His father and grandfather lived on terms 
of intimacy with the emperor Diocletian. 

Vdlcanalia, festivals in honour of 
Vulcan, brought to Rome from Praeneste, 
and observed in the month of August. 
The streets were illuminated, fires kindled 



VUL 



XAN 



611 



everywhere, and animals thrown into the 
flames, as a sacrifice to the deity. 

Vulcani Insula, or Vulcania. See 
iEoLi^: and Lipara. 

Vulcanus, also called Mulciber, the Latin 
name for the divinity called by the Greeks 
Hephaestus, — the god who presided over the 
working of metals. He was the son of Ju- 
piter, who, incensed at his interference on 
the part of his mother Juno, cast him out of 
heaven : he fell in the isle of Lemnos, and 
broke his leg in the fall. His feats as the pa- 
tron of armourers and workers in metal, his 
marriage with Venus, and her infidelities, 
form the subjects of many of the best- 
known classical stories. There is about 
the character of Vulcan much of the usual 
confusion belonging to Greek mythology. 
Cicero mentions three Vulcans, besides the 
son of Jupiter : one, the child of Uranus; 
another, of Nilus, who reigned in Egypt ; 
a third of Maenalius. A peculiarity at- 
tending the worship of Vulcan was, that 
the victims were wholly consumed, in re- 
ference to his character as god of fire. In 
sculpture he is represented as bearded, 
with a hammer and pincers, and a pointed 
cap. He does not appear lame, as repre- 
sented by the poets. Cicero, however, 
praises the sculptor Alcamenes for making 
his lameness observable without amount- 
ing to deformity. The description of his 
cavern in the Isle of Vulcan, or Hiera, in 
the eighth book of the jE?ieid, is among 
the best-known passages in classical poetry. 

VulcXtius Gallicanus, one of the 
writers of the Augustan History. He lived 
under Diocletian, and possessed the title of 
Vir Clarissimus, which indicates that he 
was a senator. We have from him only 
the Life of Avidius Cassius; and some ma- 
nuscripts even assign this biography to 
Spartianus. 

Vulsinii or Volsinii, Bolsena, and also 
Vulsinium or Volsinium, one of the most 
ancient and wealthy cities of Etruria, 
situated on the northern shore of the 
Lacus Vulsiniensis. An account of its 
early contest with Rome is to be found in 
Livy, v. 3 1 . Asa proof of the ancient 
prosperity of Vulsinii, it is stated by Pliny 
that it possessed, when taken by the 
Romans, no less than 2000 statues. From 
Livy we learn that the Etruscan goddess 
Nortia was worshipped there. Vulsinii 
was the birth-place of Sejanus. 

Vultura, or Vulturaria, a mountain 
on the borders of Apulia. 

Vulturnum, Castel di Volturno, a town 
of Campania, at the mouth of the river 
Vulturnus. The origin of this city was 
probably Etruscan ; but we do not find it 



mentioned in history until it became a 
Roman colony, a. v.c. 558. A second 
colony was sent thither by Caesar. Festus 
includes it among the praefecturaa. 

Vulturnus, L, Volturno, a river of 
Campania, rising among the Apennines, 
in the territory of Samnium, and dis- 
charging its waters into the lower sea. 
At its mouth stood the town of Vulturnum. 
A magnificent bridge, with a triumphal 
arch, was thrown over this river by Do- 
mitian when he caused a road to be con- 
structed from Sinuessa to Puteoli. — II. 
A name applied by the Latin writers to 
the south-east wind, and answering to the 
Greek EvpSvoros. 



X. 

Xanthi, I., a people of Thrace. — II. 
The inhabitants of Xanthus in Asia. 

Xanthica, a festival observed by the 
Macedonians in April, called Xanthicus, on 
which occasion it was usual to make a 
lustration of the army with great so- 
lemnity. 

Xanthippe, or Xantippe, the wife of 
Socrates, represented by many of the an- 
cient writers as a perfect termagant. It is 
more than probable, however, that her in- 
firmities have been exaggerated, and that 
calumny has had some hand in finishing 
her picture ; for Socrates himself, in a di- 
alogue with his son Lamprocles, allows 
her many domestic virtues ; and we find 
her afterwards expressing great affection 
for her husband during his imprisonment. 

Xanthippus, L, a Spartan leader, who 
fought on the side of the Carthaginians in 
the first Punic war, and defeated Regulus. 
He is said to have left Carthage soon after 
this success, apprehending evil conse- 
quences to himself from the jealousy of 
the inhabitants. — II. An Athenian com- 
mander, who led the forces of Athens at 
the battle of Mycale. He was father of 
the celebrated Pericles. 

Xanthus, or Xanthos, I., a river of 
Troas in Asia Minor, the same as the 
Scamander, and, according to Homer, 
called Xanthus by the gods and Sca- 
mander by men. — II. A river of Lycia, 
falling into the sea above Patara. It was 
the most considerable of the Lycian 
streams, and at an early period bore the 
name of Sirbes or Sibrus. — III. The 
chief city of Lycia, on the river of the 
same name, seventy stadia from its mouth. 
The inhabitants were celebrated for love 
of liberty and national independence. The 



612 



XEN 



XEN 



ruins of Xanthus have been elaborately 
described by Mr. Fellows. — IV. One of 
the horses of Achilles. — V. One of the 
horses given by Neptune to Juno, and after- 
wards to the sons of Leda. — VI. An 
historian of Lydia, who flourished at the 
time of the capture of Sardis by the 
Ionians (Olymp. 69.), and wrote a his- 
tory of Lydia in four books. 

Xeniades, a Corinthian, who bought 
Diogenes the Cynic, when sold as a slave. 
Xeniades having asked him what he could 
do, the Cynic answered, " Command free- 
men." This answer so pleased Xeniades, 
that he gave him his liberty, and entrusted 
him with the care and education of his 
children. 

Xenius, a surname given to Jupiter as 
god of hospitality. 

Xenoclea, a priestess of Apollo's temple 
at Delphi. 

Xenocles, an Athenian tragic poet, 
of dwarfish stature, ridiculed by Aristo- 
phanes. He was son of the tragic poet 
Carcinus, and was the conqueror of Euri- 
pides b. c. 415. 

Xenocrates, an ancient philosopher, 
born at Chalcedonia, and educated in the 
tenets of Plato, to whose school he suc- 
ceeded after Speusippus, about b. c. 339. 
He not only recommended himself to 
his pupils by precept, but by example. 
Philip of Macedon attempted to gain 
his confidence with money, but with no 
success. Alexander, too, having sent some 
of his friends with fifty talents for the 
philosopher, was met with the words, 
" Tell your master to keep his money ; 
he has more people to maintain than I 
have." Yet, not to offend the monarch, 
he accepted about the 200th part of one 
talent. He died b. c. 314, in his eighty- 
second year, by accidentally falling in the 
dark into a reservoir of water. — II. A 
Greek physician of Aphrodisias, whose 
work on the Aliment afforded by Fishes 
still remains. 

Xenophanes, the founder of the Eleatic 
sect, was a native of Colophon, and born 
about b. c. 556. He early left his country 
and took refuge in Sicily, where he sup- 
ported himself by reciting, at the court of 
Hiero, elegiac and iambic verses, which 
he had written in reprehension of the 
Theogonies of Hesiod and Homer. From 
Sicily he passed over into Magna Greecia, 
where he took up the profession of phi- 
losophy, and became a celebrated preceptor 
in the Pythagorean school. Indulging, 
however, a greater freedom of thought 
than was usual among the disciples of Py- 
thagoras, he ventured to introduce new 



opinions of his own, and in many parti- 
culars to oppose the doctrines of Epi- 
menides, Thales, and Pythagoras. He 
possessed the Pythagorean chair of phi- 
losophy about seventy years, and lived to 
the age of 100 years. 

Xenophilus, a Pythagorean philoso- 
pher, who lived to his 170th year, and en- 
joyed all his faculties to the last. 

Xenophon, I., a celebrated Athe- 
nian, son of Gryllus, distinguished as an 
historian, philosopher, and commander, 
born at Ercheia, a borough of the tribe 
iEge'is, b. c. 445. At an early period he 
became a disciple of Socrates, and made 
rapid progress in that moral wisdom for 
which his master was so eminent. Xeno- 
phon accompanied Socrates in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, in which he fought cou- 
rageously. At the battle of Delium So- 
crates saved the life of his pupil. At the 
age of forty-three or forty-four years he 
was invited by Proxenus the Boeotian to 
enter into the service of Cyrus the younger, 
the brother of Ar taxerxesMnemon of Persia, 
After the decisive battle in the plains of 
Cunaxa, and the fall of Cyrus, his pru- 
dence and the vigour of his mind were called 
into action. The 10,000 Greeks who had 
followed the Persian prince were above 600 
leagues from their native home, surrounded 
on every side by a victorious enemy, with- 
out money, provisions, and a leader. Xeno- 
phon advised his fellow-soldiers rather to 
trust to their own bravery than surrender 
themselves to the victor, and to attempt a 
retreat into their own country. They 
listened to his advice ; and, having had 
many proofs of his wisdom as well as 
courage, they elected him one of the five 
•new commanders chosen to supply the 
place of their former leaders, who had 
been entrapped and slain by Tissaphernes. 
Being appointed in the room of Proxenus, 
he soon became the soul of all the move- 
ments of the Greeks in their memorable 
retreat, and acquired great glory by 
the prudence and firmness with which he 
conducted them back, through the midst 
of innumerable dangers. The particulars 
of this memorable adventure are related 
by Xenophon himself, in his " Anabasis, or 
Retreat of the Ten Thousand. " The whole 
distance traversed by the Greeks, both in 
going and returning, was 1155 parasangs, 
or 34,650 stadia; and the whole time taken 
up was fifteen months, of which the retreat 
itself occupied less than eight. No sooner 
had he returned from Cunaxa than he 
sought new honours in following the for- 
tune of Agesilaus in Asia ; fought under 
his standard, and conquered with him in 



XER 



ZAB 



613 



the Asiatic provinces, as well as at the battle 
of CoronaDa. But the Athenians, who 
were displeased with this alliance, having 
brought an accusation against him for 
having engaged in the expedition of Cyrus, 
he was publicly banished from Athens, and 
retired to Scillus, a small town in the neigh- 
bourhood of Olympia, where he remained 
till his death, which took place b. c. 359. 
The common account, however, makes 
him to have retired to Corinth when a 
war had broken out between the Spartans 
aad Eleans, and to have ended his days 
there. By his wife Phitesia Xenophon 
had two sons, Gryllus and Diodorus ; the 
former of whom fell with glory in the 
battle of Mantinea, after having inflicted a 
mortal wound on Epaminondas, the Theban 
commander. (See Gryllus.) The prin- 
cipal works of Xenophon, who, from the 
sweetness and graceful simplicity of his 
language, has been styled the Attic Bee, 
are, the " Cyropaedia," or the Life, Disci- 
pline, and Actions of the elder Cyrus ; 
seven books of the " Expedition of the 
younger Cyrus into Persia, and of the 
Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks ;" 
four books of the " Memorabilia of So- 
crates ;" and the " Hellenica, or Grecian 
History," &c. &c. The whole conduct of 
Xenophon discovered an admirable union 
of wisdom and valour ; and his writings 
have afforded to all succeeding ages one 
of the most perfect models of purity, 
simplicity, and harmony of language. — 
II. A native of Ephesus, known by his 
Greek romance entitled " Ephesiacs, or 
the Loves of Abrocomes and Anthia." 
Nothing is known either of his era or 
his history. — III. A physician of Clau- 
dius, born in the island of Cos, and said 
to be descended from the Asclepiades. 
He enjoyed the emperor's favours, and 
through him the people of Cos were ex- 
empt from all taxes; but he subsequently 
poisoned his benefactor at the instigation 
of Agrippina. 

Xerxes, I., son and successor of Da- 
rius Hystaspis on the throne of Persia. 
He was, in fact, the second son of that 
monarch, but the first born to him of 
Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, whom 
Darius had married after he came to the 
throne. The elder son was Artabanus, 
who was born while Darius was in a 
private station. The two princes con- 
tended for the empire ; but Darius decided 
in favour of Xerxes, who ascended the 
throne b. c. 485. He continued the war- 
like preparations of his father, and, in 
the second year of his reign, added the re- 
volted kingdom of Egypt to his extensive 



possessions. He then resolved on the 
invasion of Europe. Having made a 
bridge of boats over the Hellespont, and 
cut through Mount Athos, he led into 
Greece an army of about two millions of 
men, or, according to some, five millions, 
attended by a fleet of 1200 sail, besides 
lesser vessels, containing about 600,000 
men. But this mighty host was opposed 
at Thermopylae by Leonidas, king of 
Sparta, with only 300 men, who nobly 
devoted themselves for their country. 
Xerxes then hastened to Athens, which he 
burnt ; but his mighty fleet was soon 
after defeated by the Greeks near Salamis, 
with about only 300 sail, chiefly by the 
conduct of Themistocles, the Athenian, 
who had persuaded his countrymen to 
abandon their city, and commit themselves 
to their wooden walls, or ships. Xerxes, 
who had been witness of the battle from a 
lofty throne erected on shore, terrified at 
the event, fled towards the Hellespont, 
which he crossed in a fishing-boat, leaving 
the care of his army to Mardonius, who 
some time after was defeated and slain by 
Pausanias, king of Sparta, and Aristides 
the Athenian, at Platsea. On the evening 
of the same day the combined fleet of the 
Lacedaemonians and Athenians, under Leo- 
tychides and Xantippus, landing their 
men, burnt the Persian fleet at Mycale in 
Ionia, cutting to pieces 40,000 of the 
enemy who guarded it, together with their 
general Tigranes. After such a series of 
unexampled disasters, Xerxes gave himself 
up to a life of dissolute pleasure, and was 
ultimately slain by Artabanus, a captain 
of the royal guards, b. c. 464. (See Akta- 
banus II.) — II. A son of Artaxerxes 
Mnemon, who succeeded his father b. e. 
425, but was slain, after a reign of forty- 
five days, by his brother Sogdianus. See 
Sogdianus. 

Xo'is, a city of Egypt, on an island in 
the Phatnetic branch of the Nile, below 
Sebennytus. 

Xuthus, a son of Hellen, grandson of 
Deucalion. See Iones. 

Xylenopolis, a town at the mouth of 
the Indus, built by Alexander. 

Xynoichia, an anniversary observed at 
Athens in honour of Minerva, and in com- 
memoration of the time the people of 
Attica left their rural habitations, and, 
by the advice of Theseus, united in one 
body. 

Z. 

Zabatus, Zabus, or Zerbis, a river in 
the north of Assyria, rising in Mount 



614 



ZAB 



ZEN 



Zagrus, and falling into the Tigris. It 
was also termed Lycus (Avkos), or " the 
wolf," by the Greeks ; but it has resumed 
its primitive denomination of Zab, or Zarb. 
Farther down another river, named Zabus 
Minor, and called by the Macedonians 
Caprus (Kdirpos), or " the boar," is also re- 
ceived by the Tigris, and is now called 
by the Turks Altonson, or the River of 
Gold. 

Zabdicene, a district of Mesopotamia, 
in which was situated a city named Zabda 
or Bezabda. It was ceded to the Persians 
by Jovian. 

Zabus, a river of Assyria, falling into 
the Tigris. See Zabatus. 

Zacynthus, Zante, an island in the 
Ionian Sea, west of the Peloponnesus, and 
below Cephallenia, said to have derived 
its name from Zacynthus, the son of Dar- 
danus, an Arcadian chief, or from a native 
of Boeotia of the same name. (See Za- 
cynthus II.) Not long before the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, the island was reduced by 
Tolmides, the Athenian general ; and it 
was subsequently occupied by the Mace- 
donians and Romans alternately. — II. A 
native of Boeotia, who accompanied Her- 
cules into Spain, and was entrusted with 
the care of Geryon's herds by the hero, 
who ordered him to conduct them to 
Thebes. On his way thither he was bit 
by a serpent, and died ; and his com- 
panions buried his body in an island of 
the Ionian Sea, from that time called Za- 
cynthus, now Zante. — III. A son of 
Dardanus. See Zacynthus I. 

Zaleucus, a lawgiver in Magna Grascia, 
and the founder of the Locrian state in 
that quarter of Italy, b. c. 550. He is 
said to have been originally a slave ; but 
his extraordinary abilities and merit ob- 
tained him his freedom, and at length 
raised him to the chief magistracy. The 
laws which he framed were severe ; but 
they were well adapted to the situation 
and manners of the Locrians, and were 
highly celebrated for several ages. 

Zama or Zagma, Zamora, a large and 
strongly fortified city of Numidia, cele- 
brated for the victory Scipio obtained over 
Hannibal, b. c. 202. Metellus besieged 
it, but was obliged to retire with great 
loss. After Juba's death, it was destroyed 
by the Romans. 

Zameis, a dissipated king of Assyria, 
son of Semiramis and Ninus. He reigned 
thirty-eight years. 

Zamolxis, a celebrated personage among 
the Scythians, whom many represent as 
the teacher of the doctrines of immortality 
and transmigration to the Celtic Druids 



and to Pythagoras. Others suppose him 
to have been a slave of Pythagoras, who, 
after having attended him into Egypt, ob- 
tained his manumission, and taught his 
master's doctrine among the Getae. But 
there can be no doubt that the doctrine of 
immortality was known to the northern 
nations long before the time of Pytha- 
goras ; and Herodotus, mentioning a com- 
mon tradition, that Zamolxis was a Pytha- 
gorean, expressly says that he flourished 
at a much earlier period than Pytha- 
goras. 

Zancle. See Messana. 

Zarang^e, or Drang^:, a people of 
Asia, south-east of Aria, whose capital 
was Prophthasia, still called Zarang. 

Zariaspa Bactra, Balk, the capital of 
Bactria, on the river Bactrus. 

Zebina, Alexander. See Alexander. 

Zela, or Zelia, a town of Pontus, 
south-east of Comana, celebrated for a 
temple sacred to the goddess Anaitis. 
Pompey gave it a large accession of terri- 
tory, and formed it into a city. It was 
the scene of the defeat of Pharnaces by 
Caesar. 

Zeno, I., a Greek philosopher, a 
disciple of Parmenides, born b. c. 463, 
at Elea, in Magna Grascia. The in- 
vention, or at least the development, 
of dialectics, is ascribed to him. His 
native city having fallen under the do- 
minion of a despot, he endeavoured to 
deliver it, but failed; and, being put to 
the torture, he is said to have bitten off 
his tongue, in order to prevent himself 
from betraying his companions. — II. The 
founder of the sect of the Stoics, bor-n 
at Citium, in the island of Cyprus, about 
b. c. 360. His father, who was a mer- 
chant, discovering in his son a strong pro- 
pensity towards learning, early devoted 
him to philosophy. Zeno, when about 
thirty years of age, determined to take a 
voyage to Athens, where he soon found 
an opportunity of attending the instruc- 
tions of Crates, and was so well pleased 
with his doctrines that he became one of 
his disciples. He afterwards attended the 
lectures of Stilpo for several years, and 
having passed through other schools, par- 
ticularly those of Xenocrates, Diodorus 
Chronus, and Polemon, he determined to be- 
come the founder of a new sect. The place 
chosen for his school was called TIoik'iKt) 
2roa, " Painted Porch ;" and from this cir- 
cumstance the followers of Zeno were 
called Stoics, « Men of the Porch." (See 
Stoici.) The founder of the Stoic sect, 
while he avoided the singularities of 
the Cynics, retained the spirit of their 



ZEN 



ZET 



615 



moral doctrine : at the same time, from 
a diligent comparison of the tenets of 
other masters, he framed a new system 
of speculative philosophy. He possessed 
so large a share of esteem among the 
Athenians, that, on account of his ap- 
proved integrity, they deposited the keys 
of their citadel in his hands. They also 
honoured him with a golden crown and a 
statue of brass. He lived to the extreme 
age of ninety-six, and at last put an end to 
his life, in consequence of the following 
accident. As he was walking out of his 
school he fell down, and in the fall broke 
one of his fingers. He was so affected, upon 
this, with a consciousness of infirmity, 
that, striking the earth, he exclaimed, " I 
am coming, why callest thou me?" and 
immediately went home and strangled him- 
self, b. c. 264. The Athenians, at the 
request of Antigonus, erected a monument 
to his memory in the Ceramicus. — III. 
An Epicurean philosopher of Sidon, who 
went to Athens, where he opened a school 
of philosophy, and numbered among his 
pupils Cicero, Atticus, Cotta, Pompey, 
&c. — IV. The name of Zeno was com- 
mon to some of the Roman emperors on 
the throne of Constantinople, in the fifth 
and sixth centuries. 

Zenobia, I., wife of Odenatus, king of 
Palmyra, after whose death she ascended 
the throne. This extraordinary woman 
claimed a descent from the Ptolemies of 
Egypt. In her person she displayed the 
beauty of the East, being of a clear dark 
complexion, with teeth of a pearly white- 
ness, and with black sparkling eyes. She 
defeated an army sent against her by Gal- 
lienus, made herself mistress of Egypt, 
and her sway extended northwards as far 
as the confines of Bithynia. But the em- 
peror Aurelian, envious of her power, and 
determined to dispossess her of some of 
the rich provinces comprehended in her 
dominions, marched at the head of a power- 
ful army to Asia ; and having defeated 
the queen's general near Antioch, com- 
pelled her to retreat to Emesa. Under 
the walls of this city another engagement 
was fought, in which the emperor was 
again victorious. The queen fled to Pal- 
myra, determined to support a siege. Au- 
reiian followed her ; and to the summons 
for a surrender of the city and kingdom, 
on the condition of her life being spared, 
Zenobia replied in a proud and spirited 
letter, written in Greek by her secretary, 
the celebrated Longinus. But her hopes 
of victory soon vanished ; and she at last 
fled from Palmyra in the night, but was 
overtaken by the Roman horse while at- 



tempting to cross the Euphrates, brought 
into the presence of Aurelian, and tried 
before a tribunal at Emesa, Aurelian 
himself presiding. The victor satisfied 
himself with ordering the execution of 
Longinus, and the other advisers of Ze- 
nobia. She herself was taken to Rome 
to grace the triumph of the emperor, 
who, however, behaved towards her with 
a generous clemency seldom exercised by 
the ancient conquerors, and presented her 
with an elegant villa at Tibur, where the 
Syrian queen insensibly sunk into a Roman 
matron, her daughters married into noble 
families, and her race was not yet extinct 
in the fifth century. — II. A queen of 
Iberia, wife of Rhadamistus. She accom- 
panied her husband, when banished from 
his kingdom by the Armenians ; but unable 
to follow him, from her pregnancy, she 
entreated him to murder her. Upon this^ 
he threw her body into the Araxes ; but 
her life was preserved, and she was carried 
to Tiridates, who acknowledged her as 
queen. 

Zenodorus, a statuary, whose native 
country is uncertain. He exercised his 
art in Cisalpine Gaul, and also in Rome 
during the reign of Nero. 

Zenodotus, I., a native of Trcezene, 
who wrote a history of Umbria. — II. A 
grammarian in the age of Ptol. Soter, 
appointed to take care of the celebrated 
library of Alexandria. He died b. c. 245. 

Zephyrium, I., Capo di Bruzzano, a 
promontory of Magna Graecia, on the east- 
ern coast of the lower extremity of Brut- 
tium, whence the Locrians derived the 
appellation of Epizephyrii. — II. A pro- 
montory on the western coast of the island 
of Cyprus, and closing the Bay of Baffo to 
the west. 

Zephyrus, one of the "Winds, son of 
Astrasus and Aurora, the same as the Fa- 
vonius of the Latins. He had a son named 
Carpus (Kaprcos, fruit), by one of the 
Seasons. Zephyrus is described by Homer 
as a strong-blowing wind ; but it was 
afterwards regarded as genial in its in- 
fluence both on man and all nature, and 
the name was considered as synonymous 
with £a)7)(p6pos, life-bearing. 

Zerynthus, a town of Samothrace, with 
a cave sacred to Hecate : hence Zerynthius 
Apollo, Zerynthia Venus. 

Zethes, Zetes, or Zetus, a son of Bo- 
reas, king of Thrace and Orithyia, who 
accompanied the Argonauts to Colchis 
with his brother Calais. In Bithynia the 
two brothers, who are represented with 
wings, delivered their brother-in-law Phi- 
neus from the persecution of the Harpies, 



616 



ZET 



ZUC 



and drove these monsters as far as the 
islands called Strophades. They were 
both killed by Hercules during the Ar- 
gonautic expedition, and changed into 
winds, called Prodromi by the Greeks. 

Zetus, or Zethus, a son of Jupiter and 
Antiope, brother of Amphion. See Am- 
phion. 

Zeugis, or Zeugitana, a district of 
Africa in which Carthage was situated. 
It extended from the river Tusca to the 
Hermaean Promontory, and from the coast 
to the mountains that separated it from 
Byzacium. 

Zeugma, or the Bridge, the name of the 
principal passage of the river Euphrates, 
south-west of Edessa. An ancient fortress 
by which it was commanded is still called 
Roum- Cola, or the Roman Castle ; and, 
on the opposite shore, there is a place 
called Zeugme. 

Zeus, the name of Jupiter among the 
Greeks. See Jupiter. 

Zeuxidamus, a king of Sparta, of the 
family of the Proclida?, succeeded by his 
son Archidamus. 

Zeuxis, a celebrated painter, born at 
Heraclea in Magna Graacia, about b.c. 400. 
He was a contemporary of Parrhasius. 
Very little is known respecting the events 
of his life He was not only successful in 
securing the applause of the multitude, 
but was honoured with the friendship of 
Archelaus, king of Macedon, for whose 
palace he executed numerous pictures. 
He also painted for the inhabitants of Cro- 
tona a number of pieces which were in- 
tended to adorn the temple of Juno. He gave 
his Alcmena, representing Hercules strang- 
ling the serpents in his cradle in the sight 
of his parents, to the Agrigentines, and a 
figure of Pan to his patron Archelaus of 
Macedon. His most celebrated pictures 
were, the Helen and the Alcmena; a Pene- 
lope ; a representation of Jupiter seated 
on his throne, with all the gods around 
doing him homage ; a Marsyas bound to 
a tree, which was preserved at Rome ; a 
wrestler ; and a representation of the Cen- 
taurs. He gained such immense wealth 
by his pictures, that at last he osten- 
tatiously gave them away, on the ground 
that no price was equal to their real value. 
He is said to have died from laughing at 
a comical picture he had made of an old 
woman. 

Zingis, Cape Orfui, a promontory of 



^Ethiopia, near the entrance of the Red 
Sea. 

Zoilus, a Sophist and grammarian of 
Amphipolis in Thrace, who lived in the 
fourth century b. c, and rendered himself 
known by his severe criticisms on the 
works of Homer, Aristotle, Plato, and 
others. He was nicknamed Homeromas- 
tix, " chastiser of Homer." Some say that 
he was stoned to death, or exposed on a 
cross, by order of Ptolemy ; others that he 
was burned alive at Smyrna. The name of 
Zoilus is generally applied to austere critics. 

Zona, a town of Thrace on the JEgean 
Sea, where the woods are said to have fol- 
lowed the strains of Orpheus. 

Zopyrus, a Persian, son of Megabyzus, 
who, to show his attachment to Darius, 
son of Hystaspes, while he besieged Ba- 
bylon, cut off his ears and nose, and 
fled to the enemy, telling them he had re- 
ceived such treatment from his royal 
master, because he had advised him to 
raise the siege, as the city was impreg- 
nable. The Babylonians, relying upon 
this story, appointed him commander of 
all their forces ; but when he had totally 
gained their confidence, he betrayed the 
city into the hands of Darius, for which he 
was liberally rewarded. 

Zokoajjda, a part of Taurus, where the 
Tigris opened a subterraneous passage. 

Zoroaster or Zerdusht, a celebrated 
eastern philosopher, the reformer, if not the 
founder, of the ancient Persian religion. 
(See Magi. ) The life, and even the epoch 
of the birth of Zoroaster, are involved in 
the utmost obscurity ; but the preferable 
opinion seems to be, that he lived about 
the sixth century b. c. The so-called 
"Oracles of Zoroaster" have been fre- 
quently published. 

Zosimus, L, a Greek historian, who ap- 
pears to have flourished between a. d. 430 
and 591. He was a public functionary 
at Constantinople, and wrote a history of 
the Roman emperors from the age of Au- 
gustus down to his own time. He was a 
Pagan, and inveterately hostile to the 
Christians and the Christian emperors. — 
II. A native of Panopolis, in Egypt, who 
wrote a work on Chemistry in twenty-eight 
books, another, " On the Art of making 
Beer," and various others. 

Zucms, a lake to the east of the Syrtis 
Minor, with a town of the same name, 
famous for a purple dye and salt fish. 



APPENDIX. 



GRECIAN AND ROMAN CALENDARIAL AND OTHER TABLES. 



GRECIAN CALENDAR. 

The order of the Greek months, that seems most agreeable to the ancient Greek writers, is that 
which is given in Spon and Wheler's Travels, and taken from an antique marble preserved at Oxford, 
and is as follows : — 



'EzetrofiGauuv, Junius et julius, 

MirxyilTVia/V, JULIUS et AUGUSTUS, 
Bo'^e/U.iaiv, AUGUSTUS et SEPTEMBER, 
Uvetvi-^liov, SEPTEMBER et OCTOBER, 
Ma.i/u.otXTr^i6ov, OCTOBER et NOVEMBER, 
UotrilhcOjv, NOVEMBER et DECEMBER, 



TetfJLTlXim, DECEMBER et JANUARIUS, 
'Avditrryqtaiv, JANUARIUS et FEBRUARIUS, 
'EXoupr&oXtw, FEBRUARIUS et MARTIUS. 
lAovvvxitoV, MARTIUS et APRILIS, 
©ocgy/jA/oiv, APRILIS et MAIUS, 

SxiqeQcgiaiv, maius et Junius. 



The year to which these months were adjusted was of the lunar kind, and consisting of 354 days only, 
or else somewhat between the lunar and solar year, and containing 360 days ; and probably both of them 
were in use at different periods of time. 



GRECIAN WEIGHTS. 
(Above the Drachm.) 





Drachm 




lbs. 



Troy Weight. 
oz. dwts. grs. 
2 19.3 


Avoirdupois 
lbs. oz. 



e Weight. 
drs 
2.46 


2 


Drachmae 


make 1 Didrachm 





5 14.7 





4.93 


50 


Didrachmi 


— 1 Mina - 


1 


2 135 


15 


6.25 


60 


Minae 


— 1 Attic Talent - 


- 70 


1 13 17.3 


57 11 


7.18 


11 


Attic Talent 


— 1 Talent of ^Egina 


- 116 


10 16 4.8 


96 3 


1.3 



II. GRECIAN WEIGHTS. 

\Below the Drachm.) 







Troy Weight. 


Avoirdupoise Weight. 






dwts. 


grs. 


drs. 


Lepton 




- 


0.2 


0.007 


7 Lepta 


make 1 Chalcus 


- 


1.4 


0.05 


4 Chalci 


— 1 Half Obolus - 


- 


5.6 


0.21 


2 Half Oboli 


_ 1 Obolus - 


- 


11.2 


0.41 


2 Oboli 


— 1 Diobolus 


- 


22.4 


0.82 


3 Dioboli 


— 1 Drachm 


- 2 


19.3 


2.46 



GRECIAN COINS. 

(Beloiu the Drachm.) 



Lepton 0.1 

7 Lepta make 1 Chalcus - - 0.8 
2 Chalci — 1 Dichalcon 

2 Dicl.alca — 1 Half Obolus - 3.2 



Half Oboli 
Oboli 
1.6 2 Diobola 

U Tetrobolon 



make 1 Obolus - 

— 1 Diobolon - 

— 1 Tetrobola 

— 1 Drachm - 



d. 
- 1 



- 6 

- 9 



II. GRECIAN COINS. 

(Above the Drachm.) 

Drachm 9* 2?9 

2 Drachma* make 1 Didrachm - - - - 1 7 1 .7 

2 Didrachmi — 1 Tetradrachm, or Silver Stater 3 2 3.4 

5 Tetradrachmi — 1 Chrysus, Daric, or Gold Stater 16 2 1.0 

5 Chrysi — 1 Mina 4 11 1.2 

60 Mina? — 1 Attic Talent of Silver - - 242 16 6 0. 

If Attic Talent — 1 Talent of JEgina - - - 404 14 2 0. 

6 Talents of ^Egina — 1 Attic Talent of Gold - - 2428 5 1 0. 



618 



APPENDIX. 



GRECIAN MEASURES FOR THINGS DRY. 











cub. ft. cub. in. 


bush, pks.qts. 


pts. 




Cochlearion 








0.22 


o 


o 


o 


0.008 


10 


Cochlearia 


make 1 Cyathus 


- 


2.74 


o 


o 


o 


0.079 


*i 


Cyathus 




1 Oxybaphon - 


- 


4.12 


o 


o 


Q 


0.12 


4 


Oxybapha 




1 Cotyle 


- 


16.47 


o 


o 


o 


0.48 


2 


Cotylae 




1 Xestes 


- 


32.93 











0.95 


2 


Xestes 




1 Choenix 


- 


65.86 











1.90 


4 


Choenices 




1 Hemiecton - 


- 


263.46 








3 


1.61 


2 


Hemiecta 




1 Ectos 


- 


526.92 








7 


1.21 


2 


Ecteis 




1 Tritos 


- 1053.83 





1 


7 


0.43 


3 


Triteis 




1 Medimnus - 


- 1 


1433.5 


1 


1 


5 


1.28 



GRECIAN MEASURES FOR THINGS LIQUID. 









cub. ft. 


cub. in. 


sail. qts. 


pts. 


Cochlearion 






- 


0.27 








0.008 


2 Cochlearia 


make 1 Cheme 


- 


0.55 








0.016 


2 Cheme 




1 Mystron - 


- 










0.02 


2 Mystra 




1 Conche 


- 


1.37 








0.04 


2 Conchae 




1 Cyathus - 


- 


2.74 








0.08 


1§ Cyathus 




1 Oxybaphron 


- 


4.12 





3 


0.12 


2 Oxybaphra 




1 Tetarton - 


- 


8.23 








0.24 


2 Tetarta 




1 Cotyle 


- 


16.47 








0.48 


2 Cotylae 




1 Xestes 


- 


32.93 








0.95 


6 Xestes 




1 Chous 


- 


197.59 





2 


1.70 


6 Choes 




1 Diote 


- 


1185.56 


4 


1 


0.23 


2 Diotae 




1 Metretes - 


- 1 


643.13 


8 


2 


0.46 



I. GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. 

{Small Measures.) 



Dactylus or Digit 

Dactyli make 1 Condylos - - 
Condyli — 1 Palassta or Doron - 

f 1 Dichas or Semi- 7 n 

Dora -{ podion - - j 

Seraipodion — 1 Lichas - - - 



Feet. in. 
- 0.76 

1.52 

3.03 



Lichas 



— 1 Orthodoron - 



7.59 
8.34 



1-L Orthodoron make 1 Spithame 

4 



Feet. in. 
- 9.10 



Spithame 
Foot 
Cubit 



— 1 Pous or Foot - 1 



U Pygon 



— 1 Pygme or Cubit - 

— 1 Pygon - 

(" 1 Pechys orlarger ? 
~" I Cubit - i 



0.14 
1.65 
3.19 



II, GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. 



(Lai-ge Measures. ) 











Miles. 


Yards. 


Feet. 




Pous or Foot 






- 





1.01 




Feet make 


1 Bema 




- 





2.53 


22 


Bema — 


1 Orguia or Pace - 




- 


2 


6.07 


a 
1§ 


Pace — 


1 Dekapous or Calamus 




- 


3 


1.11 


6 


Calami — 


1 Amma - 




- 


20 


0.69 


If 


Am ma — 


1 Plethron 




- 


34 


2.15 


6 


Plethra — 


1 Stadium 




- 


202 


0.88 


2 


Stadia — 


1 Diaulos - 




- 


404 


0.75 


2 


Diauli — 


1 Hippicon 




- 


809 


0.50 


3 


Hippica — 


1 Dolichos 




- 1 


667 


1.51 



III. GRECIAN SQUARE MEASURES. 







Acres. 


Roods 


. Perches. 


Sq. Ft. 


Pous or Foot - 




- 








1.02 


36 Feet mak 


i 1 Hexapod 


- 








36.83 


21 Hexapods — 


1 Akaina 


- 








102.31 


8£ Akainae — 


1 Hemiecton 


- 





3 


35.79 


2 Hemiecta — 


1 Ectos 


- 





6 


71.59 


1£ Ectos — 


1 Aroura 


- 





9 


107.38 


4 Arourae — 


1 Plethron 


- 





37 


157.26 



APPENDIX. 



619 



A TABLE OF THE CALENDS, NONES, AND IDES. 



Days of 

the 
Month. 


Ar>r Jun Sent 
JNOV. 


JcLIl. Aug* 
D 6C6mt)6r. 


Mar. Mai. Jul. 
Oct. 


Februarius. 


1 


Calendar 


Calendar. 


Calenda?. 


Calenda?. 


2 


IV. 


IV. 


VI. 


IV. 


3 


III. 


III. 


V. 


III. 


4 


Prid. Non. 


Prid. Non. 


IV. 


Prid. Non. 


5 


Nona?. 


Nona?. 


III. 


Nona?. 


6 


VIII. 


VIII. 


Prid. Non. 


VIII. 


7 


VII. 


VII. 


Nona;. 


VII. 


8 


VI. 


VI. 


VIII. 


VI. 


9 


V. 


V. 


VII. 


V. 


10 


IV. 


IV. 


VI. 


IV. 


11 


III. 


III. 


V. 


III. 


12 


Prid. Id. 


Prid. Id. 


IV. 


Prid. Id. 


13 


Idus. 


Idus. 


III. 


Idus. 


14 


XVIII. 


XIX. 


Prid. Id, 


XVI. 


15 


XVII. 


XVIII. 


Idus. 


XV. 


16 


XVI. 


XVII. 


XVII. 


XIV. 


17 


XV. 


XVI. 


XVI. 


XIII. 


18 


XIV. 


XV. 


XV. 


XII. 


19 


XIII. 


XIV. 


XIV. 


XI. 


20 


XII. 


XIII. 


XIII. 


X. 


21 


XI. 


XII. 


XII. 


IX. 


22 


X. 


XI. 


XI. 


VIII. 


23 


IX. 


X. 


X. 


VII. 


24 


VIII. 


IX. 


IX. 


VI. 


25 


VII 


VIII. 


VIII. 


v. 


26 


VI.' 


VII.' 


VII." 


IV. 


27 


V. 


VI. 


VI. 


III. 


28 


IV. 


V. 


V. 


fPrid. Cal. 1 


29 


III. 


IV. 


IV. 


I Martii. J 


30 


("Prid. Cal. ? 


III. 


III. 




31 


1 Mens. seq. 3 


Prid. Cal. Mens. seq. 


Prid. Cal. Mens. seq. 





ROMAN COINS. 

These were the Teruncius, Sembella, and As or Libella, of copper ; the Sestertius, Quinarius or 
Victoriatus, Denarius, of silver ; and the Aureus, of gold. 

The Teruncius - - - -00 % 2 Sesteftii make fl $g™2S»«1 " • » H 

2 Teruncii make 1 Sembella -.8 1U 1 Vlctonatus -> 

2 Sembella? _ 1 As, or Libella s| 2 Quinarii - 1 Denarius - 7 3 

2i Asses _ 1 Sestertius - 1 3f 25 Denarii ~ 1 Aureus - - 16 1 3 



ROMAN COMPUTATION OF MONEY 



SESTERTII NUMMI. 



Sestertius (or, nummus) - 


£ 



s. 



d. 
1 


k 


Decern sestertii - - - 





1 


7 


H 


Centum sestertii - - - - 


16 


1 


3 


Mille sestertii (equal to a sestertium) 


8 




5 


2 


SESTERTIA. 










Sestertium (equal to mille sestertii) - 


8 


1 




1 


Decern sestertia - - - 


80 


14 


7 





Centum centum sestertia, or centum 
millia sestertium - 807 


5 10 






DEFIES SESTERTIUM, ETC., CENTIES 
BEING UNDERSTOOD. 
. . . £ s. d. 

Decies sestertium, or Decies cen- 
tena millia minimum 



Centies, or Centies HS. 
Millies HS. - - 
Millies centies HS. 



8,072 18 
80,729 3 
807,291 13 
888,020 16 



The marks denoting a Sestertius nummus are IIS. LLS. HS. ; which are properly abbreviations 
for 2J asses. — Observe also, that when a line is placed over the numbers, centena millia is understood, 
as in the case of the numeral adverbs ; thus, HS. MC. is millies centies HS. ; whereas HS. MC. is only 
1100 Sestertii The Roman Pondo Argtnti is computed at a little more than 31. of our money. 



ROMAN WEIGHTS. 





Oz. 


dwts. 


grs. 






Oz. 


dwts. 










%S 


li Sextula make 


1 Sicilicus 





4 


3 Siliqua? make 1 Obolus 








935 


li Sicilicus — 


1 Duella 





6 


2 Oboli — 1 Scrupulum, 








18ft 


3 Duellas — 


1 Uncia 





18 


3 Scrupula — 1 Drachma - 





2 




i 4 i Uncia? — 


1 Libra (As) - 


10 


18 


li Drachma — 1 Sextula 





'6 


of 









132 



620 



APPENDIX. 



ROMAN MEASURES FOR THINGS DRY 



Peck gall. 
Ligula ... o 

4 Ligula? = I Cyathus 

1£ Cyathus 1 Acetabulum 

4 Acetabula 1 Hemina - 



English Corn Measure. 



pnt, 



English Corn Measure- 



0.01 


2 Hemina? = 


1 Sextarius 







'0.48 


0.04 


8 Sextarii 


1 Semimodius 


1 





3.84 


0.06 


2 Semimodii 


1 Modius - 1 








7.68 



ROMAN MEASURES FOR THINGS LIQUID. 



English Wine Measure. 





Gals. 


pints. 


sol. in dec. 




Ligula - 


% 


0117*L 
0.4G9§ 


4 


Ligula? make 1 Cyathus - 


01 

8 


H 


Cyathus — 1 Acetabulum 


0.704i 


2 


Acetabula — 1 Quartarius 


Oi 


1.409 


2 


Quartarii — 1 Hemina - 




2.818 


2 


Hemina? — I Sextarius 


l 


5.636 



6 Sextarii 
4 Congii 

2 Urua? 



20 Amphora? 



Galls 

make 1 Congius - 
1 Urna - 3 
1 Amphora") 
(or Qua- [ 7 
drantal) -j 
1 Culeus - 143 



English Wine Measure. 



pnts. sol. in dec. 

7 



-I 



4.942 
5.33 



ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. 



Eng. paces. 


ft. 


in dec. 




Ehg 


. paces. 


ft. 


in. dec. 


Digitus transversus - - 





0.725i 


U Palmipes 


make 1 Cubitus 





1 


5.406 


li Digitus make I Uncia - 





0.967 


l| Cubitus 


— 1 Gradus 





2 


5.01 


3 Uncia? — 1 Palmus minor 





2.901 


2 Gradus 


— 1 Passus^ 





4 


10.02 


4 Palmiminores — 1 Pes - - 





11.604 


125 Pass us 


— 1 Stadium 


120 


4 


4.5 


li pes — 1 Palmipes - 


1 


2.505 


8 Stadia 


— 1 Milliare 


967 









ROMAN SQUARE MEASURES. 



Rom. sq. feet. Eng. rooc 


Is. sq. pis. 


sq. feet. 




Rom. sq. feet. Eng. roods. 


sq.pls. 


sq. feet. 


Jugerum (As) - 


28,800 


2 




250.05 


Semis 


- 14,400 


1 


09 


125.03 


Deunx 


26,400 


2 


10 


183.85 


Quincunx 


- 12,000 


1 


01 


58.82 


Dextans - 


24,000 


2 


02 


117.64 


Triens 


- 9,600 





32 


264.85 


Dodrans » 


21,600 


1 


34 


51.42 


Quadrans 


- 7,200 





24 


198.64 


Bes --- 


19,200 


1 


25 


257.46 


Sextans - 


- 4,800 





16 


132.43 


Septunx - 


16,800 


1 


17 


191.25 


Uncia 


- 2,400 





08 


66.21 



THE END. 



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Sandhurst College Trigonometry. 

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13 



Dr. Butler's Ancient and Modern Geography. 

A Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography. By Samuel Butler, D.D. late 
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An Atlas of Modern Geography ; consisting of Twenty-three Coloured Maps ; 
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Abridgment of Butler's Geography. 

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Dowling's Introduction to Goldsmith's Geography. 

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14 



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